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Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks  and  Brown   &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
The   Palm  Avenue  in  the   Botanical   Gardens,   Rio  de  Janeiro,   Brazil 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OF 


LATIN    AMERICA 


DEALING  WITH  THE  LIFE,  ACHIEVEMENT,  AND 
NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

MEXICO    AND    PANAMA 

THE  WEST  INDIES 

AND  GIVING  SPECIAL  INFORMATION  ON 

Commerce,  Industry,  Banking.  Finance, 
Railways,  Shipping,  Transportation,  Com- 
munications, Trade,  Tariff,  Customs,  and 
all    matters   of  Commercial   Importance. 


Editors 


MARRION  WILCOX,  A.B.,  LL.B. 

Formerly  Instructor  ct  Yale,  Editor  "  Harper's  History  of  the  Wiir  in  the 
Philipp:ne3,"  etc.,  Author  "A  Short  History  of  the  War  with  Spain."  etc. 

GEORGE  EDWIN  RINES 

Editor   '  The  Encyclopedia  Americana,"  "  The  South  in  the  Building 
of  the  Nation,"  "  The  Foundation  Library,"  etc. 


I  1917  I 

I  PUBLISHED  BY  ■ 

I  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  AMERICANA  CORPORATION  | 

I  27  WILLIAM  STREET,  NEW  YORK  | 

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Copyright,  191 7 

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The  Encyclopedia  Americana  Corporation 


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FOREWORD 

By  JOHN  BARRETT 

Director  General  of  the  Pan  American  Union,  formerly  United  States  Minister  to   Argentina, 

Panama   and  Colombia 

I  congratulate  the  Editors  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Latin 
America  upon  the  publication  of  this  useful,  authoritative 
and  scholarly  work.  It  is  most  timely.  It  is  completed  and 
ready  for  reference  and  study  when  everybody  is,  or  should  be, 
interested  in  the  progress  and  potentialities  of  the  twenty  Amer- 
ican Republics  which  reach  from  Mexico  and  Cuba  on  the  north  to 
Argentina  and  Chile  on  the  far  south.  It  comes  at  an  hour  when 
Pan  America,  which  includes  the  United  States  and  Latin 
America,  and  Pan  Americanism,  which  requires  the  co-operation 
of  the  United  States  and  Latin  America  for  the  common  good  of 
all  America,  have  a  significance  never  before  realized. 

It  is  authoritative  because  it  is  written  by  men  who  are  not 
only  familiar  with  the  subject  they  discuss  through  long  investiga- 
tion and  extended  experience,  but  who  are  thoroughly  sympathetic 
with  the  countries  and  people  they  describe.  Mr.  Wilcox,  whom  I 
have  regarded  for  many  years  as  a  real  Pan  American,  under- 
stands what  is  most  important :  the  Latin  American,  as  well  as  the 
North  American,  viewpoint  in  the  discussion  of  a  topic  of  Pan 
American  interest.  Both  he  and  Mr.  Rines  are  ' '  muy  simpaticos  ' ' 
in  their  mental  attitude  towards  Latin  America.  They  have,  there- 
fore, successfully  arrived  at  a  true  interpretation  of  the  facts  they 
give.  The  encyclopedia  is  scholarly  because  it  has  been  carefully 
and  studiously  prepared  by  men  of  wide  knowledge  to  stand  the 
test  of  criticism  and  be  regarded  as  a  high  class  work  of  reference. 
It  is  an  intellectual  achievement  as  well  as  a  compilation  of  useful 
and  educational  data. 

[3] 

376164 


4  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Commenting  from  the  standpoint  of  one  who  has  unremittingly 
for  nearly  sixteen  years,  first,  as  a  United  States  Minister  in 
Argentina,  Panama  and  Colombia,  and,  later,  as  Director  General 
of  the  Pan  American  Union,  endeavored  in  his  humble  way  to 
promote  practical  Pan  Americanism,  I  sincerely  rejoice  at  the  help 
that  the  great  cause  of  international  co-operation  and  welfare  must 
receive  from  this  work.  The  Pan  American  Union,  being  the  offi- 
cial international  organization  of  all  the  American  Republics, 
devoted  to  the  development  of  friendship,  intercourse,  commerce 
and  peace  among  them,  looks  with  favor  on  any  worthy  effort  which 
will  not  only  inform  and  educate  the  people  of  the  United  States 
about  its  sister  American  Republics  but  which  will  also  inform  and 
educate  every  Republic  about  each  and  all  of  the  others.  Pan 
Americanism  places  each  American  Republic  on  the  same  basic 
equality  with  every  other  American  Republic.  It  has  no  favorites 
except  all.  It  stands  for  the  domination  of  no  one  republic  over  the 
other  republics,  but  for  the  domination  of  all  in  the  advancing  of 
Pan  American  ideals  in  world  civilization.  This  Latin  American 
Encyclopedia  through  its  spread  of  accurate  information  will 
serve  Pan  Amen*ican  solidarity  and  community  of  action  and 
purpose. 

It  is  especially  fitting  that  this  encyclopedia  should  be  up^.. 
our  tables  when  international  relations  are  more  to  the  front  than 
ever  before  in  modern  history.  The  world  is  facing  the  greatest 
international  crisis  of  the  late  centuries.  It  is  appropriate,  there- 
fore, to  devote  special  attention  to  international  subjects  — 
especially  to  Latin  America,  for  its  score  of  countries  are  now- 
entering  upon  a  new  era  of  economic,  commercial,  social  and 
administrative  development  which  will  astonish  the  world.  When 
we  pause  and  think  that  these  lands  of  the  South  occupy  an  area 
of  between  eight  and  nine  millions  of  square  miles,  have  a  popula- 
tion of  seventy-five  or  eighty  millions  of  souls,  and  maintain  an 
annual  foreign  trade  which  is  valued  in  excess  of  three  billions  of 


FOREWORD  5 

dollars,  and  that  they  are  yet  only  in  the  beginning  of  their  possi- 
bilities individually,  collectively,  and  in  co-operation  with  the 
United  States,  we  understand  why  a  Latin  American  Encyclopedia 
of  this  character  will  be  welcomed  to  the  international  library  and 
to  every  student  of  international  affairs. 

Again,  when  we  grasp  the  fact,  as  I  have  repeatedly  said  on 
other  occasions,  that  the  present  world  war  is  doing  more  than  any 
other  influence  since  the  declaration  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in 
1823  to  develop  and  make  permanent  Pan  American  solidarity  of 
interests,  and  that  it  is  inevitably  evolving  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
into  a  Pan  American  Doctrine  —  that  is,  an  international  doctrine 
and  policy  that  will  belong  to  every  American  Republic  as  much  as 
to  the  United  States, —  then,  I  say,  we  must  experience  a  real 
desire  to  know  more  of  the  constituency  of  such  solidarity  and  such 
doctrine.  The  gratification  of  search  for  information  we  shall  find 
in  this  Latin  American  Encyclopedia. 

While,  in  conclusion,  my  official  position  requires  that  I 
should  make  the  formal  reservation  that  neither  I  nor  the  Pan- 
American  Union  shall  be  held  responsible  for  any  comments, 
opinions  or  statements  expressed  in  this  valuable  work,  I  say  this 
simply  and  only  to  comply  with  the  rules  of  the  office  with  which 
T  am  connected,  and  not  in  any  way  to  reflect  upon  the  quality 
and  reliability  of  the  Encyclopedia. 


EDITORS'    NOTE 


The  Encyclopedia  of  Latin  America  has  been  prepared 
with  the  purpose  of  affording  the  American  public  a  clear  and 
definite  idea  of  Latin  American  civilization  —  political,  educa- 
tional, social,  commercial  and  industrial  —  as  it  is  at  the  present 
time.  The  commercial  and  industrial  side  of  that  civilization  is 
presented  with  especial  fullness  in  the  hope  that  the  Encyclopedia 
will  prove  of  real  practical  value  to  all  who  have  commercial 
relations  with  or  need  accurate  information  concerning  the  trade 
and  industry  of  Latin  America. 

Acknowledgment  is  here  made  of  the  valued  co-operation  of 
the  individual  contributors,  and  especially  of  the  invaluable 
assistance  rendered  by  the  Hon.  John  Barrett  of  the  Pan-.- 
American  Union,  Washington ;  Mr.  0.  P.  Austin  of  the  National 
City  Bank,  New  York,  and  the  Latin  American  Division,  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

In  so  wide  and  in  some  respects  untravelled  a  field,  much 
remains  to  be  done  and  said,  but  we  believe  the  information  on 
subjects  of  present-day  interest  will  be  found  fairly  complete  and 
that  the  work  will  prove  a  solid  groundwork  for  other  and  more 

extensive  studies. 

The  Editors. 
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By  Marrion  Wilcox 


LATIN  AMERICA  is  the  name  employed  to  distinguish,  as  a 
J  group,  20  American  republic??  (Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Dominican  Republic, 
Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Panama, 
Paraguay,  Peru,  Salv^ador,  Uruguay,  Venezuela),  and  in  a  still 
larger  sense,  but  less  accurately,  as  a  general  term  to  designate 
all  of  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  New  World,  con- 
tinental and  insular  as  well,  between  the  United  States  and  Cape 
Horn.  Now,  the  total  area  of  the  20  Latin  American  republics  is 
about  8,150,000  to  8,200,000  square  miles  and  the  aggregate  popu- 
lation of  the  same  countries  not  less  than  75,000,000;  in  each  the 
language  of  the  ruling  class  is  Spanish,  except  in  Brazil,  where 
it  is  Portuguese,  and  in  Haiti,  where  it  is  French  or  a  patois 
called  '^  Creole."  But  we  find  in  the  central  regions  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere  about  205,000  or  206,000  square  miles  with 
3,190,000  to  3,200,000  inhabitants  not  included  in  any  of  the 
Latin  American  republics:  on  the  contrary  they  are  held  as 
dependencies  by  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  or  the  United 
States;  and  for  us  to  denominate  all  these  dependencies  ''  Latin 
American  "  would  be  more  or  less  improper  and  misleading. 

A  few  facts  are  here  given  which  may  serve  to  supplement 
descriptions  in  the  articles  devoted  to  South  America,  Central 
America,  Panama,  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies:  to  each  of  the 
above-mentioned  republics,  and  to  their  political  subdivisions. 

[7] 


.ai/:  viiy;nEN^y:c;jOPEDlA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

CLIMATE 

Readings  of  the  thermometer,  as  set  down  in  the  author's 
notes  of  travel  in  Latin  America,  are  the  following:  At  Monte- 
video, Uruguay,  18  June,  54°  F.  at  11  a.m.  ;  Buenos  Aires,  Argen- 
tina, 4  July,  52°  F.  at  3  p.m.  But  the  average  of  these  two, 
namely  53°  F.,  was  recorded  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
as  the  lowest  figure  the  mercury  reached  during  the  cold  season 
at  Lima  - —  which  lies  so  much  nearer  than  do  Buenos  Aires  and 
Montevideo  to  the  equator  that  its  range  of  temperatures  would 
be  decidedly  higher  were  it  not  for  the  influence  of  the  cold  Hum- 
boldt current.  In  the  article  Chile  reference  at  greater  length  is 
made  to  this  current,  which  is  a  truly  beneficent  river  of  the  ocean, 
constantly  tempering  and  stabilizing  the  climate  along  the  Pacific 
coast,  flowing  northward  and  then  northwestw^ard  along  that  coast 
until  headlands  below  the  equatorial  line  throw  it  straight  out  to 
sea,  to  cool  one  side  of  the  Galapagos  Islands.  That  is  one  of  the 
big  facts  about  the  climate ;  now  let  us  renew  our  acquaintance  with 
other  facts  in  the  same  field. 

At  the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay  and  Alto  Parana  rivers, 
25  July,  the  thermometer  showed  80°  F.  in  the  shade  at  10  a.m., 
and  about  noon  of  the  same  day  on  the  Paraguay  River,  92°  F. 
in  the  shade;  at  Asuncion,  Paraguay,  27  July,  84°  F.  in  the  shade; 
in  the  same  city,  28  July,  78°  F.  at  9  a.m.  The  circumstance  that 
Asuncion  is  built  on  a  hill  counts  for  much.  Comparing  these 
observations,  made  in  regions  remote  from  the  ocean,  with  obser- 
vations at  moderate  altitudes  above  the  Atlantic  coast,  we  notice 
a  striking  difference  immediately.  Thus,  on  the  road  from  the 
Brazilian  port  of  Santos  to  Sao  Paulo,  14  August,  the  thermome- 
ter showed  only  62°  F.  at  2  p.m.,  and  in  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  15 
August,  61°  F.  as  the  average  of  the  forenoon.  At  Rio  de  Janeiro 
(nearly  at  sea-level),  19  August,  we  find  72°  F.  in  the  afternoon, 
but  only  67°  F.  at  7-8  a.m.,  20  August;  and,  as  the  record  for  the 
warmest  day  of  that  "  winter  "  season  in  Rio,  84°  F.  at  3-4  p.m. 
A  short  distance  away,  at  Petropolis  among  the  mountains,  we 
note  63°  F.  at  7  a.m.;  and  at  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet  above  Rio, 
in  the  tropical  forest  clothing  the  flanks  of  Corcovado,  29  August, 
60°  F.  at  7  A.M.  The  fact  thus  illustrated  is,  simply,  that  regions 
sufficiently  elevated  to  receive  quite  directly  the  cool  and  saturated 
ocean  breezes  have,  even  in  these  latitudes  near  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  a  climate  not  given  to  extremes  but  favorable  to  man 
and  vegetation  alike.  Again,  near  the  Atlantic  coast  in  lat. 
1°  52'  S.,  long.  38"  45'  W.  we  read  84°  F.  at  11  a.m.  ;  in  lat.  1  °  13' N., 


LATIN  AMERICA  9 

long.  43°  51'  W.,  86°  F.  at  12,  noon,  to  1  p.m.;  in  lat.  8°  N.,  long. 
53°  48'  W.,  85°  F.  at  2  p.m.  The  highest  temperatures  (in  the 
shade)  observed  at  the  equator  near  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic  coasts, 
either  at  sea  or  where  the  ocean  influence  controls  —  85°  or 
scarcely  more  than  86°  F. —  must  be  called  quite  moderate.  (See 
comment  on  this  subject  in  the  article  Brazil).  In  the  correspond- 
ing regions  north  of  the  equator,  near  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  we 
appreciate,  or  resent,  most  promptly  the  development  of  intoler- 
able degrees  of  heat  in  regions  that  are  enclosed  and  far  from  the 
sea.  For  example,  we  notice  en  route  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  to  Puebla, 
14  March,  100°  F.  in  the  otherwise  comfortable  cars  of  a  train 
running  through  a  valley.  It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the 
Antillean  regions  (see  Central,  America)  look  out,  on  one  side  at 
least,  upon  a  comparatively  restricted  and  nearly  bisected  Ameri- 
can Mediterranean,  not  upon  the  ocean  which  plays  the  part  we 
have  mentioned  all  along  the  South  American  east  coast ;  that  the 
trade  winds  and  the  gulf  stream  visit  some  portions  of  this  inter- 
polated continental  area  assiduously,  but  are  as  constantly 
deflected  from  other  portions ;  and,  partly  for  this  reason,  each  sub- 
division of  the  vast,  varied,  and  most  interesting  Antillean  region 
is  the  subject  of  a  special  study.  (See  the  separate  titles). 
Panama,  occupying  the  narrow  space  between  two  oceanic 
elbows,  has,  as  shown  by  observations  in  a  sheltered  building  near 
the  centre  of  the  capital  during  the  year,  an  equatorially  limited 
range  of  temperatures  —  from  76°  F.  to  88°  F.  But  places  shut 
in,  even  parts  of  the  city  of  Panama  itself,  because  they  lie  nearly 
at  sea  level,  may  have  100°  F.  thrust  upon  them  when  the  air-cur- 
rents from  ocean  to  ocean  are  interrupted  temporarily. 

Climatic  Values  of  Altitude 

Here  again  in  Panama  (and  this  is  not  less  true  of  the  Central 
American  States)  we  find  that  even  a  moderate  elevation  miti- 
gates the  tropically  oppressive  conditions  that  are  notorious  in  the 
lowlands.  The  importance  of  this  consideration  becomes  apparent 
when  we  reflect  that  in  much  more  than  one-half  of  the  entire  land- 
area  in  the  New  World  between  the  Tropics  of  Cancer  and 
Capricorn  nature  assigns  the  control  of  temperatures  to  mere 
altitude  or  to  the  almost  equally  permanent  influence  of  oceanic 
and  aerial  currents.  But  in  the  vast  highlands  of  Latin  America 
one  learns  by  experience,  if  he  has  not  learned  through  previous 
study,  that  the  pure  and  rarefied  air  is  bad  for  any  weakness  of  the 
heart,  and,  even  when  there  is  no  such  weakness,  produces  what  is 


lU  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

commonly  known  as  soroche  (anoxtemia  or  mountain-sickness).  It 
is  worth  while  to  note  quite  carefully  the  elf ects  of  the  change  from 
sea-level  to  these  great  altitudes,  since  the  experience  bears 
directly  upon  the  question  of  the  value  of  these  uplands  as  regions 
where  civilized  men  can  live  and  work  successfully.  We  observe, 
as  first  effects,  that  the  skin  becomes  rather  dry  and  the  digestive 
processes  are  deranged  —  wdth  consequent  pains  and  penalties. 
We  must  add  the  following  symptoms :  lassitude,  loss  of  appetite, 
aversion  to  all  forms  of  physical  effort,  and  drowsiness.  The 
heart  finds  its  steady  job  a  bit  harder  than  usual,  and  one  gets 
out  of  breath  too  quickly,  the  air  seeming  to  supply  the  lungs 
with  innutritious  food.  After  a  long  voyage  a  traveller  in  vigor- 
ous health  suffers  to  this  extent  —  that  is,  slightly  and  for  a  few 
days  at  least  —  on  making  a  rapid  and  radical  change.  But  in  a 
week  or  so  these  symptoms  disappear  and  he  should  find  no 
trouble  in  making  any  physical  effort  that  the  situation  calls  for. 
Quite  the  contrary,  in  fact.  We  enjoyed  mountain-climbing,  long 
walks,  long  and  hard  riding,  at  altitudes  of  about  12,000  feet  for 
several  W'Ceks  and  ranging  from  10,000  to  16,000  feet  during  two 
months.  The  impression  we  receive  in  regard  to  the  people  living 
in  Andean  towns  (for  example)  situated  at  altitudes  of  7,000  to 
14,000  feet  is  that  they,  as  a  rule,  with  some  rather  sad  exceptions, 
are  not  being  injured  by  the  climate. 

Naturally  healthful  regions  are  the  following:  1.  The  exten- 
sive region  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  ocean  to  ocean  through  the 
cities  of  Paysandu  and  Valparaiso,  including  all  of  southern 
Argentina  and  Chile.  2.  The  uplands  of  southeastern  Brazil. 
3.  The  Andean  habitable  districts,  including  many  valleys  and 
cuencas,  at  altitudes  ranging  from  6,000  to  12,000  feet.  4.  In 
Venezuela,  Central  America,  and  Mexico,  the  districts,  often  fer- 
tile and  extensive,  at  altitudes  ranging  from  2,500  or  3,000  to 
7,000  feet,  more  or  less.  5.  Portions  of  the  West  Indies  receiving 
the  full  benefit  of  the  trade  winds  and  ocean  currents.  Unfortu- 
nately it  is  necessary  to  note  the  prevalence  of  such  diseases  as 
typhoid  fever  in  cities  and  towns  whose  favorable  situation  in 
temperate  uplands  does  not  safeguard  them  against  the  conse- 
quences of  neglecting  sanitary  regulations.  The  tropical  condi- 
tions in  the  low-lying  parts  of  Central  America  and  the  northwest 
coast  of  South  America  (to  and  including  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil) 
are  unfavorable  to  health  chiefly  because  enormous  deposits  of 
alluvion  and  excessive  rainfall  offer  ideal  conditions  for  the 
propagation  of  disease-bearing  insects.  Yellow  fever  and 
malarial  fevers  have  therefore  long  been  regarded  as  endemic. 


LATIN  AMERICA  11 

Similar  conditions  are  found  in  the  great  Amazon  valley  and  on 
the  tropical  Brazilian  coast  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  highlands 
of  the  interior.  Successful  efforts  to  combat  and  control  these 
fevers  have  been  made  at  focal  points  —  at  Santos  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  at  Panama,  etc. —  but  much  still  remains  to  be  done. 
Annual  rainfall  is  most  excessive  in  amount  at  Pernambuco  and 
Iquitos  in  Brazil,  at  Greji;own  in  Central  America,  and  in  the 
Territory  of  Magellan,  in  southern  Chile ;  it  is  least  on  the  Peru- 
vian littoral  and  in  northern  Chile  (q.v.) ;  it  is  as  a  rule  moderate 
in  the  interior  of  Argentina.  Dense  fogs,  called  gariias,  supply  the 
place  of  rain  (but  only  to  a  slight  extent)  in  the  arid  west  coast 
regions  just  mentioned.  Ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World  the  fact  has  been  observed  that  the  most  vigorous  races 
gained  their  development  in  the  extreme  south  (region  number  1) 
and  in  the  temperate  or  relatively  cold  uplands  (regions  3  and  4). 
It  is  not  less  interesting  to  observe  that  the  most  progressive  and 
vigorous  element  of  which  we  have  any  record  in  the  early  history 
of  Brazil  had  its  home  in  region  number  2.  For  the  exceptionally 
benign  arid  temperate  climate  of  Uruguay,  see  the  article  devoted 
to  that  country. 

;?|  FAUNA  AND  FLORA 

The  highlands  of  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  Mexico 
are  included  in  the  Nearctic  Region  and  their  fauna  is  classed 
with  that  of  all  temperate  and  arctic  North  America ;  but  natural- 
ists, grouping  together  all  other  parts  of  Latin  America,  in  the 
wider  sense  of  that  term,  distinguish  the  group  (thus  composed  of 
Central  America  and  Panama,  the  Mexican  lowlands,  the  AVest 
Indies,  and  South  America)  as  the  Neotropical  Region.  A  valu- 
able study  entitled  A  Zoological  Expedition  to  South  America, 
by  W.  E.  Agar  {Royal  Philosoph.  Soc.  of  Glasgoiv  Proc,  1909, 
Vol.  40,  pp.  53-65),  contains  an  expression  of  its  author's  opinion 
to  the  effect  that  the  Neotropical  is,  of  all  those  regions  into  which 
zoologists  divide  the  world  in  accordance  with  their  fauna,  by  far 
the  most  interesting.  It  is  indeed  true  that  the  sportsman  in 
search  of  big  game  goes  by  preference  to  Africa,  "  where  he  meets 
enormous  herds  of  that  perhaps  most  highly  specialized  and  suc- 
cessful of  all  the  orders  of  mammalia,  the  ungulates  or  hoofed 
animals,  and  is  able  to  take  his  part  in  the  extermination  of  the 
antelopes,  giraffes,  rhinoceroses,  zebras,  hippopotami  and  ele- 
phants."   These  forms,  however,  so  characteristic  of  Africa,  are 


12  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

actually  —  for  the  very  reason  that  they  belong  to  a  highly  special- 
ized group  —  of  no  particular  interest  to  the  zoologist.  But  we 
find  a  very  different  state  of  things  when  we  turn  to  the  main 
land-mass  of  Latin  America.  ''  Instead  of  great  herds  of  ungul- 
ates, we  find  there  only  four  families  of  them  represented.  The 
pigs  are  represented  by  the  peccary,  the  cervidaB  by  a  few  species 
of  deer,  the  camels  by  the  llama,  and  finally  there  is  the  tapir, 
while  the  beasts  which  we  may  call  characteristic  of  the  country 
are  such  forms  as  the  opossum,  armadillo,  ant-eater  and  sloth,  ail 
very  lowly  organized  animals. ' ' 

Our  interest  in  this  fauna  is  deepened  when,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  same  writer,  we  examine  its  history  in  past  geological  ages. 
^'  The  past  history  of  the  mammals  [in  general,  i.  e.,  in  all  regions] 
shows  us  that,  broadly  speaking,  most  new  forms  arose  in  the 
North  Polar  regions  (which  we  know  were  much  warmer  then  than 
now)  and  spread  thence  southwards,  exterminating  to  a  large 
extent  the  more  primitive  earlier  forms,  and  being  sometimes 
ousted  in  their  turn  by  new  forms  migrating  southwards.  Now, 
the  primitive  mammals  which  arose  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
seem  to  have  reached  South  America,  not  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama — for  we  know  that  the  whole  south  portion  of  North 
America  was  submerged  at  this  period  —  but  probably  by  means 
of  a  land  connection  across  tlie  Atlantic  with  Africa.,  Whatever 
may  have  been  the  exact  nature  of  this  connection  between  South 
America  and  the  other  land-masses  of  the  globe  toward  the  end 
of  the  secondary  geological  epoch,  it  is  certain  that  it  Avas  soon 
broken  through  and  that  South  America  was  completely  isolated 
during  the  whole  of  that  period  in  which  the  most  active  evolution 
of  mammalia  was  taking  place  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The 
few  low  mammals  which  had  got  into  South  America  before  it 
became  isolated  evolved  a  very  peculiar  mammalian  fauna,  includ- 
ing such  forms  as  the  giant  sloth  or  Megatherium,  and  Grlyptodonts 
like  gigantic  armadillos,  which,  however,  never  reached  a  very 
high  grade  of  development,  such  as  the  mammals  in  the  more 
desperate  struggle  for  existence  that  was  going  on  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  were  attaining."  But  finally  a  new  path  of 
approach  to  this  completely  isolated  continent  was  constructed. 
During  the  end  of  the  Miocene  period  the  emergence  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  or  Panama  allowed  the  influx  of  more  highly 
specialized  forms  from  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  and  accord- 
ingly we  find  that  fossiliferous  beds  dating  from  this  period  hold 
the  remains  of  lions,  the  sabre-toothed  tiger,  dogs,  bears,  llama, 


LATIN  AMERICA  13 

deer,  horses,  tapirs  and  peccaries  —  animals  that  had  been  abun- 
dant in  other  parts  of  the  globe  for  ages  befote,  but  had  been 
unable  to  reach  South  America  for  the  reason  mentioned.  These 
invaders  '  *  established  themselves  to  a  great  extent  at  the  expense 
of  the  old  typical  South  American  fauna.  Remains  of  this  original 
fauna,  however,  still  survive  in  the  opossum,  armadillo,  ant-eater 
and  sloths,  while  the  new  forms,  which  are  now  far  more  abundant, 
both  in  numbers  and  species,  include  such  forms  as  the  deer,  tapir, 
peccary,  puma,  jaguar,  mldcats,  dogs,  etc."  Ex-President  Roose- 
velt invites  our  attention  particularly  to  the  fact  that  South 
America  has  the  most  extensive  and  most  varied  avifauna  of  all 
the  continents.  The  rhea,  or  American  ostrich,  and  the  fur  seal 
were  studied  with  true  interest  by  Dr.  John  Augustine  Zahm  in 
Uruguay.  For  the  distinctive  fauna  and  flora  of  an  important 
part  of  the  west  coast,  see  Chile.  On  the  other  hand  the  coun- 
tries of  Central  America,  forming  borderlands  between  the  greater 
North  and  South,  naturally  show  some  results  of  the  proximity 
of  the  former;  nevertheless  the  influence  of  the  latter  has  been 
in  these  respects  so  much  the  more  potent  that  Central  America 
is  with  good  reason  assigned  to  the  Neotropical  Region,  as  we 
have  said  above. 

Near  the  heart  of  South  America,  the  region  called  the 
Chaco  is  interpolated  between  the  region  of  great  forests 
and  the  sabanas  and  pampas  —  the  last  being  poor  in  vegetation 
while  the  first  is  in  the  same  respect  almost  beyond  belief  richly 
endowed :  since  in  that  vast  Amazonian  valley  the  vegetable  king- 
dom long  ago  fairly  conquered  the  animal  kingdom  by  expelling 
or  subordinating  the  most  important  terrestrial  mammals.  (Con- 
sult Putnam's  Magazine,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  194-199,  New  York,  Oct. 
1909-April  1910.)  Of  course  it  is  still  impossible  to  say  what 
addition  will  be  made  to  recognized  lists  of  plants  by  these  equa- 
torial South  American  forests:  they  have  never  been  more  than 
partially  explored ;  a  civilizing  reconquest  of  the  fertile  areas  they 
usurp  has  never  been  attempted  systematically.  Taken  all 
together  they  make  the  Great  Forest  of  the  world,  sharing  primacy 
in  the  list  of  this  world's  natural  features  with  the  Andes,  the 
greatest  of  mountain  masses,  and  with  the  Amazon's  wholly 
incomparable  torrents.  We  mention  here  only  a  few  of  the  best 
known  natives  of  widely  separated  parts  of  Latin  America:  Cin- 
chona, mate  {Ilex  paraguayensis) ,  coca,  various  rubber-producing 
forest  growths,  victoria  regia,  maize  and  Agave  americana  (both 
presumably  Mexican),  tobacco  (a  product  of  the  islands  of  the 
West  Indies),  and  potato,  claimed  as  a  native  by  both  Chile  and 


14  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Peru.  A  very  early  association  existed  with  the  flora  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere;  a  much  more  recent  connection  was  estab- 
lished with  the  North  American  flora.  (See  above.)  Botanic 
geography  will,  we  think,  establish  the  facts  that  Latin  America's 
most  distinctive  and  distinguishing  possession  is  its  flora  and  that 
in  this  respect,  even  more  —  or  much  more  —  than  in  respect  to 
its  fauna,  it  claims  and  will  reward  our  attention;  and  although 
this  is  "  by  far  the  most  interesting  region  "  to  the  botanist  as 
well  as  to  the  zoologist,  we  shall  find  both  botanists  and  zoologists 
at  one  in  asserting  that  the  primitive  geologic  union  of  the  South 
American  continent  with  Africa  and  Australia  explains  inany 
phenomena  which  could  not  be  understood  otherwise.  Briefly, 
then,  Latin  American  flora  and  fauna,  both  of  surpassing  interest, 
have  indeed  enjoyed  independent  development,  yet  in  most  ancient 
times  they  undoubtedly  influenced  and  in  turn  were  influenced  by 
the  flora  and  fauna  of  equatorial,  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

LANGUAGES  '    'r 

Interesting  variations  are  observed  in  the  Spanish,  spoken 
and  written,  which,  as  we  have  said,  is  the  language  of  the  ruling- 
classes  in  18  of  the  republics.  Thus,  in  Mexico  its  characteristics 
are  those  of  the  tongue  of  southern  Spain,  but  in  Costa  Rica  those 
of  northern  regions  in  the  mother  country;  in  distant  Chile  the 
C^astilian  linguistic  standards  are  flouted  (the  substitution  of  ;/  in 
place  of  (T/  being  a  single  example  of  literary  and  popular  revolt), 
while  Cuba  has  held  fast  to  the  good  old  Spanish  linguistic  tradi- 
tions through  all  the  years  of  political  insurrections  and  armed 
rebellion.  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  Peru  deserve  their  fame  as,  in 
this  respect,  conservative  centres  of  an  inherited  culture,  where 
the  best  usages  are  appreciated  by  writers  and  speakers.  The 
literature  of  that  great  country,  Brazil,  in  wliicii  Portuguese  is 
spoken,  seems  to  all  loyal  Brazilians  a  priceless  treasure,  even  as 
the  manuscrijjt  of  the  Lusiad  seemed  to  Canioos :  they  cher- 
ish their  language  in  corresponding  degree  —  somewdiat  too 
exclusively. 

GOVERNMENTS  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Latin  American  countries  are  constitutionally  either 
federal  states,  resembling  most  nearly  in  this  respect  the  United 
States     of    America,     or    are     unitary     and    centralized.     The 


LATIN  AMERICA  15 

United  States  of  Brazil,  the  United  States  of  Mexico,  and  the  United 
States  of  Venezuela  more  obviously  stand  in  the  class  first  men- 
tioned; Argentina's  governmental  plan  embraces  some  of  the 
features  characterizing  each  class;  the  other  countries  {Republic 
of  Bolivia,  Repuhlic  of  Colombia,  etc.)  in  the  main  illustrate  by 
their  organization  the  growing  unitarian  or  centralizing  tendency : 
"  Eepublic  of  Colombia  "  was  formerly  ''  United  States  of  Colom- 
bia ";  the  variations  are,  however,  so  complex  that  we  convey 
only  an  approximately  correct  idea  of  them  when  we  say  that  the 
federal  form  of  government  in  Latin  America  resembles  that  of 
the  United  States  and  the  centralized  that  of  France.  [The  readers 
who  wish  to  study  this  subject  closely  will  find  paragraphs  on 
government  and  constitution  in  the  articles  devoted  to  these  coun- 
tries separately,  with  careful  ^  bibliographic  reference  to  such 
special  works  as  are  available,j  Frequent  constitutional  changes 
are  there  recorded;  but  these  must  not  be  regarded  as  indications 
of  weak  vacillation.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  they  are  to  a  some- 
what greater  extent  than  Ave  connnonly  realize  paralleled  in  our 
own  experience,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  State  governments 
(compare  Holcombe,  A.  N,,  State  Government  in  the  United  ^^r 
States,  pp.  119-20,  New  York  1916) ;  that  by  the  middle  of  the  ' 
19tli  century  "  the  constitutions  of  most  of  the  States  of  the 
United  States  had  been  revised  or  were  in  process  of  revision  ' ' ; 
and  that,  "  beginning  in  1870,  the  constitutions  of  most  of  the  lead- 
ing States  in  the  north  outside  of  New  England  [and  in  the  south 
after  the  overthrow  of  negro  domination]  were  revised,  the 
culmination  of  the  movement  being  reached  in  New  York  in  1894." 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  constitutional  changes  in  South 
America  (for  example,  in  Paraguay)  were  designed  simply  —  and 
wisely  —  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  dictatorships  and  so  to  safe- 
guard orderly  development  in  the  future.  The  dangers  in  that 
quarter  have  often  been  bravely  met  and  will  surely  be  overcome; 
their  magnitude,  and  the  importance  of  these  i^henomena  in  every 
study  of  this  branch  of  our  subject,  may  be  barely  indicated  in  the 
following  outline  of  Latin  American  dictatorships: 

In  Mexico,  since  the  establishment  of  independence,  there  have 
been  10  acknowledged  dictatorships.  The  "  usual  alternations 
of  anarchy  and  military  rule  " — the  long  period  of  internecine 
strifes,  during  which  one  president  after  another  was  summarily 
deposed  —  drew  to  an  end  about  1876.  Gen.  Porfirio  Diaz 
succeeded  Lerdo  de  Tejada  in  May  1877.  He  was  re-elected  in 
1884,  and  remained  at  the  head  of  the  government  up  to  the  time 
of  his  abdication  in  May  1911.\/L^  Para.guay,  three  years  after 


16  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

allegiance  to  Spain  was  renounced,  the  congress  in  October  1814 
decided  to  make  Doctor  (of  theology)  Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez 
Francia  dictator  for  three  years.  Before  the  expiration  of  his 
term  of  office,  another  congress  decreed  that  his  dictatorship 
should  be  perpetual.  He^  died  20  Sept.  1840.  Francisco  Solano 
Lopez  (16  Oct.  1862  to  1  Mar.  1870),  though  constantly  referred  to 
as  a  dictator,  was  officially  known  as  ' '  president  of  the  republic. ' ' 
By  an  act  of  congress,  16  Oct.  1862,  he  was  made  "  president  of 
the  republic  for  10  years,"  his  father,  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez, 
having  been  president  during  the  18  years  immediately  preceding, 
that  is,  from  1844  to  1862.  In  Bolivia  there  was  at  first  no  need 
to  employ  the  word  dictator,  simply  because  the  constitution  of 
that  country,  framed  by  Bolivar  and  accepted  without  change  or 
even  debate  by  the  congress  at  Chuquisaca,  25  May  1826,  conferred 
ample  dictatorial  powers  upon  a  ''  president  "  who  should  hold 
office  for  life;  nevertheless  the  higher  title  was  repeatedly  assumed 
or  conferred.^In  Colombia  (when  it  included  New  Granada,  Vene- 
zuela, and  Ecuador),  we  find,  first,  military  dictatorships  estab- 
lished before  1827  by  Paez  in  Venezuela  and  by  Mosquera  in 
Ecuador ;  and  then  the  dictatorship  of  Bolivar,  who  assumed  abso- 
lute sovereignty  in  1828  over  the  entire  Colombian  federation. 
Almost  immediately  afterward  the  federation  broke  up.  The 
racial  aversion  to  such  steady  co-operation  as  the  situation  called 
for  was  intensified  by  extravagant  theories  touching  the  so-called 
sovereignty  of  each  individual  citizen.  "Thus,  it  waSTiot  merely 
true  that  the  21 ' '  sovereign  states  ' '  of  Venezuela  could  repudiate 
pecuniary  obligations  or  violate  treaties  with  impunity;  that  any 
of  the  states  of  New  Granada  could  nullify  a  law  of  the  federal 
congress ;  but  it  has  been  well  said  that  every  man  fancied  that  he 
was  governed  by  a  "  higher  law  ' '  inherenl inhijuself ,  and  * '  when 
he  declared  against  the  government  he  was  not  a  traitor,  but  only 
a  revolutionist^assertinghis  inherent  right  as  a  '  sovereign.'  "  In 
Colombia,  from  1830  to  1861,  there  was  a  revolutionary  outbreak 
on  an  average  every  second  year ;  Ecuador  generated  a  revolution 
and  a  new  constitution  every  four  years ;  Venezuela  was  even  more 
distressed  by  anarchy.  Acceptance  of  a  military  despot  seemed  to 
be  the  only  escape  from  these  intolerable  conditions.  The  revolu- 
tionist Mosquera  declared  himself  dictator  of  the  diminished  Colom- 
bia in  1867.  In  Venezuela,  as  a  separate  country,  the  first  ruler 
was  sometimes  called  dictator,  sometimes  president;  he  was  both  by 
turns,  and  repeatedly.  Similar  versatility  was  exemplified  in  the 
troubled  lands  from  Mexico  to  the  far  south:  as  a  Venezuelan 
fashion  it  easily  survived  its  forceful  exponent,  Paez.     Three 


LATIN  AMERICA  17 

short-lived  dictatorships  were  set  up  in  succession  just  before 
Crespo  entered  Caracas  in  1892.  In  Ecuador,  the  first  Flores 
called  a  convention  (1843)  which  expressed  the  temporary  desire 
to  entrust  him  with  a  magistracy  so  far  above  all  others  that  it  is 
superior  even  to  the  laws  themselves.  Again,  on  2  iVpril  1882, 
President  Veintemilla  seized  power  as  a  dictator  and  held  it  for 
a  year.  In  Peru  General  Bolivar  was  supreme  dictator,  both  dur- 
ing and  after  the  struggle  for  independence,  his  license  having 
been  granted  by  the  revolutionary  congress  of  1824  and  confirmed 
in  1826.  In  Argentina,  Juan  Manuel  Eosas  accepted  (7  March 
1835)  an  almost  unx^estrjctad^ictatorslilp  which  was  offered  to 
him  in  the  hope  that  he  would  restore  order.  He  reigned  "  in  a 
horrible  manner,  like  a  madman  "  up  to  the  day  of  his  defeat,  3 
Feb.  1852.  In  Brazil,  the  first  national  congress  convened  on  15 
Nov.  1890,  after  the  expulsion  of  Dom  Pedro  II.  One  year  later 
(Nov.  1891)  President  Fonseca  proclaimed  himself  dictator  on  the 
strength  of  an  invitation  extended  by  officers  of  the  Brazilian 
army;  but  his  navy  turned  its  guns  on  him,  and  he  resigned.  In 
Chile,  there  have  been  fewer  revolutions,  more  frequent  instances 
of  submission  to  the  mandates  of  a  privileged  upper  class ;  yet  at 
the  beginning  of  1891  President  Balmaceda  broke  with  national 
traditions,  to  adopt  those  of  the  continent  while  governmental 
theories  were  still  fermenting:  he  announced  that  he  was  dictator, 
when  he  was,  in  fact,  only  a  party  leader;  he  declared  himself  to  be 
in  favor  of  martial  law,  and  by  superior  force  he  was  crushed.  (See 
Chile.)  In  the  history  of  Uruguay  the  word  "  dictator  "  is  not 
very  prominent.  In  Costa  Rica  several  of  the  chief  executive 
officers  have  been  called  dictators,  with  an  intention  less  offensive 
because  the  policy  of  the  government  is  conceded  to  have  been  in 
many  respects  commendable.  For  the  other  republics  of  Centra] 
America  and  the  Antilles,  our  readers  are  referred  to  the  arti- 
cles dealing  with  those  countries,  in  which  special  circumstances 
are  explained. 

But  our  friends  who  possess  the  splendid  central  and  southern 
regions  in  the  New  World  have  determined  that  whatever  impedes 
true  progress  or  conflicts  with  the  stability  of  republican  institu- 
tions shall  have  no  place  in  the  third  great  period  of  national 
development',  which  is  at  hand.  ^ 


Latin-American  Civilization 

By  Francisco  J.  Yanes 
Assistant  Director,  Pan  American  Union 

THE  civilization  of  peoples  cannot  always  be  gauged  by  set 
standards.  There  are  varying  factors  to  be  takeii  into 
consideration  and  discrepancies  to  be  accounted  for  in 
measuring  the  degree  of  cultural  and  industrial  progress  of  a 
nation.  Conditions  growing  out  of  racial  characteristics,  historical 
necessities,  geographical  position,  custom  and  habit,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  the  basic  principles  upon  which  different 
societies  have  been  built,  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  dealing  with, 
or  rather,  in  endeavoring  to  understand  the  factors  that  have  led 
to  the  progress  of  a  given  nation,  or  aggregate  of  nations  of  the 
same  or  similar  origin. 

Latin-American  civilization  from  an  Anglo-^Saxon  point  of 
view  may  be  found  wanting  in  many  respects,  but  the  life  and 
happiness  of  nations,  the  ideals  and  hopes  of  their  peoples,  their 
legislation  and  institutions,  are  not  to  be  found  ready  made,  but 
have  to  be  worked  out  to  meet  peculiar  wants,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  racial,  mental,  moral  and  material  resources  and 
necessities  of  each. 

Latin  America  must  be  dealt  with  as  a.  whole  if  one  wishes  to 
cast  a  rapid  glance  at  its  civilization.  Some  of  the  20  free  and 
independent  states  which  in  their  aggregate  make  up  Latin 
America  have  developed  more  than  others,  and  a  few  to  a  remark- 
able degree,  but  whether  nortli  or  south  of  the  Panama  Canal,  east 
or  west,  on  the  Atlantic  or  the  Pacific,  on  the  Caribbean  or  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  countries  of  Latin  America  sprang  from  the 
same  race  —  the  brave,  hardj'',  adventurous,  romantic  and  warlike 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  conquerors,  who  fought  their  way  through 
unknown  territories,  whether  in  quest  of  ''  El  Dorado  "  or  in  war- 
fare against  whole  nations  of  Lidians,  as  in  the  case  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  where  the  native  Indians  had  a  wonderful  civilization  of 
their  own. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  men  who  founded  the  United  States, 
the  Pilgrims  who  first  set  foot  on  this  new  land  of  promise,  and 
those  who  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  first  settlers,  came  to  the 
country  already  prepared,  through  years  of  training,  to  govern 
themselves.    They  came  to  the  friendly  shores  of  the  New  AVoi'ld 

[18] 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION    "  19 

ill  quest  of  freedom.  Tliey  wanted  a  home  in  a  new  land  not  yet 
contaminated  with  the  spirit  of  the  Old  World.  They  brought 
with  them  their  creed,  their  habits  of  order  and  discipline,  their 
experience  in  self-government,  their  love  of  freedom,  their  respect 
for  the  established  principles  of  law.  Hence  from  its  inception 
Anglo-American  civilization  was  built  upon  solid  ground.  Its 
subsequent  development  —  the  marvel  of  the  last  half  of  the  19th 
and  of  this  20th  century  —  is  due  to  the  solidity  of  their  insti- 
tutions, their  steadfastness  of  purpose,  their  practical  view  of  life, 
and  a  territorial  expanse  where  all  the  soils,  all  the  w^ealth,  all  the 
climatic  conditions  of  the  cold,  the  temperate  and  the  tropical  zone 
can  be  found. 

The  discussion  of  Latin-American  civilization  is  of  vast 
importance,  since  it  deals  with  the  history  and  development  of 
20  republics  lying  beyond  the  Mexican  border,  and  covering 
an  aggregate  area  of  about  8,200,000  square  miles,  with  a  total 
population  of  nearly  80,000,000,  of  whom  54,000,000  speak  the 
Spanish  language,  24,000,000  Portuguese  in  Brazil,  and  2,000,000 
French  in  Haiti.  This  general  division  brings  us  at  once  to  deal, 
under  the  same  classification,  with  peoples  and  civilizations  spring- 
ing from  different  sources, —  Spanish,  Portuguese  and  French. 
Even  among  the  Spanish-speaking  countries  there  are  condi- 
tions,—depending  on  the  province  of  origin  of  the  first  Spanish 
colonizers  and  settlers,  who  came  mainly  from  Biscay,  Andalusia, 
Castile,  Aragon  and  Estremadura  —  which  tend  to  establish  slight 
differences  and  peculiarities  just  as  the  various  States  of  the 
United  States  show  dissimilarity  due  to  the  sources  of  their 
population. 

Geographically,  Latin  America  begins  beyond  the  Rio  Grande, 
\\4th  Mexico,  at  the  southern  boundary  of  which  extends  what  is 
called  Central  America,  consisting  of  Guatemala,  Honduras, 
Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  the  historic  five  Central 
American  states ;  Panama,  the  gateway  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west 
and  to  the  Caribbean  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  east ;  South  America 
proper,  embracing  Venezuela  on  the  Caribbean,  Colombia  on  that 
sea  and  partly  on  the  Pacific ;  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Chile,  bordering 
on  the  Pacific;  Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  inland  states  in  the  heart  of 
South  America;  Argentina,  Uruguay  and  Brazil  on  the  Atlantic; 
and,  lastly,  Cuba,  Haiti  and  the  Dominican  Republic,  islands  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  Thus  Latin  America  extends  from  the  north 
temperate  zone  to  Cape  Horn,  near  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  which 
means  that  all  climatic  conditions  are  found  in  that  enormous  area 
from  the  cool  regions  of  northern  Mexico  to  the  tropical  heat  of 


20  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  torrid  zone  and  again  to  the  cold  lands  of  Patagonia.  This  is 
indeed  a  world  of  wealth  where  all  the  products  of  the  globe  can 
be  successfully  cultivated,  where  all  races  of  mankind  can  live  and 
thrive,  because  the  Mexican  and  Central  American  cordilleras,  and 
farther  south  the  mighty  Andean  range,  offer  an  unbroken  chain 
of  lofty  peaks,  wide  valleys,  and  extensive  tablelands,  affording 
all  climates  and  zones,  all  kinds  of  soils  and  minerals,  the  only 
limitation  to  the  development  of  these  lands  being  human  endur- 
ance. The  water  supply  is  plentiful  in  most  parts  of  Mexico  and 
the  Central  American  republics,  and  there  is  nothing  which  can  be 
compared  to  the  hydrographic  areas  of  northern  and  central  South 
America,  consisting  of  the  Orinoco  basin  with  its  400  affluents, 
offering  a  total  navigable  length  of  about  4,000  miles ;  the  mighty 
Amazon,  having  three  times  the  volume  of  the  Mississippi  and 
navigable  for  over  2,000  miles,  and  the  network  of  great  rivers 
emptying  into  it;  the  Parana  and  the  river  Plata,  with  twice  the 
volume  of  the  Mississippi,  and  a  thousand  other  streams  too 
numerous  to  mention  in  detail,  but  which  can  be  found  on  any 
fairly  good  map,  showing  a  feasible  water  route  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  in  Venezuela  to  the  Amazon  and  the  very  heart  of 
South  America,  and  thence  to  the  Parana  and  finally  down  to  the 
river  Plata. 

It  is  well  known  how  Columbus  discovered  this  New  World 
which  to-day  bears  the  name  of  America  (although  the  application 
of  that  name  is  quite  restricted  in  this  country  to  the  United 
States)  —  what  hardships  that  undaunted  sailor  and  his  followers 
had  to  endure,  their  sufferings,  their  hopes,  and  their  faith  in  some 
supernatural  fate,  a  trait  which  is  due  in  part  to  the  influence  of 
Moorish  ancestors  in  Spain  through  the  mingling  of  both  races 
during  the  occupation  wars  which  lasted  Over  eight  centuries.  The 
discovery  of  America  has  a  tinge  of  romance,  such  as  inspires  the 
soul  of  the  adventurer  and  the  buccaneer.  It  was  a  romance  that 
began  at  the  Rabida,  grew  in  the  presence  and  with  the  help  of 
good  Queen  Isabella,  developed  into  a  mad  desire  for  adventure  at 
Palos,  and  ended  with  the  planting  of  the  Spanish  standard  on  the 
shores  of  Guanahani,  now  called  Watling's  Island.  From  here 
Columbus  went  to  what  is  to-day  called  Cuba,  thence  to  His- 
paniola  —  now  divided  into  Haiti  and  Dominican  Republic  — 
and  in  this  latter  island  founded  the  first  white  settlement  in  the 
New  World.  It  is  not  possible  to  follow  Columbus'  voyages  or 
his  adventures  step  by  step,  but  the  discovery  of  America  is  an 
epic  worthy  of  the  mettle  of  the  great  explorer  and  his  men. 


Copyright,    Newman  Traveltalks  and   Brown   &   Dawson,   N.    Y. 
The   Municipal  Theatre  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,   Brazil 


National   Theatre,   San    Jose,    Costa    Rica 

(Courtesy    of    the    Pan    American    Union) 


Copyright,    Newman  Traveltalks  and   Hmwii    ,«,    |i,i\\>.mi.    N     V 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION  21 

And  so  the  civilization  of  what  is  called  Latin  America  began 
with  the  first  Spanish  settlement,  the  first  Indian  blood  shed  by 
the  greed  of  the  white  conqueror,  and  the  first  attempt  to  Chris- 
tianize the  inhabitants  of  the  new-found  land.  The  inevitable 
features  of  conquest  —  war,  treachery,  destruction,  fire,  sword, 
deeds  of  valor  but  little  known,  and  endurance  almost  super- 
human—  marked  along  the  trail  of  the  discoverers  the  birth  and 
first  steps  of  the  nations  of  the  New  World.  And  in  the  midst  of 
this  turmoil,  bravely  battling  against  unknown  odds,  the  Spanish 
missionary  fathers  worked  unceasingly,  founding  hamlets  and 
towns,  thus  planting  in  the  wilderness  the  seeds  of  many  a  large 
city  to-day,  building  their  temples  of  worship,  going  from  place  to 
place  struggling  with  disease  and  hunger,  teaching  the  Indians  the 
Spanish  language  and  with  it  their  religious  faith,  and  laying  the 
foundation  of  what  is  known  to-day  as  Latin  America. 

The  second  stage  of  Latin-American  civilization  began  when 
the  crown  of  Spain  finally  took  an  active  interest  in  its  new  pos- 
sessions and  men  of  a  better  class  than  the  soldiery  which  landed 
with  the  discoverers  and  conquerors  began  to  come  to  the  New 
World,  bringing  their  wives  and  daughters,  and  surrounding  them- 
selves with  whatever  comforts  could  be  had  in  their  new  home. 
They  were  in  many  cases  scions  of  noble  families,  who  came  either 
as  viceroys,  governors,  or  in  some  other  administrative  capacity, 
or  as  '^  oidores,"  or  judges,  and  men  of  letters  in  general.  There 
came  also  learned  monks,  and  among  these,  philosophers,  poets, 
musicians,  painters,  and  skilled  artisans.  Hence  some  of  the  oldest 
descriptions  and  chronicles  of  Latin  America  are  in  verse  or  in 
choice  prose,  either  in  Spanish  or  in  Latin,  and  we  find  in  some 
of  the  oldest  cities  in  Spanish  America  wonderful  examples  of 
w^ood  carving,  either  in  churches  or  in  old  houses,  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  the  gold  and  silversmith's  art,  some  fine  paintings,  and 
unexcelled  samples  of  the  art  of  illuminating  books,  particularly 
missals. 

The  scholars,  either  members  of  the  religious  orders  or 
laymen,  began  to  gather  books  imported  from  Europe,  and  so  our 
libraries  were  started,  mainly  in  the  convents.  With  this  feature 
of  civilization  the  necessity  of  educating  the  children  of  the  Span- 
iards and  the  Indians  became  more  pressing,  and  private  schools 
and  seminaries  were  established,  as  a  first  step  tow^ard  the  founda- 
tion of  universities.  Both  in  Mexico  and  in  Peru  schools  were 
founded  by  order  of  the  Crown  of  Spain  for  the  education  of  the 
Indians,  where  they  learned  not  only  reading  and  writing,  but  the 
manual  arts  as  well. 


22  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Latin  Americans  point  with  natural  pride  to  the  fact  that  the 
first  university  founded  in  the  New  World  was  that  of  Santo 
Tomas  de  Aquino  at  Santo  Domingo,  in  1538.  This  university  is 
no  longer  in  existence,  but  there  still  exists  that  of  San  Marcos  at 
Lima,  Peru,  founded  in  1551 ;  the  University  of  Mexico,  established 
in  1553  and  refounded  in  1910;  the  University  of  Cordoba,  in 
Argentina,  dating  from  1613;  that  of  Sucre  in  Bolivia,  founded  in 
1623,  or  13  years  before  Harvard,  which  dates  from  1636,  and  that 
of  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  established  in  1692,  or  eight  years  earlier  than 
Yale,  which  was  founded  in  1701.  The  University  of  Caracas,  in 
Venezuela,  dates  from  1721,  and  that  of  Habana,  Cuba,  from  1728, 
the  other  universities  founded  before  the  19th  century  being 
that  of  Santiago,  Chile,  in  1743,  and  the  University  of  Quito, 
Ecuador,  in  1787. 

The  great  agent  of  civilization  and  progress,  the  printing- 
press,  has  been  known  in  Latin  America  since  1536,  when  the  first 
printing  outfit  was  introduced  into  Mexico  and  the  first  book 
printed  in  the  New  World,  a  plea  of  Father  Las  Casas  for  a  better 
life.  Cartagena,  Colombia,  is  said  to  have  been  the  second  city  of 
America  to  have  a  printing  press,  in  1560  or  1562,  but  Peru  seems 
to  hold  the  record  for  the  first  book  printed  in  South  America, 
about  1584,  and  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  had  a  printing  establishment 
about  1610.  There  were  also,  a  press  and  other  printing  parapher- 
nalia at  the  Jesuit  missions  of  Paraguay  about  the  first  decade 
of  the  17th  century.  The  first  work  in  Bogota  was  printed 
about  1739 ;  Ecuador  printed  its  first  book  in  1760,  and  Venezuela 
in  1764,  while  the  earliest  production  of  the  Chilean  press  bears 
the  date  of  1776 ;  and  there  was  a  printing  outfit  in  Cordoba,  Argen- 
tina, in  1767.  With  the  foundation  of  universities  and  schools  and 
more  frequent  communication  with  Spain  and  other  European 
countries  of  Latin  origin,  and  the  printing  of  books  and  news- 
papers in  the  New  World,  the  desire  for  learning  was  developed 
and  a  new  field  was  opened  to  intellectual  culture. 

The  dissatisfaction  of  the  colonies  with  the  exactions  and 
abuses  of  the  viceroys,  captains-general  and  other  officials  repre- 
senting the  crown  of  Spain,  jealousies  between  the  "  Creoles,"  or 
children  of  Spanish  parents  born  in  America,  and  the  *'  penin- 
sulars," or  native  Spaniards,  commercial  preference  and  social 
distinctions,  and  other  pett}^  annoyances  born  of  the  arrogance  of 
the  Spaniards  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  proud  nature  of  the  Creoles 
on  the  other,  were  the  smouldering  embers  which,  fanned  by  the 
success  of  the  American  Revolution  and  the  storm  of  the  French 
Revolution,  set  on  fire  the  Spanish  colonies  at  the  end  of  the  18th 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION  23 

and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  The  majority  of  the  Span- 
ish-American countries  attained  their  independence  between  1804 
and  1825,  and  their  struggles  for  freedom,  while  encouraged  by  the 
example  of  the  United  States,  were  inspired  by  French  ideals.  The 
heroes  of  the  bloody  but  romantic  French  Revolution,  their  fiery 
speeches  and  fearlessness,  their  proclamation  of  the  republic  and 
the  rights  of  man ;  the  echoes  of  the  Boston  Tea  Party,  the  exploits 
of  the  spirit  of  '76,  the  commanding  and  serene  figure  of  Wash- 
ington, the  adoption  of  the  American  Constitution,  the  utterances 
of  the  grave  thinkers  and  inspired  orators  of  the  revolutionary 
period  —  all  these  dazzling  examples  of  patriotism  appealed  to  the 
Spanish-American  colonists,  and  one  by  one  the  colonies  began 
their  fight  for  independence.  The  executions  and  ignominy  which 
were  the  lot  of  the  first  patriots  who  forfeited  their  lives  for  the 
cause  of  independence,  instead  of  discouraging  the  leaders,  made 
them  more  aggressive,  and  they  resolved  to  gain  the  day  at  all 
hazards. 

On  the  most  brilliant  pages  of  the  history  of  Latin  America 
are  written,  among  the  names  of  other  heroes,  those  of  Miranda 
of  Venezuela,  the  precursor  of  South  American  independence; 
Bolivar,  who  has  been  called  the  Washington  of  South  America, 
a  born  leader,  the  liberator  and  father  of  Venezuela,  his  native 
country,  and  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Bolivia;  Sucre, 
also  a  Venezuelan,  more  like  Washington  than  was  Bolivar;  San 
Martin,  the  great  general  of  Argentina,  the  brave  and  heroic  liber- 
ator of  the  southern  half  of  South  America;  Artigas  of  Uruguay, 
a  man  of  sterling  qualities;  O'Higgins,  the  great  Chilean  hero; 
Tiradentes,  the  forerunner  of  Brazilian  independence;  Morelos 
and  Hidalgo  in  Mexico,  both  Catholic  priests,  and  both  martyrs  to 
the  cause  of  independence ;  and  scores  of  others  from  each  country 
whose  names  would  be  meaningless  except  to  those  well  acquainted 
with  the  history  of  South  America. 

Once  free  from  colonial  bondage,  the  new  republics,  whose 
political  constitutions  in  the  main  are  based  on  that  of  the  United 
States,  had  to  deal  with  fresh  problems  arising  from  changed  con- 
ditions. The  new  political  entities  commenced  their  independent 
life  heavily  handicapped,  on  the  one  hand  by  their  economic  condi- 
tion after  a  period  of  protracted  wars,  jind  on  the  other  hand  by 
a  scarcity  of  population.  The  unbounded  productiveness  of  Latin 
America,  coupled  with  the  modest  wants  of  the  masses,  has  been 
the  main  cause  of  the  slow  development  of  most  of  these  countries 
as  manufacturing  centres,  their  chief  means  of  support  being 
agricultural  and  allied  industries,  and  mining.     The  evolutiqji  out 


24  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  all  this  chaos  has  been  more  rapid  in  some  countries  than  in 
others,  due  to  special  conditions,  among  which  the  principal  ones 
are  geographic  and  topographic  position,  and  predominance  of  the 
white  man. 

The  leading  classes,  owners  of  black  slaves  and  landlords  to 
the  Indian  tenantry,  lived  for  the  most  part  in  relative  ease  after 
the  war  of  independence.  Those  who  did  not  seek  in  the  army  a 
field  for  their  activities  or  inclinations  devoted  themselves  to  intel- 
lectual and  scientific  pursuits,  either  in  civil  life  or  in  the  service  of 
the  church.  Some  went  abroad,  to  France  or  Spain  preferably,  to 
acquire  a  general  education  or  to  perfect  that  received  at  home  and 
to  see  the  world,  and  on  their  return  bringing  new  ideas  which 
were  eventually  adopted  and  modified  as  necessity  demanded.  With 
the  progress  of  the  19th  century  Latin  America  also  advanced. 

Intellectually,  the  Latin-Americans  are  anything  but  the 
inferiors  of  the  Anglo  Americans.  The  literature  of  Latin  Amer- 
ica is  as  rich  and  valuable  as  that  of  any  country,  yet  it  is  hardly 
known  —  not  to  say  entirely  unknown — in  the  United  States 
except  by  a  handful  of  men  who  have  devoted  their  time  to 
the  study  of  the  Spanish  language.  It  is  only  during  the  last  few 
years  that  a  desire  to  learn  Spanish  has  made  itself  felt  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  most  gratifying  to  note  the  number  of 
persons  now  able  to  read  and  understand  the  language  and  their 
growing  familiarity  with  things  Latin-American.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  study  of  modern  langiiages  is  compulsory  in  all  of  the 
universities  and  colleges  of  Latin  America,  and  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  obtain  certain  academic  degrees.  French  was  for  a  long 
time  the  language  chosen  by  the  majority  of  the  students,  hence 
the  influence  of  French  literature  and  French  thought  in  Latin 
America.  German  was  taken  up  by  many,  more  as  a  commercial 
tongue  than  otherwise.  English  was  preferred  by  others,  rather 
as  an  accomplishment  than  as  a  language  of  immediate  practical 
use,  but  now  it  has  taken,  in  many  cases,  the  place  of  German. 
These  two  languages  have  followed  the  trend  of  trade,  but  English 
is  becoming  more  useful  every  day  in  view  of  the  increased  rela- 
tions of  Latin  America  with  the  LTnited  States,  in  all  spheres  of 
Imman  activity. 

The  problem  of  education  has  always  commanded  the  earnest 
attention  of  all  the  Latin- American  governments,  to  the  extent  of 
having  made  primary  education  not  only  free  but  compulsory.  So 
far  as  higher  education  is- concerned  —  that  is,  all  grades  above 
primary  —  there  are  institutions,  either  public  or  private,  or  both. 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION  25 

for  secondary  and  superior  education,  normal  schools,  schools  of 
mines,  agricultural  and  manual  training,  technological  institutes, 
colleges,  universities,  conserv^atorie^s  of  music,  academies  of  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  national  or  public  libraries,  museums,  etc. —  in 
short,  all  kinds  of  institutions  devoted  to  the  moral  and  intellectual 
uplift  of  the  people. 

In  each  of  the  Latin-American  countries  there  is  a  system  of 
scholarships  which  serves  as  a  practical  means  of  promoting  inter- 
est in  education.  This  system  provides  for  supporting  abroad  for 
a  certain  length  of  time  such  students  and  graduates  as  have  won 
honors,  who  are  sent  to  Europe  and  in  some  cases  to  the  United 
States,  to  perfect  their  education  and  bring  home  the  latest  and 
most  approved  methods.  Since  the  present  war  began  students 
come  to  the  United  States  who  formerly  would  have  gone  to 
Europe  to  take  a  post-graduate  course  in  some  science  or  pro- 
fession. Others  are  in  this  country  studying  and  investigating 
school  methods  and  appliances.  At  present  there  are  over  1,300 
such  students  in  the  United  States. 

With  better  means  of  communication  and  a  desire  to  expand 
their  trade  with  Latin  America,  United  States  merchants  and 
travelers  are  visiting  intelligently  the  Ijatin-.Vmerican  countries, 
and  men  of  science  and  learning  have,  during  the  last  few  years, 
turned  their  eyes  toward  that  continent,  bringing  to  light  the  won- 
ders of  past  ages  buried  by  the  sands  of  Time,  and  doing  justice 
to  a  civilization  then  little  known,  and  only  by  a  few.  No  better 
proof  of  the  fact  that  Latin-American  civilization  is  worthy  of 
note  could  be  had  than  the  desire  to  exchange  professors  and 
students  between  certain  universities  of  the  United  States  and 
those  of  the  leading  South  American  countries,  as  well  as  the 
acquisition,  generally  by  purchase,  of  important  private  libraries 
of  Latin  America,  containing  invaluable  works  dealing  with  the 
history,  progress,  and  higher  development  of  those  countries. 

Latin-Americans  have  done  much  toward  the  progress  of  the 
world  both  intellectually  and  materially.  Civilization  may  be  di- 
vided into  tw^o  great  branches  from  which  others  spring:  develop- 
ment of  the  intellectual  forces  of  mankind,  and  development  of  the 
material  resources  for  the  benefit  of  society.  Under  the  first 
head  —  as  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  —  there 
are  found  educational  institutions  to  train  and  perfect  the  mind, 
which  have  existed  in  Latin  America  for  centuries,  and  the  result 
of  this  training  has  been  great  jurists,  historians,  orators, 
physicians,  painters,  sculptors,  poets,  musicians,  playwrights,  and 


26  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

others  too  numerous  to  mention  when  dealing  with  20  coun- 
tries, but  whose  works  might  fill  a  great  library.  A  passing  men- 
tion has  already  been  made  of  the  standing  of  Latin-American 
writers.  There  are  painters  and  sculptors  of  renown,  whose  works 
have  been  admired,  rewarded  and  commended  in  the  leading  art 
centres  of  the  world.  In  all  these  countries  there  are  art  schools 
from  which  the  students  go  preferably  to  Italy  or  France,  most 
frequently  pensioned  by  the  government,  to  perfect  themselves. 
There  are  musicians  wedded  to  their  art  and  a  credit  to  their  coun- 
try and  themselves;  and  composers,  singers  and  players  educated 
in  their  own  conservatories  or  schools.  There  are  theatres  and 
opera  houses  not  surpassed  by  any  others  in  the  United  States  or 
Europe,  and  the  governments  of  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  Latin- 
American  countries  contribute  to  the  musical  education  of  the 
people  by  subsidizing  opera  troupes  every  season  or  so,  paying- 
large  sums  to  obtain  the  best  singers.  Many  a  celebrity  who  has 
come  to  New  York  has  commenced  his  career  in  Latin  America. 

There  is  another  phase  of  Latin-American  civilization  showing 
in  an  unquestionable  manner  a  natural  tendency  toward  the  estab- 
lishment of  higher  ideals  —  those  ideals  that  are  to-day  being  pro- 
claimed by  men  of  good  will  of  all  nations.  I  refer  to  arbitration, 
recourse  to  which  is  the  highest  form  of  culture  among  peoples. 
Arbitration  is  not  new  with  the  Latin- American  peoples.  It  is  one 
of  the  basic  principles  of  their  social  structure,  since  it  rests  on  the 
civil  law  of  Rome,  which  provides  for  arbitration  as  one  of  the 
ordinary  and  usual  means  of  settling  differences  between  man  and 
man.  The  principle  of  world  arbitration  was  first  proclaimed  by 
General  Simon  Bolivar,  who  w^as  the  originator  of  the  idea  of  hold- 
ing the  first  Congress  of  Nations  of  America  at  Panama  in  1826, 
for  the  purpose,  among  others,  of  adopting  arbitration  as  a 
principle  of  American  —  that  is  to  say,  Pan  American  —  policy. 

In  recent  years  Latin  America  has  had  recourse  to  arbitration 
and  direct  negotiations  partaking  often  of  the  nature  of  arbitra- 
tion, more  frequently  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Latin- 
American  wars  have  been  civil  wars  for  a  political  principle,  and 
these  mainly  in  countries  where  the  military  element  predominates. 
They  have  never  engaged  in  wars  of  conquest.  In  their  inter- 
national difficulties,  arbitration  has  always  been  the  keynote  of 
negotiations.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in  the  history  of  the 
Latin-American  republics,  since  they  became  independent  from  the 
mother  country  over  100  years  ago,  they  have  had  among  them- 
selves only  two  international  wars,  and  these  could  indeed  be 
classed  as  national,  since  they  were  fought  among  members  of 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION  27 

their  own  family  of  nations.  But  these  wars  were  not  fought  for 
territorial  expansion,  nor  in  the  spirit  of  conquest,  although  terri- 
tory may  have  been  gained  as  an  indemnity.  These  are  the  Para- 
guayan war  against  Brazil,  Uruguay  and  Argentina,  1865-70,  and 
the  war  of  Chile  against  Bolivia  and  Peru,  1879-84.  On  the  other 
hand,  who,  looking  at  the  map  of  Europe  before  this  war,  would 
recognize  it  as  the  same  Europe  of  half  a  century  ago?  AVith  one 
or  two  exceptions  —  the  Iberian  and  Scandinavian  peninsulas  and 
the  British  Isles  —  there  is  not  a  single  country  that  has  not  been 
remade  at  the  cost  of  numberless  lives. 

All  boundary  disputes  —  and  they  have  been  many  —  have 
been  or  are  being  settled  by  arbitration.  Could  any  better  proof 
be  offered  of  the  advancement  of  peoples  who,  while  springing 
directly  from  a  race  of  warriors,  are  not  afraid  to  work  towards 
the  ends  of  peace! 

Another  proof  of  this  spirit  of  progress  is  the  maintenance  in 
the  city  of  Washington,  by  all  the  countries  of  the  American  hemi- 
sphere, of  a  unique  organization  called  the  Pan  American  Union, 
the  living  embodiment  of  the  idea  which  created  the  International 
Union  of  American  Republics  as  a  result  of  the  first  Pan  American 
Conference  held  in  Washington  in  1889-90  at  the  invitation  of  that 
great  American  statesman,  James  G.  Blaine.  The  Pan  American 
Union  represents  the  spirit  of  progress,  the  desire  for  a  better 
understanding,  the  necessity  for  stronger  ties  of  friendship,  felt 
among  the  republics  of  the  three  Americas,  by  making  them  known 
to  one  another,  by  bringing  to  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  the  opportunities  offered  by  the  Latin-American 
countries,  their  civilization,  their  onward  march  towards  prosper- 
ity, united  in  a  single  purpose  of  material  and  moral  advancement. 

There  is  another  aspect  of  the  civilization  of  the  Latin- 
American  Republics  which  deserves,  more  than  passing  attention. 
It  is  their  political  life  as  members  of  the  Pan  American  fraternity 
of  independent  nations.  Their  first  step  towards  higher  ideals  w^as 
their  declaration  of  independence  and  their  assumption  of  the 
duties  and  exercises  of  the  rights  of  sovereign  states.  The  tran- 
sition from  colonial  dependencies  to  self-governing  nations  was 
fraught  with  difficulties  unknown  to  the  citizens  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  North  American  Union,  resulting  from  differ- 
ent conditions,  due  in  the  main  to  the  spirit  that  inspired  their  com- 
plete emancipation.  The  original  thirteen  states  separated  from 
England  principally  for  practical  reasons,  while  the  Spanish- 
American  countries  had  to  contend  with  an  economic  as  well  as  a 
political  problem. 
3 


28  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

After  a  period  of  evolution  —  or  of  successive  revolutions,  as 
some  would  say  —  during  which  the  seA^eral  antagonistic  interests 
were  undergoing  a  process  of  amalgamation,  or  better  still,  clari- 
fication, there  now  exist,  in  the  majority  of  Latin- American  coun- 
tries, stable  governments  whose  sole  aim  is  to  maintain  above 
reproach  the  moral  as  well  as  the  economic  credit  of  their  respec- 
tive nations,  so  as  to  attract  foreign  capital  and  energy,  which  will 
stimulate  the  development  of  home  industries,  and  insure  peace, 
prosperity  and  happiness  to  its  citizens.  Some  Latin- American 
republics  have  been  less  fortunate,  but  every  disturbance,  all  civil 
strife,  should  be  construed,  in  fairness,  as  a  misdirected  effort 
towards  the  attainment  of  a  goal  dreamed  of  and  desired  by  all. 
Public  education,  foreign  commerce,  improved  means  of  communi- 
cation, greater  development  of  the  natural  wealth  of  those  coun- 
tries, are  factors  which  have  contributed  and  are  constantly  con- 
tributing to  the  establislmient  of  a  peaceful  era  which  will  even- 
tually become  normal  and  stable. 

As  to  the  material  phase  of  Latin- American  civilization,  com- 
munication with  the  other  countries  of  the  world  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  European  War  was  represented  by  over  50 
steamship  lines  plying  between  European  ports  and  those  of  Latin 
America,  and  about  25  lines  running  from  the  United  States  to  the 
Atlantic,  Caribbean  and  west  coast  ports  of  Latin  America.  The 
combined  railway  mileage  from  Mexico  down  to  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina, including  the  island  countries  of  Cuba,  Haiti  and  the  Domini- 
can Republic,  is  estimated  at  over  68,000  miles,  Argentina  leading 
with  over  22,000  miles ;  next  comes  Mexico  with  over  15,000  miles ; 
Brazil  follows  with  about  14,600  miles;  Chile,  nearly  6,000; 
Cuba,  nearly  2,500,  and  the  other  republics  in  lesser  proportion. 
There  is  not  one  single  country,  however,  that  is  not  included  in 
this  total  mileage.  It  may  seem  strange  that  in  an  area  of  about 
8,200,000  square  miles  there  should  be  only  68,000  miles  of  railway, 
but  if  one  stops  a  moment  to  consider  the  enormous  barrier  extend- 
ing along  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  formed  by  the  mighty 
range  of  the  Andes  mountains,  which  made  direct  communication 
between  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  very  diffi- 
cult, and  the  scarcity  of  population  which  creates  demands  and 
makes  traffic  profitable,  one  will  understand  why  the  railways  of 
Latin  America  have  not  advanced  faster.  But  even  under  these 
circumstances,  not  a  day  passes  but  some  work  is  done  towards 
the  extension  of  that  railway  mileage. 

Another  phase  of  civilization  and  progress  is  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  a  country.    The  progress  made  by  Latin  America  in  its 


('()p.\  rislit.    Xt«nian    Traveltalks   and    Hiowii    &    Dawson.    N.    Y. 

The   Capitol    Building    and    Monument   of   the   Congress    in    Buenos   Aires,  Argentina,  at 
Time  of  Celebration  of   Independence   Day,  9  July 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks  and   Brown   &   Dawson.    N.    Y. 
A   Portion  of  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  Night,    Brazil 


LATIN-AMERICAN  CIVILIZATION  29 

commercial  relations  with  the  world  at  large  and  the  United  States, 
especially,  shows  that  there  is  a  great  consumption  of  all  such  arti- 
cles as  are  considered  necessary  to  civilization.  Latin  America  is 
not  a  manufacturing  continent;  it  mainly  produces  for  export 
agricultural  products  such  as  sugar,  coffee,  rubber,  tobacco,  cacao 
or  cocoa,  cotton,  etc.,  hides  and  other  raw  materials,  mining  prod- 
ucts such  as  silver,  gold,  tin,  copper,  iron,  bismuth,  saltpeter,  etc., 
and  a  few  gems.  Its  main  imports  are  machinery'  of  all  kinds, 
hardware,  cotton  and  other  fabrics,  foodstuffs,  carriages  and  auto- 
mobiles, railway  material,  electrical  appliances,  and  other  similar 
products  of  industr^^  necessary  to  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  the  . 
improvement  of  roads  and  cities,  and  the  comfort  of  the 
inhabitants. 

There  is  not  a  city  of  any  importance  in  Latin  America  where?\ 
either  artificial   illuminating  gas  or  electric  light  is   unknown.  \I 
Telegraph  and  telephone  wires  stretch  all  over  Latin  America,  ( 
uniting  cities  and  towns,  ov^er  the  wilds  and  across  the  mountains, 
bridging  mighty  rivers,  connecting  neighboring  countries  and  link- 
ing their  shores  with  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world.    Not  an  event 
of  any  importance  takes  place  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  or  the 
United  States  which  the  submarine  cable  does  not  bring  to  the 
Latin-American  press,  to  be  made  public  either  in  the  form  of 
bulletins  or  in  "extras,"  according  to  the  importance  of  the  event, 
while  nearly  every  Latin-American  country  has  its  wireless  tele- 
graph system.     Electric  cars  are  fast  replacing  the  older  and 
slower  methods  of  transportation  within  the  cities  and  extending 
their  usefulness  to  carrying  passengers  to  suburban  villas,  small  \ 
townis  or  country  places  of  amusement,  and  Buenos  Aires,  the  ^ 
largest  Latin- American  capital,  has  a  subway  in  operation. 

A  charge  frequently  made  against  Latin  Americans  is  that  they 
are  a  race  of  dreamers.  There  is  some  truth  in  this.  Latin  Ameri- 
cans have  inherited  from  their  forefathers  the  love  of  the  beautiful 
and  the  grand;  the  facility  for  expression  and  the  vivid  imagina- 
tion of  the  Latin  race ;  the  sonorous,  majestic  Spanish,  the  flexible, 
musical  Portuguese,  and  French,  the  language  of  art;  and  a  respon- 
sive chord  to  all  that  thrills,  be  it  color,  harmony,  or  mental 
imagery.  They  have  also  inherited  from  those  ancestors  their 
varying  moods,  their  noble  traits  and  their  shortcomings,  both  of 
which  have  been  preserved,  and  in  certain  cases  improved,  under 
the  influence  of  environment,  the  majestic  mountains,  primeval 
forests,  ever  blooming  tropical  flowers,  bii'ds  of  sweetest  songs  and 
wonderful  plumage;  under  magnificent  skies  and  the  inspiration 
drawni  from  other  poets  and  writers,  foreign  and  native. 


30 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Much  more  might  be  said  to  show  the  constant  endeavor  of 
Latin  America  to  co-operate  with  its  best  efforts  to  the  civilization 
of  the  world.  It  has  contributed  readily  according  to  its  Latin 
standards,  and  from  the  day  of  its  independence  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  republican  institutions,  Latin  America  has  recognized 
the  rights  of  man,  abolished  slaver}^,  fostered  education,  developed 
its  commerce  and  increased  traveling  facilities  and  means  of  com- 
munication with  the  outer  world.  It  has  contributed  to  the  best  of 
its  ability  to  the  sum  total  of  human  betterment,  and  the  day  can- 
not be  far  off  when  full  justice  will  be  done  to  the  efforts  of  the 
countries  south  of  the  United  States,  where  live  a  people  intelli- 
gent, progressive,  proud  of  their  history  and  their  own  efforts, 
and  ready  to  extend  a  friendly  hand  and  a  sincere  welcome  to  those 
who  are  willing  to  understand  them,  and  aid  them  on  their  road  to 
progress. 


Congress    Hall,    Santiago,    Chile 


Education  in  Latin  America 

By  Edgar  Ewing  Brandon 
Vice-President  and  Dean  of  Miami  University 

General  and  Historical 

EDUCATION  ill  Latin  America  is  dominated  bj^  two  forces. 
One  is  historical  and  concerns  higher  and  professional 
studies.  The  Spanish  colonists  established  universities 
soon  after  their  occupation  of  the  country.  Santo  Domingo, 
1538;  Lima,  1551;  Mexico,  1553;  Bogota,  1572,  Cordoba  in  Argen- 
tina, 1613;  Chuquisaca  (now  Sucre)  in  Bolivia,  1623.  Six  others 
were  founded  by  the  end  of  the  colonial  period.  They  had  char- 
ters from  the  King  of  Spain  and  from  the  Pope,  and  enjoyed  the 
monopoly  of  granting  degrees.  Preparation  was  obtained  only  in 
church  schools  and  by  private  tutoring.  The  universities  them- 
selves were  conducted  by  the  religious  orders.  They  were  organ- 
ized and  conducted  solely  in  the  interest  of  the  colonial  aristocracy. 
To-day  they  are  national  and  theoretically  open  to  all  classes  with 
small  tuition  fees  and  very  generally  include  engineering  schools. 
However,  their  traditional  characteristics  persist.  They  over- 
emphasize theory,  culture,  dialectics,  and  make  their  appeal  to 
the  upper  and  leisure  class.  They  exercise  little  or  no  direct 
influence  on  elementary  instruction.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
dominate  the  secondary  schools,  which  too  often  are  but  feeders 
to  the  universities,  imitating  their  methods,  refiecting  their  tra- 
ditional spirit,  and  are  likewise  limited  in  patronage  almost 
exclusively  to  the  higher  classes. 

The  other  force  in  Latin  American  education,  the  movement  for 
elementary  education,  is  recent  and  comes  from  abroad.  Before 
1860  no  state  had  any  well-defined  system  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion. During  the  presidency  of  Sarmiento  (1868-1874)  Argen- 
tina inaugurated  a  determined  movement  for  universal  elementary 
instruction.  Sarmiento  was  influenced  by  the  example  of  the 
United  States.  About  the  same  time  Chile  undertook  seriously 
the  national  organization  of  elementary  schools.  France  has  been 
rightly  called  the  intellectual  mother  of  Latin  America,  and  when 
the  French  Republic  from  1870  on  strove  to  banish  illiteracy  from 
France,   its   influence   was   not  without   great  effect  in   Spanish 

[31] 


32  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

America.  All  the  states  soon  put  upon  their  statute  books 
laws  for  compulsory  primary  education.  The  reform  has 
not  progressed  uniformly.  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Uruguay  in 
South  America,  and  Costa  Rica  in  Central  America  have  made 
the  greatest  progress.  Whereas  in  these  states  50  years  ago  illit- 
eracy was  perhaps  more  than  90  per  cent,  it  is  now  less  than  50 
and  rapidly  decreasing.  In  some  of  the  other  states  it  is  still  90 
per  cent.  Cuba  has  made  commendable  progress  in  elementary 
education  since  its  independence.  The  least  progress  has  been 
made  in  those  countries  where  the  Indian  and  Mestizo  population  is 
the  largest,  or  where  strong  clerical  influence  hampers  the  national 
and  secular  school  organization.  In  such  countries  school  sta- 
tistics are  often  misleading.  Many  schools  exist  only  on  paper, 
in  others  the  terms  are  short,  average  attendance  is  low,  and  the 
law  of  compulsory  attendance  is  not  enforced. 

Primary  Education 

The  standard  period  of  the  elementary  school  is  six  years, 
but  even  in  a  country  like  Argentina  the  full  length  is  observed 
only  in  cities  and  larger  towns.  The  villages  and  countryside 
maintain  curricula  of  but  two,  three,  or  sometimes  four  years. 
The  school  year  approximates  nine  months.  The  subjects  of 
instruction  are  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing,  geography, 
and  national  history.  As  far  as  the  mere  ability  to  read  is  con- 
cerned, the  short  period  of  elementary  schooling  which  obtains  in 
so  many  localities  is  in  part  compensated  for  by  the  phonetic 
spelling  of  Spanish,  and  as  concerns  simple  calculation  by  the  use 
of  the  metric  system.  Genuine  intellectual  development,  how- 
ever, suffers  severely  from  the  short  term  of  schooling  for  the 
average  child.  Elementary  teachers  are  as  a  rule  underpaid,  and 
are  seldom  from  the  upper  classes.  The  sharp  class  distinctions 
which  so  generally  prevail  in  Latin  America,  especially  in  coun- 
tries with  a  large  mestizo  population,  are  nowhere  more  noticeable 
than  in  the  schools.  Except  in  Argentina,  and  in  a  lesser  degree 
in  Uruguay  and  Costa  Rica,  children  of  the  upper  classes  of  society 
seldom  attend  the  elementary  public  schools.  They  receive  their 
primary  education  either  through  private  tutoring,  or  in  private 
select  schools,  or  in  primary  grades  attached  to  the  state  secondary 
schools.  This  practice  tends  to  foster  and  accentuate  class  dis- 
tinction and  makes  of  the  public  elementary  instruction  purely 
folk  schools  —  a  condition  of  affairs  much  to  be  regretted  in  a 
democracy. 


Copyright,   Brown  &  Dawson  and  F.   M.    Newman,   Stamford,   Conn. 
Laboratory  of  the  Government  Agricultural  School  at  Piraclcaba,  Brazil 


Copyright,    Newman  Traveltallis   and   IJrown   &   Uawson,    N.    Y. 
Open  Air  School  Beside  Lake  Titicaca,   Bolivia 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks   and    Uruwn    <t   Jiawsun.    N      V 

University  at  Montevideo,  Uruguay 


EDUCATION  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  33 

In  a  few  countries  there  is  a  surprisingly  strong  tendency 
toward  co-education  in  the  elementary  schools,  but  in  general  the 
policy  is  segregation  of  the  sexes.  In  cities  and  larger  towns 
segregation  is  practiced  in  all  grades.  In  smaller  communities 
boys  and  girls  are  taught  together  in  the  first  two  or  three  grades 
and  segregated  in  the  higher  grades.  In  rural  and  small  village 
schools  where  the  range  of  instruction  is  limited  (from  two  to 
four  grades)  the  classes  are  usually  open  to  both  sexes. 

Except  in  the  federated  republics  (Argentina,  Brazil,  Mexico, 
and  Venezuela)  the  primary  school  system  is  thoroughly  central- 
ized and  directed  even  in  the  smallest  details  from  the  national 
capital.  The  funds  are  appropriated  from  the  national  treasury, 
the  administration  is  vested  in  the  council  of  elementary  educa- 
tion under  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  This  council  fixes 
the  curriculum  and  methods,  provides  the  building  and  equipment, 
establishes  qualifications  of  teachers,  assigns  teachers  to  their 
posts,  and  fixes  their  salaries  Frequently  there  is  a  local  board 
of  education  chosen  by  the  municipality  or  named  by  the  governor 
of  the  province.  Its  authority  is,  however,  carefully  limited.  Its 
principal  functions  are  to  care  for  the  material  equipment 
(building,  etc.),  to  recommend  suitable  teachers,  and  when  the 
teacher  has  been  appointed,  to  see  that  he  performs  his  assigned 
duties  and  maintains  a  proper  scholastic,  moral,  and  civic  atti- 
tude. Sometimes  the  local  board  is  expected  to  provide  from  local 
funds  the  building  and  equipment.  Great  numbers  of  primary 
schools  are  conducted  in  rented  buildings. 

In  the  federated  republics  the  state  systems  are  a  copy  of  the 
national  system  of  the  centralized  republics.  The  tendency,  there- 
fore, is  toward  centralization  over  a  larger  or  smaller  extent  of 
territory  and  close  uniformity.  Such  a  system  has  undoubted 
advantages  and  was  the  only  one  that  could  cope  with  the  difficul- 
ties that  confronted  popular  education  in  Latin  America.  In 
Argentina  the  national  government  has  recently  asserted  the 
right  to  establish,  maintain,  and  control  national  elementary 
schools  in  those  states  where  the  local  authorities  do  not  provide 
an  adequate  system.  In  some  countries,  especially  in  Mexico, 
the  municipalities  establish  and  maintain  elementary  schools  irre- 
spective of  the  state  system.  These  schools  are  usually  better 
equipped  and  conducted  than  the  state  schools  since  the  very  fact 
of  their  establishment  is  an  indication  that  state-wide  interest  in 
popular  education  is  deficient  or  non-existent. 


34  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Normal  Schools 

Those  countries  which  have  done  most  for  primary  education 
lay  great  stress  on  their  normal  high  schools,  which  have  come  to 
be  the  secondary  schools  of  the  common  people,  as  well  as  training 
schools  for  primary  teachers.  These  schools  were  originally  an 
importation  and  came  with  the  impetus  for  universal  and  obliga- 
tory primary  instruction.  Many  of  the  first  masters  were  brought 
from  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  the  schools  were  organ- 
ized on  the  model  of  the  French  primary  normal  school  and  the 
original  independent  normal  school  of  the  United  States.  The 
requirement  for  entrance  is  completion  of  the  elementary  school 
course  (six  years)  or  its  equivalent.  The  curriculum  covers  four, 
five,  and  six  years.  The  studies  embrace  what  is  usually  found  in 
grades  7  to  12  of  American  junior  and  regular  high  schools  with 
the  addition  of  pedagogy,  observation  of  teaching,  and  practice 
teaching  in  the  annexed  model  school.  Many  normals  are 
boarding  schools.  Whether  boarding  or  day  schools  the  usual 
practice  is  for  the  state  to  maintain  the  scholars,  lodging,  feed- 
ing, and  clothing  them  in  the  ])oarding  schools,  or  paying  them 
a  commutation  in  the  day  schools.  In  return  the  scholars  enlist 
in  the  teaching  service  of  the  state  for  a  certain  number  of  years. 
In  case  they  do  not  serve  out  their  enlistment,  they  agree  to  reim- 
burse the  government.  A  bond  is  given  to  insure  the  observance  of 
the  contract.  Unfortunately,  in  many  countries  this  contract  is  not 
always  observed.  The  normal  school  students  come  from  the  lower 
middle  class,  if  indeed  one  can  speak  of  a  middle  class  in  the  aver- 
age Latin  American  society,  and  their  advancement  into  the  higher 
grades  of  instruction,  even  with  industry  and  ability,  is  difficult 
and  rare.  Their  limited  education  is  a  handicap,  and  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  normal  and  elementary  schools  on  one 
hand  and  the  secondary  and  university  education  on  the  other  is 
so  sharply  drawn  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  pass  from  the  one 
to  the  other.  Chile  and  Argentina  maintain  higher  normal 
schools  of  college  rank  for  the  training  of  primary  normal  school 
instructors,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  for  the  training  of  regular 
high  school  teachers,  but  the  latter  are  more  usually  recruited 
from  the  universities  and  lack  distinct  pedagogical  preparation. 
The  boarding  normal  schools  very  naturally  are  for  one  sex  or 
the  other,  but  in  the  day  schools  co-education  is  surprisingly  com- 
mon. A  model  school  is  always  attached  to  a  normal  school,  and 
much  stress  is  laid  upon  practice  teaching,  although  much  more 
time  is  devoted  to  observation  than  to  actual  practice. 


EDUCATION  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  35 

Secondary  Education 

The  standard  period  of  the  regular  secondary  schools 
(Liceos)  is  six  years,  but  in  some  countries  it  is  less.  These 
schools  are  usually  good  of  their  type  even  in  countries  where 
primary  education  has  been  neglected.  Their  clientele  is  largely 
from  the  upper  classes.  Church  and  private  schools  of  this  grade 
are  numerous,  but  the  state  retains  (as  in  France)  the  right  of 
examination  and  power  to  grant  the  degree  (Bachelor  of  Human- 
ities) at  the  end  of  the  course.  The  curriculum  is,  as  a  rule, 
uniform  and  comprises  the  Spanish  language  and  literature,  gen- 
eral and  national  history,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and 
biology  (usually  without  individual  laboratory  practice),  French, 
English,  elementary  philosophy,  and  economics.  Latin  is  seldom 
included.  The  uniform  curriculum  in  the  secondary  schools  is 
due  to  their  close  administrative  relation  with  the  universities. 
They  are  still  regarded  as  mere  preparatory  schools.  When  com- 
mercial and  industrial  education  was  introduced,  it  seemed  more 
politic  to  divorce  it  wholly  from  the  traditional  secondary  schools, 
as  had  been  done  with  the  primary  normal  training.  Hence  almost 
everywhere  commercial  and  industrial  schools  are  separate  institu- 
tions although  state  supported.  When  they  are  combined  with  the 
regular  high  school,  it  is  for  economic,  not  pedagogical  or  adminis- 
trative reasons.  Notwithstanding  the  relative  excellence  of  the 
regular  high  school,  it  suffers  from  the  lack  of  trained  and  pro- 
fessional teachers.  Much  of  the  instruction  is  given  by  university 
graduates  who  divide  their  time  between  a  number  of  schools  or 
who  carry  on  a  profession  (law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  journalism, 
etc.)  at  the  same  time.  Their  teaching  is  necessarily  often  a 
secondary  consideration,  and  their  attendance  irregular.  They 
frequently  lack  ability  really  to  teach.  The  recitation  is  apt  to 
become  a  lecture  as  in  the  university. 

Commercial  Education 

The  commercial  school  in  many  Latin  American  countries 
occupies  a  position  of  high  favor,  receives  liberal  state  support 
and  opens  an  avenue  to  young  people  who  could  not  hope  to  profit 
materially  by  the  regular  high  school  course.  It  is  usually  a  com- 
bination of  upper  primary  and  junior  high  school.  The  curricu- 
lum comprises  the  traditional  subjects  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  grades  of  the  elementary  school  with  a  commercial  orienta- 
tion of  arithmetic,  geography,  and  composition,  while  introducing 
the  specific  commercial  branches,  typewriting,  stenography,  and 
accounting.    Much  stress  is  laid  upon  modern  foreign  languages, 


86  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

especially  English  and  French.  These  schools  often  receive 
important  gifts  and  even  regular  subsidies  from  public  spirited 
citizens  and  commercial  organizations.  Evening  as  well  as  day 
classes  are  the  rule  in  these  institutions,  and  some  have  evening 
classes  only.  Unfortunately  relatively  few  pupils  complete  the 
entire  curriculum.  They  leave  the  school  after  acquiring  the  mere 
rudiments  of  a  commercial  education  to  accept  modest  employment 
in  business. 

Higher  and  Professional  Education 

The  universities  are  professional  schools  almost  exclusively. 
A  very  few  have  faculties  of  Letters  and  pure  Science.  The 
standard  university  contains  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  engineer- 
ing, commerce,  ancl  agriculture;  but  many  have  only  two  or  three 
faculties.  Medical  departments  include  schools  of  pharmacy,  den- 
tistry, and  midwifery.  The,  average  course  of  study  in  law  covers 
six  years;  in  medicine  six;  in  engineering  and  agriculture,  four; 
in  commerce,  four;  in  pharmacy  and  dentistry,  three. 
.  -  The  enrollment  in  Latin  American  universities  is  surprisingly 

/\  large.  Buenos  Aires  has  approximately  6,000  (exclusive  of  the 
'  attached  preparatory  high  school) ;  Santiago  2,000,  Lima  1,100, 
Montevideo  900  exclusive  of  the  agricultural  college,  a  separate 
institution,  and  others  in  proportion  to  population  and  degree  of 
general  culture.  The  explanation  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
although  the  institutions  are  merely  groups  of  professional 
schools,  they  also  fill  the  place  occupied  by  the  Liberal  Arts  Col- 
lege in  the  United  States, .  and  many  students  attend  with  no 
expectation  of  following  the  profession  they  are  studying.  They 
take  a  university  course  for  general  culture  or  for  the  sake  of  the 
doctor's  degree  which  is  conferred  upon  graduation.  Not  nearly 
half  the  graduates  in  law  and  not  more  than  half  in  medicine  prac- 
tice the  profession.  The  law  course  especially  is  regarded  as  a 
liberal  education,  being  less  technical  than  in  an  American  law 
school  and  including  at  least  the  rudiments  of  all  the  social 
sciences,  psychology,  economics,  sociology,  constitutional  history, 
as  well  as  the  philosophy  and  history  of  law,  and  international 
law.  It  is  in  fact  a  study  of  jurisprudence  in  the  wide  sense,  and 
leads  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  jurisprudence.  The  medical  col- 
lege with  its  adjunct  departments  usually  has  the  largest  enroll- 
ment. The  curriculum  is  long  and  full.  Not  as  much  stress  is 
laid  upon  chemistry  and  the  other  basic  sciences  of  medicine  as 
there  should  be,  but  the  clinical  instruction  and  practice  is  excel- 
lent. Agriculture,  the  last  of  the  faculties  to  be  introduced,  is 
much  encouraged  by  the  governments  and  receives  generous  sup- 


l'opyiit;hl.    Xfttiiiaii    Traveltalks   and    Brown    &   Dawson,    N.    Y. 

The  University  at  Cuzco,  Peru 


"if*  f  iltili'llwiir  !■ 


<^ 


The    Public    Library,    Rio    de    Janeiro,    Brazil 
(Courtesy    of    the    Pan    American    Union) 


EDUCATION  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  37 

port.  The  enrollment,  however,  is  limited.  All  the  states  have 
one  or  more  schools  of  agriculture  either  as  part  of  a  university 
or  existing  as  a  separate  institution. 

Organization  of  Universities 

Practically  all  institutions  of  higher  and  professional  instruc- 
tion in  Latin  America  are  state  supported  and  state  controlled. 
In  a  few  centres  there  are  church  colleges  of  law,  engineering,  etc., 
but  never  of  medicine.  These  colleges  do  not  confer  the  degree  of 
the  profession.  That  privilege  is  reserved  for  the  state  university. 
Most  state  universities  are  autonomous;  i.  e.,  they  are  governed 
directly  by  the  faculty,  which  is  a  self  perpetuating  corporation. 
However,  the  election  to  a  vacant  chair  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic  through  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. The  common  practice  is  for  the  faculty  to  nominate  three 
candidates  for  a  vacancy  of  whom  the  minister  selects  one.  The 
state  exercises  in  this  way  a  control  over  the  personnel,  but  usually 
the  faculty  indicates  its  choice  of  the  candidates,  and  the  minister 
rarely  rejects  the  nomination.  The  universities  have  thus 
acquired  almost  everywhere  complete  independence.  Their  reve- 
nue, of  course,  depends  largely  on  the  will  of  the  national  (or 
provincial)  legislature.  University  professors,  like  those  of  the 
secondary  schools  in  Latin  America,  are  rarely  teachers  by  pro- 
fession. The  law  is  taught  by  practicing  lawyers  and  judges  in 
office;  medicine,  by  practicing  physicians.  This  custom  has  the 
same  disadvantages  though  not  so  marked  as  in  the  Liceos.  A  pro- 
fessor usually  teaches  but  one  course  w^hich  consists  of  three  lec- 
tures or  recitations  per  week.  If  a  course  runs  through  two  years, 
one  man  will  teach  the  first  year,  another  the  second.  This  custom 
accounts  for  the  large  number  of  professors  in  an  institution  in  pro- 
XJortion  to  the  students,  the  ratio  being  often  in  the  smaller  univer- 
sities as  high  as  one  to  five.  The  different  colleges  of  a  university 
are  usually  scattered,  the  college  of  laM'  being  located  in  one  part 
of  the  city,  the  college  of  medicine  in  another,  etc.  Each  has  its 
own  library  and  laboratories.  This  necessitates  a  duplication  of 
material  and  often  a  duplication  of  instruction  since  matriculation 
in  the  university  is  directly  from  the  high  school,  and  certain  basic 
subjects  are  taught  in  two  or  more  colleges.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  the  basic  sciences  of  medicine,  engineering,  and  agriculture. 

The  universities  are  very  generally  open  to  both  sexes,  and 
women  are  enrolled  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  colleges  of 
medicine,  pharmacy,  dentistry,  education,  and  architecture. 

So  called  practical  schools  of  agriculture  and  industrial  arts 
4 


38  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

are  very  common  and  are  supported  or  subsidized  by  the  state. 
Q^hey  are  of  lower  rank  than  the  university  professional  schools  and 
are  for  the  training  of  overseers,  foremen,  artisans,  and  fanners. 
The  agricultural  states  have  featured  the  practical  agricultural 
school  in  recent  years.  Argentina  has  a  score  of  them  of  ditferent 
grade.  Some  are  designed  to  emphasize  the  type  of  agriculture 
in  the  region  where  they  are  located,  fruit  growing,  cattle  raising, 
sugar  industry,  etc.;  others  have  a  general  curriculum.  They 
admit  boys  with  the  mere  fundamentals  of  instruction  from  the 
third  or  fourth  grade,  and  continue  their  common  school  instruc- 
tion, adding  the  professional  branches.  The  curriculum  extends 
over  three  or  four  years.  Many  of  these  institutions  are  boarding- 
schools.  The  system  is  very  similar  in  other  states.  Chile  main- 
tains them  in  the  agricultural  region ;  Cuba  has  one  in  each  of  the 
six  provinces.  In  Brazil  and  Mexico  it  is  the  concern  of  the  indi- 
vidual states,  the  national  government  concerning  itself  only  with 
the  higher  professional  schools. 

Industrial  Education 

The  practical  industrial  schools  (Escuelas  de  artes  y  officios) 
have  the  same  status  and  occupy  a  corresponding  position  in  the 
industrial  field.  They  are  supposed  to  reduce  theory  to  the  mini- 
mum and  bend  their  energies  to  the  practical.  This  is  especially 
difficult,  however,  in  Latin  America  since  the  tradition  in  educa- 
tion there  for  centuries  has  been  in  favor  of  theory,  and  the  racial 
mind  is  forcibly  bent  in  that  direction.  In  the  most  enterprising 
countries  there  are  trade  schools  for  girls  as  well  as  for  boys. 
Chile,  for  example,  has  a  great  number  for  girls,  one  or  more  in 
almost  every  important  town.  The  introduction  of  industrial  and 
agricultural  education  into  the  regular  primary  schools  is  uncom- 
mon. The  tendency  is  to  make  of  them  separate  departments  of 
instruction.  Both  at  Buenos  Aires  and  at  Santiago,  Chile,  there 
is  a  school  of  industrial  arts  which  occupiiss  a  middle  ground 
between  the  ordinary  elementary  trades  school  and  the  engineering 
college.  They  are  well  equipped  and  train  a  high  type  of  artisan 
and  practical  engineer. 

Many  elementary  trade  schools  are  conducted  by  various 
orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Salesian  brothers 
make  a  specialty  of  this  type  of  education.  Some  of  these  schools 
combine  elementary  agricultural  training  with  schooling  in  the 
industrial  arts.  They  usually  receive  a  subsidy  from  the  local, 
provincial  or  national  treasury.  The  pupils  come  from  very  poor 
families  or  are  orphans. 


EDUCATION  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  39 

Theological  Education 

Preparation  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  is  given  in 
church  schools  which  are  wholly  removed  from  governmental 
supervision.  At  least  one  such  school  is  maintained  in  each  dio- 
cese from  whence  the  more  gifted  boys  are  sent  to  the  arch-diocesan 
school  in  the  capital  for  advanced  instruction  and  training.  The 
lesser  priesthood  may  be  recruited  directly  from  the  diocesan 
school.  These  institutions  necessarily  have  a  different  curriculum 
from  that  of  the  state  and  state-supervised  elementary  and 
secondary  schools,  not  only  in  the  emphasis  laid  upon  strictly 
religious  instruction,  but  also  in  the  inclusion  of  Latin  which  is 
seldom  found  in  the  Spanish-American  curriculum ;  in  fact,  in  many 
states  the  study  of  Latin  in  the  state  and  state-inspected  schools  is 
forbidden  by  law. 

Education  in  Brazil 

In  Brazil  little  was  done  for  popular  education  before  the 
advent  of  the  Republic  (1889).  It  is  delegated  wholly  to  the  indi- 
vidual states.  Some,  notably  Sao  Paulo  and  other  southern  states, 
have  made  commendable  progress;  others  have  done  very  little. 
The  type  of  instruction  is  much  the  same  as  in  Spanish  America. 
The  same  is  true  of  secondary  education.  Brazil  has  two  national 
schools  of  law  (Sao  Paulo  and  Recife)  and  two  of  medicine  (Rio 
de  Janeiro  and  Sao  Salvador)  but  since  1911  their  graduates  have 
no  rights  not  enjoyed  by  graduates  of  other  standard  institutions. 
The  tendency  now  is  to  establish  universities;  i.  e.,  groups  of  pro- 
fessional schools,  in  all  the  state  capitals. 

Conclusion 

Popular  education  is  retarded  in  Latin  America  by  various 
causes  of  which  some  are  operative  in  some  countries,  others  in 
others,  and  some  in  all.  They  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
(1)  apathy  of  Indian  and  Mestizo  population;  (2)  lack  of  trained 
teachers;  (3)  antagonism  of  church  to  secular  schools;  (4)  greater 
relative  importance  and  appropriations  given  to  university  and 
secondary  instruction;  (5)  want  of  proper  buildings,  textbooks, 
and  equipment;  (6)  sharply  accentuated  class  distinctions;  (7) 
traditional  curricula  and  inefficient  methods  of  instruction. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  discouraging  circumstances,  there  is 
everywhere  a  universal  ambition  to  overcome  illiteracy,  a  realiza- 
tion that  an  educated  citizenry  is  necessary  for  political,  economic, 
and  social  progress,  a  willingness  to  learn  modern  educational 
methods,  and  an  ever  increasing  adaptability  of  instruction  to  local 
and  racial  needs. 


Labor,  Its  Problems  and  Their  Solution 
in  Latin  America 

By  T.  EsQuivEL  Obregon 
Lecturer  on  Latin  Anierinan  Commercial  Law,  Columbia  University 

THE  labor  problem  in  Europe  presents  a  different  point  of 
view  from  that  of  the  Latin  American  countries.  In  the 
former  the  question  is  to  know  whether  by  means  of  new 
devices  and  discoveries  of  natural  science  as  well  as  by  new  sug- 
gestions of  political  economy  and  sociology  it  is  possible  to  meet 
the  growing  demands  of  the  workers,  while  in  Latin  America 
it  consists  in  the  solution  of  an  opposite  question,  viz.,  is  the 
Indian  able  to  adapt  himself  to  modern  civilization  and  to  meet 
its  growing  demand  upon  him  for  increased  and  intelligent  effort 
and  ambition! 

Viewing  the  question  from  this  latter  point  it  is  very  hard,  if 
not  impossible  to  give  an  answer,  because  although  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  think  of  the  Indians  as  a  unique  race,  the  fact  is  that 
there  are  many  native  races  in  America  which  have  only  two 
features  in  common  —  the  red-bronze  color  of  their  complexion 
and  their  straight  black  hair.  There  are  races  which  can  enter 
into  competition  with  the  stronger  peoples  of  the  w^orld,  such 
sound,  energetic,  and  intelligent  races  as  the  Araucanian  in  Chile 
or  the  Maya  in  Yucatan;  some  of  whom  in  the  central  plateau  of 
Mexico  have  adopted  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  whites,  so 
that  it  is  hard  to  trace  the  difference  between  the  two  races,  phys- 
ical features  aside.  But  at  the  same  time  there  are  other  Indian 
races  that  are  neither  constitutionally  nor  temperamentally  fitted 
for  the  strenuous  and  complex  methods  of  modern  industrial  life. 

In  all  countries  where  nature  produces  lavishlj^  the  labor 
problem  is  difficult  to  solve,  simply  because  life  can  be  supported 
with  a  minimum  of  effort,  the  people  are  not  mutually  dependent 
and  therefore  see  little  reason  for  co-operation,  while  their  confi- 
dence in  the  natural  riBsources  about  them  tends  to  improvidence. 

One  fact,  however,  is  indisputable,  the  native  races  of  Latin 
America,  in  spite  of  all  the  hardships  imposed  upon  them,  to  fit 
them  for  the  work  of  modern  society,  have  survived  and  are  an 
important   factor  in  those    countries.      The   complexity    of   the 

[40] 


LABOR   IN   LATIN   AMERICA  41 

problem  may  be  understood  when  we  reduce  it  to  this  alternative : 
viz.,  is  the  Indian  to  be  left  undisturbed  in  his  natural  tendency 
to  laziness,  and  to  depend  for  his  advancement  upon  methods 
which  have  proved  adequate  among  peoples  of  more  energetic 
character  who  live  in  countries  the  climate  of  which  develops 
co-operation  and  thrift!  Or  else  must  we  use  all  means  which 
experience  and  fairness  may  suggest  in  order  to  educate  the 
Indians,  to  make  them  fit  for  modern  civilization,  without  regard 
to  details  as  to  method,  bearing  in  mind  only  the  general  pur- 
pose of  making  them  capable  of  survival  in  the  modern  intensified 
struggle  of  life!  Without  hesitation  we  should  advise  tliis  latter 
policy. 

At  present  the  natives  bear  all  the  burden  of  the  toil  of  agri- 
culture, and  a  good  part  of  that  of  industry. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  however,  agriculture  in  Latin  America  has 
not  been  so  successful  as  it  ought  to  be,  considering  the  richness  of 
the  soil  and  the  good  climatic  conditions.  This  is  due,  not  to  a 
lack  of  intelligence  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  native  races,  but  to 
a  lack  of  an  appropriate  education  tending  to  develop  in  them  a 
sense  of  responsibility,  thus  making  them  self-supporting  citizens, 
realizing  the  benefits  of  co-operation  in  production. 

A  fact  which  may  produce  important  and  far  reaching  results 
in  the  life  of  the  natives  of  Latin  America  is  that,  before  the 
European  War  came  to  complicate  all  the  economic  conditions  of 
the  world,  the  cost  of  living  was  higher  everywhere  else,  and  the 
necessities  of  mankind  were  urging  the  natives  of  America  to  get 
up  and  work  hard  or  yield  their  place  to  more  efficient  work- 
ers; governments  were  apprehensive  on  the  subject,  and  inquiries 
were  carried  on  in  many  of  the  countries  in  order  to  find  out  the 
reasons  for  the  high  cost  of  living,  which  may  determine  the  labor 
conditions  of  the  workers  in  Latin  America. 

At  the  bottom,  the  cause  of  the  phenomenal  rise  in  the  cost  of 
living  among  civilized  peoples  is  that  the  increase  in  the  popula- 
tion of  the  world  is  greater  in  proportion  than  the  increase  of  the 
food  supply.  Many  countries  have  found  their  productive  area 
insufficient  for  the  support  of  their  people ;  they  looked  abroad  for 
new  areas,  found  them  in  America,  and  have  sent  their  sur- 
plus population  there.  Hence,  competition  with  the  stronger  races 
is  knocking  at  the  door  of  the  new  continent  and  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  prepare  the  aborigines  to  meet  this  competition  or 
else  leave  them  in  their  present  disorganized  state  to  suffer  the 
domination  of  the  stronger  and  more  vigorous  races  from  over 
sea. 


42  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

In  Argentina  conditions  already  resemble  closely  those  of  the 
European  countries,  because  thefaBongine^have  given  way  to  the 
immigrants.  This  fact  accounts  in  great  part  for  the  intense 
commercial  and  agricultural  life  of  Argentina,  notwithstanding 
that  in  the  number  of  inhabitants  it  does  not  compare  with  Brazil 
or  Mexico. 

Five  nations  contribute  principally  to  immigration  in  Argen- 
tina, as  is  shown  by  the  following  statement,  which  presents  at  the 
same  time  the  emigration  by  nationality  and  the  yearly  balance 
that  is  left  in  the  country: 

Immigration       Emigration  Balance 

Year  1909  Spaniards 26,481  14,702  11,779 

Italians 24,249  27,943  3,694 

Russians 6,520  1,824  4,696 

Syrians 2,551  730  1,821 

Portuguese 554  154  400 

Year  1910  Spaniards 33,937  13,578  20,359 

Italians 26,065  23,210  2,855 

Russians 6,748  1,690  5,058 

Syrians 3,061  976  2,085 

Portuguese 870  204  666 

Italian  immigration,  even  though  it  follows  closely  in  num- 
ber that  of  the  Spaniards,  is  almost  otfset  by  the  emigration,  and 
sometimes  the  balance  is  negative,  which  shows  that  the  Italians 
do  not  find  in  Argentina  sufficient  inducement  to  settle  there 
definitely,  while  at  the  same  time  the  constant  increase  of  the 
Spanish  population  shows  the  great  adaptability  of  this  latter 
race  in  the  ancient  colonies  of  Spain. 

The  rise  of  the  cost  of  living  in  Argentina  was  accompanied 
at  the  outset  by  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  wages,  but  the  propor- 
tion was  not  maintained  afterward  and  the  workingman  is  suffer- 
ing in  consequence.  The  government  is  making  an  earnest  effort 
to  eliminate  the  middleman,  by  creating  markets  in  the  larger 
centres  of  population  for  the  sale  of  provisions  direct  to  the 
consumer. 

In  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  average  wage  of  the  workers 
in  1912  was  four  pesos  paper  (the  peso  paper  is  equal  to  42.46 
cents  of  United  States  currency).  The  average  wage  is  about  the 
same  in  the  other  provinces,  except  in  those  of  Corrientes  and 
Cordoba  where  the  average  is  around  2.50  pesos. 


LABOR   IN  LATIN   AMERICA  43 

The  prices  of  prime  necessities  on  an  average,  taken  from  the 

current  prices  in  the  different  provinces  in  1910,  were  in  paper 
currency : 

Tucuman   sugar  —  2d  class kilo  $  .43 

Oil "  1.29 

Beef ''  .35 

Brazilian   coffee    "  1 .  10 

Com ''  .10 

Wheat "  .21 

Milk    (liter)    .21 

Bread  — 2d   class    ''  .27 

Potatoes "  .18 

Salt  — 2d  class    ''  .30 

Argentine  wine    (liter) .35 

Tobacco "  1.86 

(Kilogram  is  equal  to  2.204  pounds  avoirdupois.) 

The  average  rent  paid  by  the  worker  was  28.25  pesos  ($12.42) 
per  month.  On  20  June  1910  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Con- 
gress of  Argentina  authorizing  the  executive  to  contract  a  loan  of 
20  million  pesos  for  the  constniction  of  houses  for  workers ;  said 
loan  was  to  be  paid  by  a  yearly  contribution  of  one  million  pesos 
payable  by  the  Jockey  Club,  and  the  amount  derived  from  rental 
of  the  houses,  after  deducting  the  expenses  of  repairs,  was  to  be 
used  in  the  construction  of  new  houses  for  workers. 

The  City  Council  of  Buenos  Aires  contracted  a  loan  of  two 
million  pesos  (paper)  at  5  per  cent  interest  and  1  per  cent  for 
amortization,  for  the  construction  of  hygienic  houses  for  workers, 
and  after  they  were  constructed,  it  was  decided,  for  several  good 
reasons,  not  to  sell  these  dwellings  to  the  workers,  but  to  rent  them 
at  low  prices,  while  the  details  of  management  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  committee  of  ladies  called  "  Protectora  del  Obrero." 

During  the  year  1910,  there  were,  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires, 
214  strikes  affecting  17,000  workers.  Seventy-nine  strikes  were 
ended  in  that  same  year,  and  the  determining  cause  was  a  demand 
for  an  increase  "of  wages.  The  Department  of  Labor  intervened 
in  the  settlement,  but  this  was  finally  effected  by  direct  negotia- 
tion between  the  workers  and  their  employers.  On  6  May  1910 
Representative  F.  Guasch  Leguizamon  introduced  a  bill  into 
Congress  for  the  organization  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  the 
functions  of  which  according  to  the  bill  were:  (1)  To  classify, 
study  and  publish  data  referring  to  labor  in  its  relation  to  capital 
in  Argentina;   (2)   To  study  the  labor  problem  and  observe  the 


44  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

efficiency  of  the  laws  and  regulations  referring  to  same;  (3)  To 
supervise   the   enforcement  of   said  laws   and  regulations;    (4) 
To  offer  its  mediation  in  cases  when  it  would  be  advisable ;  (5)  To 
undertake  the  functions  of  arbitrator  and  conciliator. 

On  16  May  of  the  same  year,  Representative  A,  Escobar  intro- 
duced a  bill  referring  to  accidents  to  workers,  in  which  an  acci- 
dent is  defined  as  follows:  "  Every  mishap  which  may  produce 
physical  or  intellectual  injury,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  partial 
or  total,  while  working,  as  an  effect  or  consequence  of  the  same." 
The  responsibility  of  the  employer  is  also  defined,  rules  are  estab- 
lished for  fixing  the  amount  of  compensation,  and  also  the  proper 
procedure  to  obtain  same,  and  the  employer  is  permitted  to  sub- 
stitute his  obligation  by  an  accident  insurance  policy. 

On  12  May,  another  bill  was  introduced  by  Representative  G. 
del  Barco  making  arbitration  for  all  questions  between  workers 
and  employers  compulsor\^  and  appointing  a  committee  of  con- 
ciliation therefor. 

The  above  facts  indicate  that  a  great  movement  was  in 
progress  in  Argentina  seeking  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  work- 
ers and  employers  because  of  a  radical  change  in  their  relations 
even  before  the  European  War. 

The  rural  code  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires  in  its  third 
section  refers  to  employers  and  peones  and  it  contains  some  pro- 
visions worth  noticing.  The  contract  of  labor  must  be  in  writing 
stating  the  special  services,  duration,  the  stipulated  wages  and  the 
daily  hours  for  working,  without  any  special  limitation  of  the 
hours.  Except  during  the  period  of  shearing  and  harvesting,  the 
peon  may  rest  on  Sundays  and  holidays  whenever  this  rest  is  not 
contrary  to  the  class  of  service  stipulated  in  the  contract.  The 
contracts  should  be  drawn  by  the  justice  of  peace  in  a  special 
book  and  every  contract  must  be  signed  by  the  justice  of  peace 
himself,  the  employer  and  the  employee.  When,  on  account  of  an 
unforeseen  event,  there  is  urgent  work  to  be  done  outside  of  the 
stipulated  hours,  the  peon  is  bound  to  do  it  if  requested  by  the 
employer,  and  the  latter  is  bound  to  pay  the  customary  wage 
therefor.  If  the  work  is  interrupted  on  account  of  bad  weather,  or 
storms,  or  any  other  justifying  cause,  the  employer  shall  pay  the 
peon  for  time  he  actually  worked.  When  an  employer  needs  one  or 
more  peons  to  work  outside  the  boundaries  of  his  district,  he  must 
give  them  a  document  stating  the  date  and  the  number  of  days 
which  he  considers  necessary  for  the  work.  After  this  period  has 
elapsed,  the  peon  who  is  found  outside  said  district  and  Avho  can 
not  prove  that  sickness  or  any  other  real  obstacle  prevented  him 


LABOR   IN   LATIN  AMERICA  45 

from  returning,  shall  be  sent  by  the  justice  of  peace  of  the  district 
in  which  he  is  found,  to  the  justice  of  peace  of  the  district  of  his 
residence,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  deliver  him  to  his  employer 
and  impose  upon  him  a  fine  of  50  pesos  for  the  benefit  of  the 
municipality.  When  there  is  a  question  between  employer  and 
peon  about  the  amount  of  money  advanced  by  the  former,  or 
about  the  meaning  of  some  ambiguous  or  doubtful  clause  of  the 
contract,  the  justice  of  the  peace,  in  default  of  any  other  proof, 
shall  decide  the  question  in  accordance  with  the  book  of  accounts 
kept  by  the  employer,  in  which  case  the  employer  must  swear 
before  the  justice  of  peace  as  to  the  accuracy  of  his  book. 

During  the  period  of  the  contract,  the  employer  may  dismiss 
any  peon  who  is  disobedient,  lazy  or  vicious,  and  he  must  so  state 
on  the  back  of  the  contract;  should  the  peon  consider  himself 
injured  with  that  classification  he  may  appeal  to  the  justice  of 
peace  asking  for  his  vindication  and  for  indemnity  for  the  injuty 
he  may  have  suffered  therefrom. 

The  cost  of  living  in  Bolivia  is  higher  than  in  any  country  of 
South  America,  except  Argentina.  Living  expenses  in  Chile  are 
placed  at  about  one-half  of  those  of  Bolivia;  while  in  Peru  they 
are  30  per  cent  lower  than  in  Bolivia.  Among  the  reasons  given 
for  this  are  lack  of  production  of  suitable  crops,  and  expensive 
transportation  facilities.  One  part  of  the  country  is  rich  in  nat- 
ural agricultural  resources  but  they  have  not  been  developed  to 
the  fullest,  while  in  the  matter  of  mines,  the  country  is  very 
wealthy.  This  shows  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Indian  popu- 
lation and  is  true  also  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  other  countries  where 
the  Indians  are  used  in  mining  —  they  have  showai  far  greater 
ability  for  mining  than  for  agriculture. 

Brazil,  perhaps,  shows  a  greater  diversity  of  inhabitants  than 
any  other  country  in  the  world.  There,  many  of  the  native 
Indians  w^ho  live  in  the  forests  are  savages,  whose  intelligence 
has  not  advanced  beyond  the  stone  age,  although  some  of  the 
tribes  show  considerable  skill  in  their  arts  and  crafts.  The  total 
number  of  Indians  in  Brazil  is  estimated  to  be  under  one-half 
million.  The  southern  districts  have  been  chosen  by  Germans 
for  colonization  where  they  keep  very  largely  to  their  own  lan- 
guage and  customs.  The  Federal  and  State  Governments  assist 
agricultural  immigrants  in  many  ways,  and  by  arrangement  with 
the  State  Governments  suitable  tracts  of  government  lands  may 
be  purchased,  upon  an  easy  installment  plan.  In  certain  states, 
the  government  builds  dwelling  houses  for  settlers  under  certain 
conditions. 


46  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

Rio  Janeiro  has  a  great  problem  in  supplying  houses  to  the 
workers ;  large  old  houses,  abandoned  by  their  owners  or  used  for 
years  as  warehouses  have  been  let  out  as  tenement  houses,  and 
frequently  a  family  pays  $15  per  month  for  a  small  room 
with  absolutely  no  modern  facilities.  From  three  to  six  families 
in  such  houses  may  use  the  same  kitchen  and  bathroom. 

Brazil  is  one  of  the  foremost  industrial  countries  of  Latin 
America;  the  most  important  of  her  manufactures  is  cotton 
goods.  The  number  of  factories  for  this  industry  amounts  to  364, 
giving  employment  to  168,760  hands. 

Brazil  is  wonderfully  rich,  both  in  mines  and  in  agriculture. 
It  is  considered  the  second  largest  diamond  producing  country  in 
the  world.  There  has  been  a  time  in  which  more  than  40,000  men 
were  employed  in  this  industry  in  Minas  Geraes.  The  cost  of 
living  in  Brazil  is  one  of  the  highest  in  the  world  in  spite  of  the 
wonderful  riches  of  the  country  for  agriculture.  This  fact  is 
responsible  for  the  great  difficulties  that  the  immigrant,  who  does 
not  possess  sufficient  means  to  support  himself  during  one  or  two 
years,  experiences  in  going  to  that  country. 

The  following  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  cost  of  living  for  a 
family  of  four  in  the  best  section  of  Bahia,  one  of  the  main  ports 
of  Brazil: 

Items  per  Month 

Rent $75  00      Lighting $10  00 

Provisions 150  00      Water 5  00 

Servants 30  00     Laundry 25  00 

Fuel  for  cooking 10  00  

Total  for  one  month $305  00 

Or  per  year 3,660  00 

The  average  prices  for  provisions  in  Bahia  are  about  as 
follows:      (Kilo  =  2.204  pounds). 

Beef $0  22  per  kilo 

Pork 40  " 

Mutton 50  " 

Ham 1  65  " 

Jerked  beef   36  " 

Fresh  fish   66  " 

Salt  codfish    30  " 

Bread 16  " 

Flour .  13  " 

Rice 20  " 

Potatoes 13  " 

Onions 13  " 

Coffee. 60  " 


Tea 

.       $3  50 

per  kilo 

Sugar 

11 

Lard 

46 

Cheese 

2 

00 

Milk   (per  liter) .  . .  . 

13 

Cornmeal 

13 

Beans 

13 

Chickens 

55 

each 

Ducks 

80 

i( 

Geese 

2 

15 

(( 

Turkeys 

1 

15 

it 

Eggs 

35 

dozen 

Apples 

15 

a 

LABOR   IN   LATIN  AMERICA  47 

In  Chile,  the  people  have  shown  more  discipline  and  working 
qualities  than  in  many  of  the  other  Latin  American  countries. 

On  20  Feb.  1906,  the  Congress  passed  a  law  providing  for  the 
construction  of  houses  for  workers.  In  every  province  and  in 
some  of  the  departments  determined  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  councils  for  the  construction  of  houses  for  workers  are 
established,  under  the  control  of  a  superior  council  resident  in 
Santiago,  the  functions  of  which  are  to  promote  the  construction 
of  hygienic  and  cheap  houses  for  the  working  classes,  to  be  rented 
to  the  workers  or  sold  to  them  for  cash  or  on  the  installment  plan, 
to  take  care  of  the  sanitation  of  the  houses  already  existing, 
destined  for  workers,  to  fix  the  conditions  under  which  new  houses 
may  be  constructed  and  to  approve  the  plans  thereof,  when  said 
houses  are  to  have  the  benefits  created  by  the  same  law;  to  over- 
see the  construction  of  the  houses  which  are  placed  under  their 
care,  with  the  funds  which  they  may  receive  from  bequests,  gifts, 
or  from  the  govenmient;  and  to  promote  the  organization  of  cor- 
porations for  the  construction  of  such  houses.  The  law  defines 
with  full  details  the  requisites  of  a  sanitary  home.  It  also  pro- 
vides for  the  protection  of  the  home  of  the  workers,  making  it 
unattachable  when  the  worker  dies,  leaving  one  or  more  minors, 
until  they  reach  the  legal  age,  and  finally  it  authorizes  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  to  expend  $600,000  for  the  construction  of 
hygienic  houses  for  workers  and  minor  employees  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  state. 

On  26  Aug.  1912,  another  law  was  passed  for  the  protection 
of  destitute  infants,  punishing  the  persons  who  engage  children 
of  less  than  eight  years  for  work  at  night  or  for  some  kind  of 
labor  that  may  be  improper  for  the  developing  of  their  intelli- 
gence or  moral  character. 

Consul  Winslow  in  Valparaiso  referring  to  the  cost  of  living 
says:  "  that  it  has  increased  from  40  to  50  per  cent  for  the  four 
years  from  1906  to  1910,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  statement 
concerning  Valparaiso : 

Item  1906  1910 

Rent $20  25  $46  00 

Meat  and  vegetables 51  30  83  95 

Bread 4  05  10  35 

light  and  heating  3  24  7  56 

Washing 6  75  13  80 

Servants 8  10  14  95 

Total $93  69      $176  41 


48  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

For  a  family  in  moderate  circumstances,  composed  of  three 
adults  and  two  children,  the  cost  of  living  may  be  calculated  in 
the  following  way: 

Item                                                                                                1906  1910 

Beef,  2.2  pounds $0  18  $0  24 

Beans,  100  pounds 2  43  3  68 

Butter,  100  pounds 35  00  46  00 

Flour,  100  pounds 2  43  2  99 

Cheese,  100  pounds 14  85  25  30 

Japanese  rice,  100  pounds 6  02  5  84 

Brazilian  coffee,  100  pounds 12  40  13  87 

Olive  oil,  case  of  40  barrels 24  00  23  72 


The  causes  for  this  increase  in  the  cost  of  living  may  be 
reduced  to  three:  the  earthquake  of  15  Aug.  1906,  the  general 
rise  in  the  price  of  provisions  the  world  over,  and  the  fluctuation 
of  the  value  of  the  paper  money,  which  at  times  falls  as  low  as 
15  cents  United  States  currency  per  peso. 

In  Colombia,  Indian  labor  is  used  to  better  advantage  in  the 
many  rich  mines.  The  emerald  mines  are  famous  all  over  the 
world,  and  gold,  platinum,  iron,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  are  also 
mined  there. 

Turning  now  to  Cuba,  we  find  that  the  law  of  8  July  1910 
authorized  an  appropriation  of  $1,300,000  for  the  construction 
of  2,000  houses  for  workmen  at  the  cost  of  $650  each,  to  be  sold 
to  laborers  of  good  character,  who  could  become  the  owners  of 
the  same  by  paying  a  small  monthly  rent.  Since  this  law  was 
promulgated,  about  1,000  houses  have  been  built  in  the  provinces 
of  Havana,  Pinar  del  Rio  and  Santa  Clara. 

A  law  establishing  a  minimum  wage  for  workers  has  been 
in  operation  since  1  July  1911. 

Cubans  have  disregarded  the  production  of  cereals,  cattle  and 
fowls  to  such  an  extent  that  they  have  to  depend  upon  imports  for 
these  vital  necessities.  That  explains  why  the  cost  of  living  is 
high  for  the  working  classes. 

After  the  emancipation  of  the  negroes  in  1878,  Cuba  under- 
went a  reorganization  of  its  industrial  system,  and  it  must  be 
said  to  the  credit  of  the  Spanish  Government  on  the  island,  that 
the  change  was  accompanied  by  far  less  distress  than  in  the 
southern  states  of  the  American  Union,  which  undoubtedly  w|Qs 
due  to  the  fact  that  slave  conditions  in  Cuba  were  much  better 
than  those  of  the  slaves  of  this  country,  as  even  before  slavery 
was  abolished  in  the  islands,  four  rights  were  granted  to  the 
negroes;  namely,  that  of  free  marriage,  that  of  seeking  a  new 


LABOR   IN   LATIN   AMERICA  49 

master  at  their  option,  that  of  purchasing  their  freedom  by  labor, 
and  that  of  acquiring  property  of  their  own. 

The  Cuban  negro  has  sliowai  his  willingness  to  work,  and  has 
proved  equal  to  the  new  and  increasing  demands  of  agriculture 
and  commerce  in  Cuba. 

The  cost  of  living  in  Ecuador  in  1915  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing figures: 

Beans,  per  lb $0  10 

Butter,  per  lb 1  00 

Coal,  per  sack 70 

Coffee,  ground,  per  11) 30 

Eggs,  each 04 

Lard,  domestic,  per  lb 40 

Potatoes,  per  lb 05 

Rice,   per  lb 10 

Sugar,  first  25  lbs 2  60 

Meat,  per  lb 30  to         40 

The  Central  American  Republics  have  a  population  composed 
of  whites  10  per  cent,  Indians  50  per  cent,  and  the  remainder 
mestizos  and  negroes.  It  is  true  of  this  region,  as  an  intelligent 
observer  has  written,  that  when  an  individual  or  a  corporation 
decides  to  undertake  development  work  the  fact  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  outside  capital  and  outside  labor  must  be  provided. 
The  lower  classes  are  Indians  of  innumerable  tribes  and  varying 
customs,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  them  obey  the  latent 
instinct  of  hatred  for  physical  labor.  In  this  particular  they 
differ  in  no  essential  respect  from  the  Indians  with  vv-hom  we  are 
familiar,  save  that  the  Central  American  Indian  lives  in  a  land 
whose  soil  and  climate  removes  from  him  much  of  the  incentive 
to  work. 

The  conditions  of  labor  in  Mexico  present  a  great  difference 
when  compared  with  the  Central  and  many  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can countries.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  Spain  intensified  the 
work  of  agriculture  and  education  in  Mexico  more  than  in  any 
other  of  her  colonies,  that  Mexico  received  more  colonists  from 
the  mother  country,  and  the  Spanish  population,  although  it  is 
not  very  high  in  proportion  to  the  Indian  population,  is  undoubt- 
edly greater  than  in  any  other  of  the  ancient  colonies  of  Spain. 
On  the  other  hand  the  mestizos  or  mixed  bloods  are  also  more 
aWndant  and  their  influence  among  the  different  races  of  Indians 
is  greater.  These  facts  are  responsible  for  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  Mexican  laborers.  It  can  not  be  said  of  most  of  the  agri- 
culturists and  laborers  of  Mexico  as  is  said  of  the  Indians  of 


5Q  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Central  America,  that  they  are  averse  to  physical  labor  because 
even  though  there  are  many  races  indolent,  there  are  also  many, 
mainly  in  the  central  plateau  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
republic,  which  show  ambition,  endurance  and  intelligence  enough 
to  cultivate  the  land  in  a  proper  way,  and  when  not  satisfied  with 
conditions  in  their  country,  they  emigrate  to  the  United  States  in 
search  of  better  wages  and  larger  opportunities.  It  is  very 
important  and  curious  to  read  in  this  connection  the  remarks 
made  in  Bulletin  No.  78,  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  in  the  United  States.  Studying  the  conditions  of  the 
Mexicans  who  migrate  to  the  United  States,  and  the  success  that 
they  have  had  in  the  different  branches  of  labor,  it  is  shown  that 
Mexicans  have  competed  with  natives  of  all  other  countries  of  the 
world  in  railway  construction,  and  they  have  dislodged  their 
competitors;  and  in  agriculture,  they  have  proved  equally  well 
adapted,  and  are  preferred  to  all  others  except  Russians. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  take  into  consideration  that  the 
aforesaid  data  refers  to  that  portion  of  the  working  classes  who 
have  showni  themselves  to  be  more  ambitious  and  capable  than 
the  average  Mexican  worker,  and  sufficiently  energetic  to  show 
their  dislike  of  conditions  in  Mexico  by  emigrating  to  the  United 
States  in  quest  of  better  opportunities.  But  we  must  not  believe 
that  these  characteristics  are  also  applicable  to  the  average 
workers  of  many  sections  of  the  country.  There  are  also  Indians 
in  the  torrid  coastal  regions  who  are  physically  incapable  of  great 
or  continued  physical  exertion,  and  their  number  is  not  very  small. 

The  efforts  made  by  the  government  of  Porfirio  Diaz  to 
create  an  industrial  population  in  the  most  important  centres, 
complicated  the  problems  of  a  race  and  of  a  country  then  in  an 
agricultural  state  of  evolution,  with  those  which  are  peculiar  to 
races  w^liich  have  reached  the  stage  of  industrial  evolution ;  as  an 
immediate  result,  industrial  products  are  higher  in  price  and 
lower  in  quality  than  those  that  could  be  imported,  with  great 
detriment  to  the  people. 

The  cost  of  living  in  Mexico  has  undergone  the  same  evolu- 
tion as  in  other  Latin-American  countries.  This  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  statement: 

Items  1792  18S1  1908 

Rice,  100  kilos $7  60  $12  87  $13  32 

Sugar,  100  kilos 30  40  17  43  23  00 

Flour,  100  kilos 2  71  10  87  2189 

Corn,  hectoliter 1  75  2  50  4  89 

Wheat,  100  kilos 180  5  09  10  17 

Peas,  100  kilos 163  6  61  10  84 


LABOR   IN   LATIN   AMERICA  51 

Mexican  mine  laborers  are  as  a  class,  intelligent,  having  been 
trained  in  mining  from  boyhood.  They  work  10  hours  a  day,  are 
paid  every  15  days  when  shifts  are  changed  and  the  men  have  one 
day  free.  Before  the  revolution,  labor  was  plentiful,  there  were 
no  organizations  among  the  men,  and  strikes  were  almost 
unknown. 

In  many  mines,  hoisting  is  done  by  men  who  carry  an  aver- 
age load  of  160  to  175  pounds  in  slings  on  the  back,  and  hung  by 
a  strap  across  the  forehead.  Ore  is  often  raised  in  this  manner 
from  a  depth  of  600  feet  up  *'  chicken  ladders  ",  which  are 
notched  poles. 

The  following  wages  per  day  of  10  hours  are  paid  in  one  of 
the  largest  mining  camps  in  Mexico,  20  miles  from  Chihuahua,  in 
terms  of  United  States  currency : 

Miner .fl  00  by  contract  — 12  cents  per  8  indies 

Carmen 75  to  $1  00 

Tracklayers 1  25 

Timbermen 1  50 

Topmen 82 

Top  laborers 75 

Engineers 1  50  to     3  00 

Blacksmiths 1  50  to    2  50 

Shift  bosses  1  75  to     2  00 

Carpenters 1  50  to     2  50 

The  above  wages  applied  practically  to  all  mines  in  the 
northern  tier  of  states,  but  decreased  somewhat  as  one  went 
south.  (Commercial  Reports  from  Department  of  Labor  of  the 
United  States— No.  28,  Washington  1911.) 

In  agriculture,  the  average  salary  in  that  year  may  be  cal- 
culated at  about  50  cents  Mexican  money  per  day,  while  in  the 
industries  that  average  may  be  placed  at  one  peso. 

The  corn  raising  system  in  Mexico  is  as  follows:  All  the 
cattle  used  in  farming  are  ranch  property,  one  yoke  of  oxen 
being  used  to  assist  in  planting,  cultivating,  and  caring  for  about 
11  or  12  acres  of  land.  At  the  beginning  of  the  season,  June, 
the  renters  of  the  land  hire  a  yoke  of  oxen  for  each  11  or  12 
acres  to  be  cultivated  and  for  which  they  are  charged  $10  per 
yoke  for  the  season.  The  renter  then  is  given  a  credit  at  the 
ranch  store,  which  enables  him  to  live  while  raising  his  crop.  He 
signs  a  contract  to  raise  a  crop  and  to  give  the  landowner  one- 
half  clear  of  all  expenses.  The  renter  and  the  landowner  each 
pay  one-half  of  the  cost  of  husking.  The  corn  is  then  divided 
into  two  parts;  from  the  portion  belonging  to  the  renter,  the 
store  account,  the  $10  for  oxen  and  the  half  of  the  cost  of  husking 


i 


52  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

are  paid.     (The  Mexican  peso  equals  $.498  American  currency; 
the  hectoliter  equals  2.839  bushels.) 

The  government  of  Peru  has  recently  promulgated  a  law  in 
which,  in  case  of  accidents  to  the  worker,  provision  is  made  for 
the  pa>Tnent  of  compensation  from  the  very  day  on  w^hich  it 
occurred.  Physicians  are  required  under  penalty  of  fine  or  loss 
of  office,  to  attend  the  victims  of  accident,  and  judges  will  exact 
costs  from  any  employers  who  seek  to  evade  the  payment  of  an 
indemnity  by  alleging  negligence  on  the  part  of  victims. 

Another  recent  law  provides  that  native  laborers  must  be 
paid  in  money,  and  they  must  not  be  compelled  to  live  in  agricul- 
tural, pastoral  or  industrial  centres  against  their  will.  The  daily 
wages  of  native  laborers  in  the  mountains  shall  not  be  less  than 
20  centavos  (8.5  cents),  even  though  such  laborers  receive  con- 
cessions of  land,  animals,  foodstuffs  etc.  In  case  food  is  fur- 
nished, it  is  not  to  be  more  in  value  than  the  laborer  earns  each 
week.  Laborers  now  working  on  plantations  without  receiving 
wages  are  free  to  abandon  their  places,  with  their  families,  ani- 
mals, and  tools  unless  they  have  entered  into  a  contract,  in  which 
case  the  employee  must  stay  out  the  year.  In  all  cases  he  must 
pay  any  existing  indebtedness,  but  neither  persons  nor  animals 
can  be  held  for  debts. 

In  Peru,  the  Indian  has  proved  decidedly  unfitted  for  agri- 
culture. This  fact  is  responsible  for  the  efforts  made  at  different 
times  to  supplant  native  labor  by  the  importation  of  Japanese 
and  Chinese  coolies  from  1849  to  the  present. 

It  is  estimated  that  between  the  years  1849  and  1874  no  less 
than  87,343  coolies  were  imported  into  Peru.  Japanese  workers 
under  contract  for  periods  of  six  years  were  also  imported  in 
1899  and  again  in  1903,  their  number  being  estimated  at  2,000. 
Peruvian  statesmen  have  been  very  much  concerned  with  this 
importation  of  laborers  which  can  not  be  productive  of  any  good 
to  the  native  population  and  they  are  thinking  of  a  way  to  regen- 
erate the  Indians  but  no  way  out  has  yet  been  found  —  either 
Peru  must  cultivate  its  lands  and  natural  riches  so  as  to  meet 
the  demands  of  its  own  people  and  the  world,  in  which  case  it 
must  accept  foreign  workers,  or  else  it  has  to  abide  by  the  labor 
of  the  natives,  and  neglect  utilizing  its  great  natural  resources 
to  the  fullest  extent.  In  the  region  of  the  Amazon,  how^ever,  a 
number  of  independent  laborers,  Chinese  or  Japanese,  have  set- 
tled, attracted  thither  by  the  opportunities  offered  to  the  worker. 
Prevailing  rates  of  wages  in  Uruguay  are  shown  approximately 
in  the  following  table : 


LABOR   IN   LATIN   AMERICA  53 

Blacksmith,  day $1  00  to  $1  80 

Mason,  day   1  20  to  1  70 

Carpenter,  day   1  20  to  1  85 

Day  laborers,  day 1  20 

Marble  cutters,  day  1  20  to  1  50 

Painters,  day 1  55  to  2  00 

Country  day  laborer,  day 1  20 

Montevideo  suffers  from  the  common  South  American  con- 
dition of  the  high  cost  of  living  and  rent.  Articles  of  clothing 
and  food  are  double  the  price  of  those  in  Europe.  Fresh  pro- 
visions and  fruit,  which  in  a  fertile  temperate  land  ought  to  be 
cheap,  are  not  so. 

Venezuela's  main  occupations  are  of  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral nature.  In  this  latter  the  llanero,  a  native  race  of  hardy 
horsemen  of  Venezuela,  was  famous  from  the  colonial  period  as 
intelligent  ranchers.  The  many  wars,  however,  have  decreased 
the  number  of  this  class.  The  prices  of  necessities  in  Venezuela 
are  as  follows: 

Fillet  of  beef,  per  lb $0  20 

Mutton,  per  lb 25 

Coffee,  per  lb 10  to  $0  14 

Onions,  per  lb 08  to        09 

Potatoes,  per  lb 04  to        06 

Flour,  per  bbl 13  00 

This  is  the  scale  of  wages  of  some  of  the  wage  earners: 

Women  cooks  $6  to  $12  per  month 

House  servants  and  waitresses 4  to      6    "        " 

Man  butler  or  messenger 10  to     15     "        " 

We  may  draw  the  following  conclusions  from  the  facts  above 
stated : 

First.  All  are  agreed  in  regard  to  the  stupendous  riches  of 
Latin  America  and  its  adaptability  to  agriculture. 

Second.  The  mineral  resources  are  equally  great,  but  the 
mines  as  a  rule  belong  to  foreigners,  who  utilize  the  labor  of  the 
Indians  and  export  the  output  of  those  mines,  producing  the  par- 
adoxical effect  of  the  excess  of  exportation  over  importation, 
together  with  the  fact  that  the  countries  are  indebted  to 
foreigners. 

Third.  The  natives  in  many  cases  have  shown  intelligence, 
obedience,  and  endurance,  but  they  have  not  been  properly  edu- 
cated. A  sound  Latin- American  policy  must  lead  education  and 
all  social  forces  toward  agriculture,  which  is  the  only  substantially 
national  occupation. 
5 


54  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  IiATIN  AMERICA 

Fourth.  Fortunately,  the  native  population  has  not  shown 
the  tendency  of  many  other  peoples  to  desert  the  country  for 
crowded  cities. 

Fifth.  Industry  has  been  sustained  by  means  of  protective 
tariffs  and  concessions  w^hich  produce  an  increase  in  the  value 
of  many  necessities  and  divert  the  energies  of  a  group  of  the 
population  which  in  agriculture  would  live  a  better  life,  both  from 
a  physical  and  economical  point  of  view. 

Sixth.  As  the  life  of  the  people  is  of  first  importance,  and  it 
depends  upon  agriculture,  the  most  sensible  policy  for  Latin 
America  would  be  to  direct  its  activities  toward  developing  agri- 
culture with  all  the  resources  of  modern  science. 

Seventh.  The  ill  advised  tendency  to  divert  the  natives  from 
agriculture  in  the  direction  of  industrj^  brings  to  the  Latin- 
American  countries  the  intricate  industrial  problems  of  Europe, 
creates  among  the  natives  the  desires  of  the  European  workers, 
and  submits  them  to  the  kindling  oratory  of  demagogues  who 
make  them  believe  with  superstitious  faith  in  socialistic  promises, 
thus  increasing  the  revolutionary  tendencies  of  those  peoples. 

Eighth.  The  well  known  characteristic  of  the  Indian  races 
of  America  is  their  tendency  to  and  ability  for  imitation.  This 
characteristic  is  one  of  their  best  qualities,  if  the  ruling  classes  of 
Latin  America,  conscious  of  their  duties,  direct  the  policy  of  their 
countries  toward  peaceful  agriculture. 

In  the  above  mentioned  study  published  in  the  Bulletin  of 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  of  the  Department  of  Labor  of  the  United 
States,  we  notice  this  statement  which  is  more  eloquent  than 
anything  else  we  can  say.  Referring  to  the  character  of  the 
workers,  the  statement  is  made:  "  When  you  have  occasion  to 
discharge  one  Japanese,  all  would  quit  and  so  you  are  left  with- 
out men.  But  if  a  Mexican  proves  a  poor  or  undesirable  w^ork- 
ingman,  you  can  let  him  go  without  breaking  up  the  whole  gang. ' ' 
The  interpretation  of  this  fact  is  that  the  workers  of  Mexico,  and 
we  may  say,  the  native  workers  of  America,  lack  a  sense  of 
co-operation. 

So  then,  when  tracing  the  policy  of  the  peoples  of  Latin 
America,  we  must  advocate  these  two  things:  the  promotion  of 
agriculture  and,  by  proper  law  and  education,  the  development 
of  a  sense  of  responsibility  and  of  co-operation.  These  were  the 
aims  of  Spain  in  her  system  of  missions  for  the  uplifting  of  the 
Indians,  and  these  are  also  those  of  the  United  States  in  keeping 
the  aborigines  in  reservations  for  educating  them  before  granting 
them  the  right  to  govern  themselves. 


Property    Rights    and   Land   Ownership 
in  Latin  America 


By  Irving  E.  Rines 


General  Provisions 


ALMOST  without  exception  the  constitutions  of  the 
Latin-American  countries  guarantee  the  inviolability  of 
property,  whether  belonging  to  individuals  or  corpora- 
tions, and  stipulate  that  no  inhabitant  may  be  deprived  of  it,  save 
by  due  process  of  law.  Foreigners  enjoy  the  same  rights  as 
natives  in  the  holding,  purchasing  and  selling  of  real  property. 
The  house  is  the  individual's  asylum  and  cannot  be  entered  at 
night  without  the  consent  of  the  occupant  nor  during  the  day  save 
in  the  cases  provided  by  law  or  in  cases  of  in  flagrante  delicto.  In 
Bolivia,  Argentina  and  some  other  countries  confiscation  of  prop- 
erty may  not  be  applied  as  a  punishment  for  political  offences; 
while  Honduras  provides  that  the  right  to  recover  confiscated 
property  is  barred  by  limitation  at  the  end  of  50  years  (Nicaragua 
provides  that  this  right  shall  never  be  barred) ;  and  in  most  coun- 
tries condemnation  of  private  property  may  not  be  oi'dered  except 
for  public  utility  and  according  to  law  and  upon  previous  and  just 
indemnification.  Under  the  1917  constitution  of  Mexico  attach- 
ment proceedings  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  property  of  any 
person  made  under  judicial  authority  to  cover  any  civil  liability 
shall  not  be  deemed  a  confiscation  of  property.  Private  papers 
and  correspondence  are  inviolable  and  may  not  be  seized,  inter- 
cepted or  searched,  except  in  the  cases  determined  by  law  and 
upon  written  order  of  the  competent  authority.  No  soldier  or 
military  man  shall  be  quartered  in  a  private  house  in  time  of 
peace  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  except 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law;  Argentina  provides  that  no 
armed  force  can  make  requisitions  or  exact  assistance  of  any  kind. 
Only  in  case  of  war  and  solely  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  restora- 
tion of  public  order,  the  seizure  of  private  property  in  Colombia 
may  be  ordered  by  authorities  not  vested  with  judicial  power  and 
without  previous  indemnification.  In  time  of  peace  no  one  shall 
be  deprived  of  his  property,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  except  in 
the  following  cases:  (1)  Through  general  taxation;  (2)  Through 

£65] 


56  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

reasons  of  public  utility,  defined  by  law,  upon  previous  indemnifi- 
cation, except  in  case  of  condemnation  for  the  purpose  of  opening 
or  constructing  highways  of  communication,  in  which  case  the 
benefits  derived  by  the  owners  of  the  condemned  land  are  sup- 
posed to  be  equivalent  to  the  price  of  the  strip  of  land  which  was 
needed  to  build  the  road.  But  if  it  be  shown  that  this  land  is 
worth  more,  the  difference  shall  be  paid. 

Religious  Property 

Bolivia  provides  that  real  estate  belonging  to  the  Church  and 
the  property  of  educational,  charitable  and  municipal  establish- 
ments or  religious  corporations  shall  enjoy  the  same  g-uaranties 
accorded  the  property  of  private  individuals.  In  Panama  build- 
ings devoted  to  any  form  of  worship,  theological  seminaries,  and 
the  residences  of  bishops  and  parish  priests  are  not  subject  to 
taxation.  In  Peru  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  convents 
belong  to  the  state  which  makes  an  annual  subsidy  in  aid  of  public 
worship.  The  Mexican  constitution  of  1917  provides  that  religious 
associations  may  not  acquire,  hold  or  administer  real  property  or 
loans  made  on  such  real  property.  All  places  of  public  worship 
are  the  property  of  the  nation  and  the  provision  regarding  loans 
holds  true  (if  the  mortgage  do  not  exceed  10  years)  of  charitable 
institutions  and  institutions  for  scientific  and  educational  pur- 
poses, mutual,  aid  societies  or  organizations  formed  for  any  other 
purpose. 

Monopolies,  Etc. 

Under  the  terms  of  Article  XVI  of  the  civil  code,  property 
situated  in  Chile  is  subject  to  Chilean  laws,  even  though  the  owners 
be  foreigners  living  abroad.  The  Colombia  and  Panama  consti- 
tutions provide  that  no  real  property  shall  be  inalienable  or  obliga- 
tions irredeemable.  In  Nicaragua  and  Salvador  no  monopoly  may 
be  established  except  as  a  means  of  revenue  and  by  virtue  of  a 
law.  In  Honduras  monopolies,  privileges  and  concessions  in  favor 
of  private  parties  may  be  granted  only  for  a  limited  time  in  order 
to  promote  the  introduction  or  improvement  of  industries,  coloni- 
zation, immigration,  institutions  of  credit  and  the  opening  of  ways 
of  communication. 

Recent  Mexican  Laws 

Some  provisions  of  the  1917  constitution  of  Mexico  deserve 
particular  mention.  Only  Mexicans  by  birth  or  naturalization 
and  Mexican  companies  have  the  right  to  acquire  ownership  in 


PROPERTY  RIGHTS  AND  LAND   OWNERSHIP  57 

land,  waters  and  their  appurtenances,  or  to  obtain  concessions  to 
develop  mines,  waters  or  mineral  fuels.  Foreigners  may  receive 
this  right  provided  they  agree  to  be  considered  Mexicans  in 
respect  to  such  property  and  accordingly  not  to  invoke  the  pro- 
tection of  their  governments  in  respect  to  same,  under  penalty  of 
forfeiture  to  the  Mexican  government.  Within  a  zone  of  100  kilo- 
meters from  the  frontiers  and  of  50  kilometers  from  the  seacoast 
no  foreigner,  under  any  circumstances,  may  acquire  direct  owner- 
ship of  lands  and  waters.  The  large  landed  estates  shall  be  sub- 
divided ;  the  maximum  area  which  any  one  individual  or  corpora- 
tion may  own  is  fixed;  and  the  excess  of  such  area  shall  be  sub- 
divided and  offered  for  sale.  No  private  or  governmental  monopo- 
lies of  any  kind  will  be  allowed.  Mexicans  must  register  at  the 
polls  of  the  municipality  and  set  forth  any  property  they  may  own. 

Official  Liabilities 

Many  of  the  constitutions  state  that  public  officials  who  violate 
any  of  the  established  guaranties  are  responsible  with  their  prop- 
erty for  the  losses  and  damages  sustained  through  their  action. 
No  citizen  of  or  foreigner  resident  in  Haiti,  Honduras,  Salvador 
or  Venezuela  may  claim  indemnity  from  the  state  for  losses 
sustained  by  virtue  of  civil  and  political  troubles,  but  the  injured 
parties  may  prosecute  in  the  courts  the  persons  recognized  as 
authors  of  the  wrongs  perpetrated  and  in  this  way  seek  the  proper 
legal  reparation. 

Disposal  of  Property 

In  most  countries  every  person  legally  capable  of  exercising 
his  rights  may  dispose  of  his  property  by  sale,  donation,  last  will 
and  testament,  or  any  other  legal  way  of  conveyance.  In  Argen- 
tina the  right  to  dispose  of  property  by  testament  is  granted  only 
to  unmarried  persons,  having  no  parents  or  descendants.  Four- 
fifths  of  the  father's  fortune  must  by  law  be  left  to  his  children, 
and  if  there  be  no  children,  the  husband  is  obliged  to  leave  one- 
half  of  his  fortune  to  his  wife.  An  unmarried  son  is  obliged  to 
leave  two-thirds  of  his  property  to  his  parents.  In  Cuba,  unless 
the  husband  expressly  permit  her,  the  wife  cannot  acquire  prop- 
erty by  an  onerous  or  lucrative  title,  alienate  her  property,  or 
bind  herself  save  in  the  cases  and  with  the  limitations  established 
by  law.  (In  this  connection  see  also  the  article  on  Commercial 
Regulations,  subtitle  Merchants).  In  Ecuador  women  have  the  full 
administration  of  their  property  even  when  they  are  married. 


58  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Haitian  constitution  provides  that  natives  alone  can  own  real 
property  and  that  a  Haitian  woman  who  has  lost  her  national 
character  by  marriage  to  a  foreigner  shall  be  disqualified  from 
holding  or  acquiring  real  property  by  any  means  or  for  any  reason 
whatsoever.  The  law  shall  provide  for  the  condemnation  of  the 
property  owned  by  her  before  her  marriage,  Guatemala,  Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua,  Salvador  and  some  other  countries  absolutely 
prohibit  entailments  of  property  and  foundations  or  endowments 
in  favor  of  dead  hands,  excepting  those  made  in  favor  of  charitable 
establishments.  To  guarantee  property  and  the  free  disposal  of 
it  in  Peru,  the  name  of  the  actual  owner  should  be  inscribed  in 
the  Registry  of  Landed  Property  and  also  the  manner  in  which 
the  property  has  been  acquired,  any  existing  incumbrances  and 
any  prescriptive  rights  which  may  limit  the  free  disposal  of  it. 
Foreigners  have  the  right  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  will,  but 
if  a  foreigner  die  without  a  will  and  there  be  no  legal  heirs,  the 
property  is  immediately  placed  under  control  of  the  consular 
representative  of  the  nation  to  which  the  deceased  foreigner 
belonged.  After  an  inventory  has  been  taken,  the  property  is 
liquidated  and  the  balance  (if  any)  is  given  to  the  heirs  through 
the  intervention  of  the  consul.  No  payment  may  be  made  to  the 
heirs  until  six  months  after  the  notice  of  the  death  has  been  given. 

Land  Holdings 

The  undeveloped  resources  and  potentialities  of  the  Latin 
American  countries  are  enormous  and  vast  tracts  of  land  still 
remain  the  property  of  the  various  states.  In  most  of  the  coun- 
tries large  estates  predominate  and  the  wealth  is  monopolized  in 
the  hands  of  a  few  persons.  Article  XXV  of  the  Constitution  of 
Argentina  provides  that  the  government  "  shall  encourage  Euro- 
pean immigration,  and  shall  not  restrict,  limit  or  obstruct,  by  taxa- 
tion of  any  kind,  the  entrance  into  the  Argentine  territory  of 
foreigners  coming  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  the  improvement  of  industrial  business  or  the  intro- 
duction and  teaching  of  arts  and  sciences. ' '  But  prior  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  settlement  period,  the  land  was  given  in  immense 
tracts  to  political  favorites  or  to  successful  warriors  and,  under 
the  old  Spanish  regime,  the  rest  of  the  people  were  contented  to 
work  for  the  landowners.  Argentina  is  and  always  has  been  a 
country  of  large  estates,  many  of  them  containing  60,000  acres  or 
more,  the  average  holding  being  about  3,800  to  4,000  acres.  In 
rural  communities  small  property  holdings  are  the  rule  and  the 


PROPERTY  RIGHTS   AND   LAND   OWNERSHIP 


59 


cutting  up  of  large  holdings  has  steadily  increased,  due  in  part  to 
the  inheritance  laws  under  which  there  is  an  automatic  division  of 
estates  among  the  heirs  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  Argentine 
landowaier  is  not  concerned  with  questions  of  primogeniture, 
entail,  etc.,  but  regards  his  property  wholly  from  the  business 
standpoint.  According  to  the  latest  statistics  the  number  of  hold- 
ings in  selected  parts  of  Argentina,  divided  into  their  various 
sizes,  was  as  follows: 


Size  in  hectares 


Number  of  holdings 


10  hectares  =  24.71  acres 


Province 

Province 

Province 

Buenos  Aires 

C6rdoba 

Santa  F^ 

14,001 

5,671 

6,876 

14,191 

5,045 

6,830 

9,248 

5,280 

7,276 

7,466 

5,732 

7,875 

3,850 

2,658 

3,020 

4,940 

3,872 

2,545 

3,256 

1,685 

1,263 

2,530 

992 

768 

1,649 

619 

566 

682 

268 

208 

306 

147 

136 

62,119 

31,969 

37,363 

Territory 
Pampa 


10  to  25 

26  "  50 

51  "        100 

101   "        200 

201  "        300 

301  "        650 

651"      1,250 

1,251"      2,500 

2,501  "    5,000 

5,001  "  10,000 

10,001  upwards. 


583 
423 

2,174 
401 
287 
330 
512 

1,412 
445 
431 
172 


7,170 


The  status  of  the  people  in  Brazil  is  largely  bound  up  with 
the  question  of  land  tenure,  the  large  estate  owners  practically 
controlling  the  agricultural  industries,  the  fazendas  or  coffee 
plantations  being  typical  of  the  large  estates.  Under  the  state- 
aided  colonization  and  contract  systems,  a  great  wave  of  immi- 
gration set  in,  particularly  from  Italy,  the  labor  of  these 
immigrants  helping  to  develop  the  coffee  plantations  of  Sao  Paulo ; 
but  being  unable  to  obtain  land  of  their  own  the  laborers  derived 
little  permanent  benefit  and  became  nomadic.  In  Chile  the  landed 
proprietors  or  haciendados  frequently  own  as  much  as  10  square 
miles  of  land  which  is  usually  cultivated  through  encomenderos 
or  factors.  The  landowner,  who  is  generally  a  magistrate,  with 
summary  powers  of  jurisdiction  over  petty  offenders,  possesses 
extraordinary  influence.  Mortgages  do  not  permit  the  division  of 
the  estates  they  cover  nor  can  a  portion  of  the  land  be  sold  to  pay 
interest,  and  when  the  owner  cannot  meet  his  interest  obligations 
the  hacienda  is  sold  at  auction.  Since  the  large  estates  are  seldom 
split  up,  a  peculiar  system  of  management  prevails.  In  order  to 
obtain  labor  without  retaining  it  permanently  on  a  salary  or  wage 
basis,  the  landed  proprietor  allows  a  peon  to  occupy  as  much  land 


60  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

as  he  can  till  with  the  assistance  of  his  family,  these  peons  being 
knowTi  as  the  landlord's  inquilinos.  They  pay  no  rent  and  the 
produce  of  the  land  belongs  to  them;  sometimes  on  a  small  scale 
they  raise  stock,  pigs  and  poultry.  In  return  for  the  privilege,  the 
peon  must  sell  his  labor  to  the  landlord  at  about  two-fifths  of  the 
prevailing  local  rates.  When  most  needed  on  his  own  farm  the 
peon  is  called  upon  to  cultivate  the  landlord's  property,  and  there- 
fore, as  he  cannot  devote  much  attention  to  his  own  lands,  the 
women  and  children  must  attend  to  the  farming,  which  results  in 
under-cultivation  and  accordingly  little  profit  to  himself.  Legally 
the  peon  or  roto  may  leave  his  employment  or  be  discharged  at  any 
time,  though  this  seldom  occurs.  The  owners  of  large  estates  fur- 
nish homes  for  their  servants  free  of  rent.  Land  in  Chile  is  sub- 
divided equally  among  all  the  children  and  the  roto  follows  this 
practice. 

As  in  Chile,  the  land  in  Ecuador  is  divided  among  the  whites  and 
some  of  the  mestizos  of  the  nearly  white  class,  and  consequently  is 
largely  monopolized  in  a  very  few  hands.  In  Guatemala  the  Creoles 
(Europeans  or  those  of  European  extraction),  though  constituting 
only  about  one-tenth  of  the  population,  own  all  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  wealth  of  the  country.  In  Peru  the  ownership  of  mines  is 
distinct  from  that  of  the  land  or  superficial  property,  and,  gener- 
ally speaking,  any  Peruvian  (save  officials)  or  foreigner  capable 
of  owning  property  may  acquire  mining  claims.  In  unfenced 
lands  prospecting  is  free  but  in  fenced  property  requires  the  con- 
sent of  the  owner.  In  the  foothills  regions  of  Peru  there  are  a 
few  extensive  plantations  belonging  to  single  landowners,  as  along 
the  coast.  The  Cholo  Indian  is  a  small  landowner  —  a  state  inher- 
ited from  the  old  Inca  regime  —  and  he  cultivates  his  small  holding 
chiefly  with  the  idea  of  supplying  his  own  meagre  wants.  The  laws 
prohibit  the  alienation  of  these  small  holdings  from  the  Cholos, 
with  the  intent  to  preserve  this  useful  peasant  class. 

Among  the  Indians  of  Bolivia  is  in  vogue  a  territorial  system 
essentially  the  same  as  that  established  by  the  Inca  sovereigns 
who  did  not  recognize  private  property,  the  soil  being  cultivated 
in  community  and  the  products  shared.  The  unit  was  the  ayllo 
which  was  divided  into  10  or  more  aynocas  and  none  of  the 
co-proprietors  of  his  own  free  will  could  extend  his  crops.  The 
aynocas  are  still  cultivated  periodically  and  in  alternation  at  the 
rate  of  one  or  two  a  year,  the  rest  being  used  as  a  community 
pasturage.  The  Spanish  colonial  system  has  modified  this 
arrangement  by  individualizing  the  property  of  the  natives  of 
each  ayllo  by  means  of  sayanas  for  the  imposition  of  tribute,  a 


PROPERTY  RIGHTS  AND  LAND   OWNERSHIP  61 

territorial  tax  which  must  be  paid  in  silver.  The  Indians  of  a 
community  are  divided  into  originarios,  possessing  land  in  the 
valleys,  and  the  puna  agregados,  or  colonists  owning  land,  and 
foresteros,  or  associated  foreigners.  Respectively  these  classes 
pay  taxes  of  9,  7  or  3  bolivianos,  which  are  collected  by  the  cor- 
regidors,  who  every  six  months  remit  them  to  the  departmental 
treasuries.  In  spite  of  the  laws  and  the  passage  of  time  the 
Indian's  community  idea  has  not  been  uprooted  and  the  majority 
of  the  Indians  have  obstinately  rejected  the  laws  of  1874  and  1880 
which  declared  them  to  be  the  owners  of  their  sayanas. 

Encouragement  of  Immigrants  and  Colonists 

The  various  governments  are  rapidly  throwing  open  to  set- 
tlers the  territories  belonging  to  the  state  and  by  means  of  liberal 
immigration  laws  are  encouraging  an  influx  of  hardy  immigrants 
who  will  cultivate  and  develop  what  hitherto  have  been  waste  and 
unproductive  lands.  Most  countries  offer  to  immigrants  exemp- 
tion of  duties  on  personal  and  household  goods,  machinery,  tools, 
etc. ;  free  transportation  from  port  of  debarkation  to  point  of  des- 
tination ;  a  grant  of  a  certain  area  to  single  men  and  usually  twice 
that  area  to  married  men;  and  exemption  from  taxation  for  a 
period  generally  placed  at  10  years.  In  some  countries  the  immi- 
grant is  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  state  for  a  few  days  after 
arrival  at  port  of  entry  until  he  has  had  time  to  select  the  section 
in  which  he  wishes  to  settle,  and  every  facility  of  the  government 
is  placed  at  his  disposal  so  that  he  may  select  wisely  and  thus 
become  a  colonist  of  great  productiveness.  Brazil's  regulations 
are  typical.  In  the  first  place,  genuine  immigrants  who  arrive 
with  families  of  not  less  than  three  children,  between  12  and  50 
years  of  age,  are  reimbursed  the  cost  of  their  third-class  passages, 
and  their  possessions  are  exempt  from  import  duty.  Special 
attention  is  given  to  immigrants  who  wish  to  attach  themselves  to 
one  of  the  colonies  which  are  agricultural  and  stock-raising  cen- 
tres. Free  passage  and  free  maintenance  are  provided  by  the 
government  until  the  immigrant  is  established  on  the  plot  he  has 
selected  to  cultivate.  Provisions  are  also  furnished  for  a  period 
of  six  months  until  the  first  crop  provides  the  family  with  food  of 
their  own  growing;  in  payment  the  head  of  the  family  must  work 
15  days  each  month  upon  the  public  work  of  the  colony,  usually 
consisting  of  extensions  of  existing  roads.  The  colonies  are 
divided  into  four  classes :  those  established  by  the  national  govern- 
ment; those  established  by  the  states  with  the  national  support; 


62  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

those  established  by  the  railway  companies,  which  have  acquired 
lands  as  a  premium  for  railway  construction;  and  those  estab- 
lished by  other  companies  or  by  private  persons.  The  land  is 
divided  into  rural  and  urban  lots,  the  latter  being  about  I14  acres 
in  size  and  the  former  about  62  acres  when  the  land  is  near  a  rail- 
way or  navigable  river  or  120  acres  when  far  distant  from  these. 
Rural  lots  are  sold  to  the  colonist  with  a  family  and  unable  to  pay 
cash  at  from  $1.25  to  $2.50  (U.  S.)  per  acre,  but  to  the  colonist 
without  a  family  the  charge  is  from  $2  to  $3.75  per  acre.  Urban 
lots  are  sold  only  for  cash  and  at  prices  varying  from  $200  to  $500 
per  acre,  depending  upon  proximity  to  railways,  navigable  rivers, 
etc.  The  purchase  price  of  rural  lots  may  be  liquidated  in  install- 
ments extending  over  a  number  of  years,  no  payment  being 
required  for  the  first  year,  but  a  discount  of  12  per  cent  on  out- 
standing installments  is  given  the  colonist  who  liquidates  his 
indebtedness  prior  to  maturity.  Should  the  colonist  die,  his  legal 
rights  are  conserved  for  the  wife  and  family  and  every  protection 
is  granted  against  creditors  to  that  part  of  the  plot  on  w^hich  the 
home  stands,  known  as  the  homestead.  The  conditions  of  payment 
vary  in  detail  but  the  principle  is  everjrwhere  similar  to  that 
outlined,  which  applies  to  the  Federal  colonies. 

The  public  lands  in  the  national  territories  of  Argentina  are 
being  thrown  open  rapidly  to  settlers.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  districts  in  Pampa,  Santa  Cruz,  Chubut,  Rio  Negro  and 
Neuquen,  where  holdings  of  from  10,000  to  20,000  hectares  are 
being  offered  for  colonization  on  favorable  terms.  Leased  lands 
may  be  secured  on  a  10  year  lease  at  an  annual  rental  of  $12.50 
paper  per  hectare  with  the  option  of  renewal  for  further  periods 
of  10  and  5  years ;  and  if  the  government  should  at  any  time  decide 
to  sell  the  tenant  may  purchase  outright.  The  amount  of  public 
land  that  may  be  leased  or  purchased  by  one  person  is  limited  by 
the  law  of  1907.  Agricultural  lands  are  divided  into  lots  of  250 
acres  and  may  be  granted  to  persons  or  corporations;  grazing 
lands  so  granted  do  not  exceed  6,250  acres.  Under  the  law  no 
person  or  corporation  may  acquire  more  than  four  town  lots  or 
two  agricultural  and  one  pastoral  lot  in  the  reserved  zones  or  more 
than  50  acres  in  the  outside  lands.  Such  agricultural  lands  must 
be  settled  within  two  years  and  a  capital  of  not  less  than  $1,000  be 
invested  in  cattle  and  $250  in  buildings  per  square  league.  On  a 
town  lot  the  purchaser  must  build  a  house  within  a  year.  Pasture 
lands  unsuited  to  agriculture  are  sold  in  lots  not  exceeding  6,000 
acres,  but  within  two  years  the  purchaser  must  stock  the  land  with 
at  leasit  500  sheep  or  80  cows  and  plant  100  trees.     Lands  not 


PROPERTY  RIGHTS  AND  LAND   OWNERSHIP  63 

exceeding  50,000  acres  may  be  leased  by  a  person  or  corporation 
for  five  years,  on  the  expiration  of  which  term  the  tenant  may 
purchase  one-half  this  area  at  a  price  stipulated  in  the  lease.  Such 
lands  must  be  financed  by  the  lessee  and  personally  managed. 
Forest  concessions  may  be  granted  for  not  more  than  10  years  on 
payment  of  one-half  the  value  of  the  wood  sold. 

Under  the  Bolivian  law  of  26  Oct.  1905,  as  many  as  20,000  hec- 
tares may  be  purchased  by  one  person  for  farming  and  grazing 
land,  at  a  price  approximating  10  centavos  per  hectare,  but  if  the 
land  contain  rubber  trees  the  price  is  1  boliviano  (about  40  cents 
gold)  per  hectare.  In  order  to  purchase  more  than  20,000  hec- 
tares, the  request  must  be  laid  before  the  Bolivian  Congress.  The 
purchaser  must  settle  at  least  one  family  on  every  thousand  hec- 
tares. Some  of  the  vacant  lands  are  reserved  by  the  government 
for  adjudication  to  immigrants,  the  lands  being  granted  only  by 
act  of  congress.  In  no  case  can  public  lands  be  claimed  which 
are  not  actually  occupied.  Each  immigrant  can  obtain  about  50 
hectares  at  10  centavos  per  hectare  and  has  the  right  freely  to 
select  the  land  desired  in  the  designated  zone.  The  immigrant 
may  pay  cash  or  in  five  yearly  installments,  but  in  the  latter  case 
5  per  cent  annually  is  charged  and  the  property  cannot  be  alien- 
ated or  mortgaged,  the  government  having  first  lien  on  the  land. 
No  immigrant  may  possess  more  than  three  lots  or  sections  by 
purchase  or  otherwise.  Male  children  over  14  years  of  age  may 
secure  25  acres  above  the  50  usually  allotted  and  children  over  18 
years  of  age  have  the  right  to  acquire  separate  land. 

In  Chile  land  may  either  be  rented  from  the  haciendas  or 
purchased  from  the  state.  Most  of  the  land  in  central  Chile  is 
occupied  but  vast  tracts  in  the  south  may  be  purchased  at  about 
$2.25  (U.  S.  currency)  per  acre  or  $5  per  hectare.  Only  one-third 
the  purchase  price  need  be  paid  immediately ;  the  balance  may  be 
paid  in  installments  extending  over  10  years.  To  induce  immi- 
grants to  settle  in  the  agricultural  and  timber  regions  of  the  south, 
Chile  has  enacted  a  liberal  colonization  law,  the  attractive  features 
of  which  include  free  transportation  from  foreign  ports  to  point 
of  destination,  160  acres  of  land  to  the  head  of  each  family,  and  a 
government  subsidy  of  500  pesos  with  which  to  buy  farm  imple- 
ments, to  erect  habitations,  etc.  Guatemala  divides  her  public 
lands  into  lots  not  more  than  15  caballerias  (a  caballeria  equals 
113%  acres)  and  sells  these  lots  at  from  $250  to  $300  each.  The 
government  offers  premiums  for  the  cultivation  of  India  rubber, 
cacao,  sarsaparilla,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  and  exempts  from  taxation 
for  a  period  of  10  years  all  lands  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 


64  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

these  products.  In  Colombia  grants  of  government  forest  lands 
are  made  for  units  of  not  more  than  3,000  hectares.  Concession- 
aires may  receive  two  or  more  units  but  such  units  must  be 
separated  by  tracts  of  not  less  than  3,000  hectares.  Grants  are 
made  for  only  one  clearly  specified  line  of  exploitation  —  the  cut- 
ting dow^l  of  timber  trees.  Land  grants  have  also  been  made  for 
development  of  the  banana  industry.  Every  person  occupying  and 
cultivating  government  lands  and  building  a  residence  thereon 
acquires  the  right  of  o^vnership  to  the  cultivated  portion  and  to 
additional  land  equal  in  extent  to  the  cultivated  portion.  A  colon- 
ist or  agriculturist  may  apply  to  the  proper  officials  who  will  cause 
the  property  he  occupies  and  has  cultivated  to  be  surveyed  at  the 
colonist's  expense,  and  then  the  municipal  board  shall  decree  the 
provisional  adjudication  of  the  lands  to  the  colonist  and  shall  send 
the  proceedings  to  the  Department  of  Public  Works  for  final 
adjudication,  which  shall  be  granted  if  there  be  no  legal  obstacle. 
Lands  so  adjudicated  must  be  1  myriameter  distant  from  existing 
railways  or  those  in  construction.  Agriculturists  or  colonists  may 
freely  sell  the  plantations,  buildings  and  seed  plots  established  on 
public  lands.  No  adjudication  of  public  lands  shall  exceed  1,000 
hectares  and  the  government  reserves  to  itself  alternate  areas 
equivalent  to  those  adjudicated,  but  if  colonists  desire  to  obtain 
adjacent  lands  they  may  do  so  by  purchase.  Public  lands  may  be 
purchased  outright  at  not  less  than  50  cents  gold  per  hectare  for 
land  suitable  only  for  grazing  stock,  and  at  $1  gold  for  cul- 
tivated lands;  and  10  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  must  be 
deposited  as  a  guarantee  at  the  time  application  is  made.  Public 
lands  exceeding  1,000  hectares  in  area  may  be  sold  by  the  govern- 
ment provided  the  bids  for  their  acquisition  are  made  directly  to 
the  Department  of  Public  Works. 

The  government  of  Honduras  may  prohibit  the  sale  of  national 
lands  on  the  shore  of  both  oceans  and  to  a  distance  of  two  leagues 
inland,  as  well  as  the  sale  of  the  land  on  islands  and  keys. 
National  lands  need  not  be  purchased  outright,  but  foreigners,  as 
well  as  natives,  may  obtain  concessions  of  land  for  plantations  of 
coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  sugar,  rubber,  fruits,  etc.  Lessees  of  lots  pay 
an  annual  tax  on  land  under  cultivation,  which  tax  may  not  be 
increased  for  25  years;  but  the  lessee  will  forfeit  title  if  he  fail 
to  begin  cultivation  within  two  years  or  neglect  to  pay  taxes  when 
due.  In  Peru  laws  were  passed  in  1898,  1909  and  1910  to  promote 
the  establishment  of  colonies  to  develop  the  countiy,  the  laws  per- 
mitting the  executive  to  sell  or  lease  certain  state  lands  to  indi- 
viduals or  corporations  for  agricultural,  manufacturing  or  mining 


PROPERTY  RIGHTS   AND   LAND   OWNERSHIP  65 

purposes  or  to  encourage  public  utility  works,  such  as  irrigation 
and  the  building  of  roads  and  railways.  The  cultivable  coast  lands 
are  mainly  held  by  large  companies  or  wealthy  proprietors;  in 
other  cases  they  are  owTied  by  communities.  In  many  localities, 
especially  the  sugar  and  cotton-growing  districts,  the  small  culti- 
vator and  the  capitalist  factory  owner  form  a  sort  of  partnership, 
the  latter  providing  the  land  and  the  water  supply  in  return  for 
one-quarter  of  the  crop ;  or  if  in  addition  he  provide  seeds,  tools, 
oxen,  etc.,  he  receives  one-half  of  the  crop.  Concessions  of  mon- 
tana  land  are  made  either  as  free  grants,  as  freehold  property  at 
about  $2.50  per  hectare  (not  more  than  1,000  hectares  being  granted 
to  any  one  person  without  legislative  sanction),  or  as  tenancies 
held  from  the  state  at  a  rental  of  about  5  cents  per  hectare.  Grants 
are  perpetual,  subject  to  an  annual  tax  of  about  21/2  cents  per 
hectare.  In  Salvador  the  acquisition,  preservation,  uses  and  right 
of  way  of  rural  properties  are  subject  to  the  common  law.  Per- 
sons holding  uncultivated  common  or  public  lands  and  not  having 
the  title  of  ownership,  but  who  wish  to  obtain  same,  must  apply  in 
writing  to  the  municipal  mayors  of  the  place  where  the  property  is 
situated,  stating  the  location,  character  and  extent  of  the  prop- 
erty, its  boundaries  or  landmarks,  its  incumbrances  or  taxes,  the 
names  of  the  neighbors  and  their  residences.  The  mayor  publishes 
the  application  and  if  no  opposition  arise  orders  the  issuance  of 
the  title  of  ownership,  after  an  accurate  sui-v'ey  of  the  land  has 
been  made  at  the  expense  of  the  applicant.  The  mayors,  through 
the  respective  governors,  forward  to  the  national  executive  certi- 
fied copies  of  all  land  titles  issued.  Lands  not  held  by  private 
parties  are  sold  at  public  auction,  the  basis  for  bids  being  3  pesos 
per  hectare,  and  no  other  title  is  necessary  than  the  certificate  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  auction, 'which  certificate  shall  describe  the 
land  sold  and  its  boundaries. 


International  Claims  Against  Latin 

America 

By  Edwin  M.  Borchard 
__  {^  Professor  of  Law,  Yale  University 

LATIN  AMERICA  is  to-day  among  those  sections  of  the 
world  which  depend  largely  upon  foreign  capital  and 
enterprise  for  the  development  of  their  natural  resources 
and  their  economic  expansion.  This  fact  necessarily  has  resulted 
in  the  investment  in  those  countries  of  considerable  foreign  capi- 
tal and  in  the  immigration  of  large  numbers  of  foreigners.  The 
presence  of  so  many  foreigners  and  foreign  interests  has  given 
rise  to  not  a  little  friction  between  the  foreigner,  or  the  foreign 
government  of  which  he  is  a  citizen,  and  the  local  Latin  American 
government.  Indeed  the  great  number  of  pecuniary  claims  pre- 
ferred by  the  governments  of  Europe  and  the  United  States  on 
behalf  of  their  citizens  against  the  states  of  Latin  America  con- 
stitutes an  important  chapter  in  the  international  economic  and 
legal  relations  of  those  republics. 

The  Alien 

The  laws  of  the  countries  of  Latin  America  have  been 
extremely  liberal  to  the  foreigner.  It  is  not  generally  known  that 
Chile  was  the  first  country  of  the  world  to  place  foreigners  and 
natives  on  terms  of  civil  equality,  preceding  in  this  respect  by  10 
years  the  Italian  civil  code  of  18()5,  the  first  European  code  to 
embody  this  generous  provision.  In  view  of  this  equality  of  civil 
rights,  it  might  be  assumed  that  burdens  should  likewise  be  shared 
with  natives,  and  particularly  by  permanently  domiciled  aliens. 
For  example,  the  Latin  American  countries  have  taken  the  posi- 
tion that  foreigners  who  have  established  themselves  permanently 
in  those  countries  are  subject  to  sacrifices  which  civil  commotion, 
insurrection  and  civil  war  may  impose  upon  the  inhabitants.  Not- 
withstanding the  considerable  measure  of  justice  in  this  position, 
the  Latin  American  countries  have  suffered  severely  from  the 
apparent  unwillingness  of  European  governments  to  share  their 
view.  The  privileged  position  which  the  foreigner  has  thus 
enjoyed,  partly  by  the  insistence  of  Europe,  has  induced  the  Latin 

166] 


INTERNATIONAL   CLAIMS  67 

American  states  to  create  devices,  by  legislation  or  administra- 
tive regulation,  to  specify  with  precision  the  privileges  of  for- 
eigners and  to  condition  their  right  to  claim  the  advantages  of  that 
status  upon  the  fulfillment  of  various  requirements.  One  of  these 
is  matriculation. 

Matriculation 

•  Several  countries,  e.  g.,  Mexico,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Guate- 
mala, Venezuela  and  Peru,  have  at  various  times  required  foreign- 
ers to  matriculate  or  register  their  alienage  in  a  certain  public 
register,  as  a  condition  precedent  to  the  assertion  of  their  rights 
as  foreigners.  As  provided  by  the  Salvadorean  law  of  29  Sept. 
1886,  these  rights  of  foreigners  are: 

(1)  To  appeal  to  the  treaties  existing  between  Salvador  and 
their  respective  goverimients ; 

(2)  To  have  recourse  to  the  protection  of  their  sovereign 
through  the  medium  of  diplomatic  representation ;  and 

(3)  The  benefit  of  reciprocity. 

With  respect  to  such  statutes,  the  United  States  has  taken  the 
view  that  while  this  government  is  disposed  to  admit  the  con- 
venience of  registration  as  an  additional  evidence  of  the  rights  of 
its  citizens  to  the  protection  of  the  local  authorities,  it  has  never 
admitted  that  the  failure  to  register  could  deprive  American  citi- 
zens of  their  rights  as  such  citizens. 

Denial  of  Justice 

It  is  a  general  rule  of  international  law,  that  the  foreigner  is 
bound  by  the  local  law  and  must  resort  to  the  local  courts  for 
redress  of  his  injuries.  He  must  also  exhaust  his  rights  of  appeal. 
Only  if  there  has  been  what  is  known  as  a  ''  denial  of  justice,"  i.  e., 
some  abusive  and  flagrant  corruption  in  the  courts,  or  violation  of 
due  process  of  law  by  the  local  authorities,  may  the  foreigner  have 
recourse  to  the  protection  of  his  own  government  for  its  formal 
interposition  in  his  behalf.  Only  if  it  appears  that,  by  reason  of 
corruption  or  weakness  of  political  organization,  justice  is  impos- 
sible to  obtain,  will  the  United  States  excuse  its  citizen  from 
exhausting  his  local  remedies. 

The  Latin  American  countries  have  made  every  effort  to  bind 
foreigners  to  resort  to  the  local  courts,  even  to  the  extent  of  defin- 
ing a  ''  denial  of  justice  "  in  their  own  legislation  (e.  g.,  Hon- 
duras, Guatemala  and  Salvador). 


68  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Foreign  countries,  however,  have  always  insisted  upon  their 
right  to  determine  for  themselves  when  a  denial  of  justice  has 
taken  place.  As  expressed  by  Secretary  of  State  Fish:  "  Foreign 
governments  have  a  right,  and  it  is  their  duty,  to  judge  whether 
their  citizens  have  received  the  protection  due  to  them  pursuant  to 
public  law  and  treaties."  In  this  fact  lies  the  primary  condition 
for  the  all  too  frequent  abuse  by  strong  states  of  the  rights  of 
many  of  the  weaker  countries  of  Latin  America. 

The  Calvo  Clause 

The  frequent  abuse  of  the  right  of  diplomatic  interposition, 
to  the  great  injury  of  some  of  these  weaker  republics,  led  the  well- 
known  Argentine  publicist,  Calvo,  to  formulate  certain  principles 
which  have  received  the  name  of  *'  Calvo  doctrine."  They  are 
mentioned  here  because  of  the  reliance  placed  upon  them  by  sev- 
eral countries  of  Latin  America  in  seeking  to  prevent  or  resist 
diplomatic  claims  on  behalf  of  foreigners.  Calvo 's  views  are  thus 
expressed : 

''Aside  from  political  motives  these  interventions  have  nearly 
always  had  as  apparent  pretexts,  injuries  to  private  interests, 
claims  and  demands  for  pecuniar}^  indemnities  in  behalf  of  sub- 
jects. According  to  strict  international  law,  the  recovery  of  debts 
and  the  pursuit  of  private  claims  does  not  justify  de  piano  the 
armed  intervention  of  governments,  and,  since  European  states 
invariably  follow  this  rule  in  their  reciprocal  relations,  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  also  impose  it  upon  themselves  in  their 
relations  with  nations  of  the  new  world."    (I,  Sec.  205.) 

' '  It  is  certain  that  aliens  who  establish  themselves  in  a  coun- 
try have  the  same  right  to  protection  as  nationals,  but  they  ought 
not  to  lay  claim  to  a  protection  more  extended.  If  they  suffer  any 
wrong,  they  ought  to  count  on  the  government  of  the  country 
prosecuting  the  delinquents,  and  not  claim  from  the  state  to  which 
the  authors  of  the  violence  belong  any  pecuniary  indemnity." 
(VI,  Sec.  256.) 

As  will  be  observed  presently,  many  of  the  countries  of  Latin 
America  have  written  these  principles  into  their  constitutions, 
statutes  and  treaties.  They  have  incorporated  them  into  their 
concession-contracts  in  the  form  of  a  clause  which  has  received  the 
name  ''  Calvo  clause,"  to  the  effect  that  the  foreign  concession- 
aire **  renounces  all  right  to  prefer  a  diplomatic  claim  in  regard  to 
rights  and  obligations  derived  from  the  contract,"  or  else  that 
''  all  doubts  and  disputes  "  arising  under  it  "  shall  be  submitted 


INTERNATIONAL   CLAIMS  69 

to  the  local  courts  without  right  to  claim  the  diplomatic  interposi- 
tion "  of  the  alien's  government. 

In  ordinary"  claims  arising  out  of  contract  it  has  been  the 
policy  of  the  United  States  not  to  interpose  diplomatically  unless, 
after  the  exhaustion  of  local  remedies,  there  has  been  a  denial  of 
justice  in  the  sense  above  mentioned,  or  some  confiscatory  breach 
of  the  contract  by  the  government.  The  Calvo  clause  is  not  repug- 
nant, therefore,  in  ordinary  contract  claims,  to  the  policy  of  the 
IJnited  States.  Nevertheless,  the  clause  as  such,  as  a  renunciation 
by  the  citizen  of  his  right  to  the  diplomatic  protection  of  his  Gov- 
ernment has  been  denied  validity  by  the  Department  of  State. 
Secretary  of  State  Bayard  in  1888  formulated  the  rule  as  follows : 

**  This  government  caimot  admit  that  its  citizens  can,  merely 
by  making  contracts  with  foreign  powers,  or  by  other  methods  not 
amounting  to  an  act  of  expatriation  or  a  deliberate  abandonment 
of  American  citizenship,  destroy  their  dependence  upon  it  or  its 
obligation  to  protect  them  in  case  of  a  denial  of  justice.  It  is  not 
competent  to  a  citizen  to  divest  himself  of  any  part  of  his  inher- 
ent right  to  protection  or  to  impair  the  duty  of  his  government  to 
protect  him. ' ' 

International  tribunals  of  arbitration  have  had  frequent 
occasion  to  construe  the  Calvo  clause.  Their  decisions  are  con- 
flicting, due  partly  to  differences  in  the  protocol  under  which  they 
were  acting.  The  prevailing  and  the  better  rule  was  adopted  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  among  which  the  Rudloff  case  against 
Venezuela  may  be  cited  as  typical.  There  it  was  held  by  Bain- 
bridge,  American  commissioner,  that  "  It  is  not  within  the  power 
of  a  citizen  to  make  a  contract  limiting  in  any  manner  the  exercise 
by  his  own  govermnent  of  its  rights  or  the  performance  of  its 
duties  "  (i.  e.,  of  protecting  its  citizens  abroad).  "  The  individual 
citizen  is  not  competent  by  any  agreement  he  may  make  to  bind 
the  state  to  overlook  any  injury  to  itself  arising  through  him,  nor 
can  he  by  his  own  act  alienate  the  obligation  of  the  state  toward 
himself,  except  by  a  transfer  of  his  allegiance." 

The  Drago  Doctrine 

On  the  occasion  of  the  joint  intervention  of  Great  Britain, 
Italy  and  Germany  against  Venezuela  in  1902,  Dr.  Luis  Drago,  the 
Argentine  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in  a  note  addressed  to  the 
Argentine  Minister  in  Washington,  advanced  the  proposal, 
designed  to  constitute  a  corollary  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  that 
"  the  public  debt  [of  an  American  statel  cannot  occasion  armed 
6 


70  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

intervention,  nor  even  the  actual  occupation  of  the  territory  of 
American  nations  by  a  European  power." 

The  proposal  at  once  aroused  the  greatest  interest.  Briefly, 
the  proposed  policy  is  based  on  the  ground  that  the  public  bonds 
of  a  nation  are  issued  by  legislative  act,  an  act  of  sovereignty; 
that,  being  payable  to  bearer,  they  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  from 
national  to  national,  by  mere  delivery;  that  the  price  paid  takes 
into  account  the  value  of  the  security,  intrinsically  and  as  an 
investment,  and  therefore,  the  credit  of  the  issuing  government: 
and  that  the  issuing  state  is  the  sole  judge  of  its  ability  to  pay. 
The  investor,  therefore,  buys  with  full  notice  and  assumption  of 
the  risks,  and  has  weighed  the  probabilities  of  large  profits  against 
the  danger  of  loss.  Hence,  Dr.  Drago  concluded,  it  is  unfair  to 
make  the  non-payment  of  a  public  bond,  not  due  to  fraud  or  had 
faith,  the  reason  for  armed  intervention. 

The  agitation  for  the  introduction  of  this  principle  into  inter- 
national law  persuaded  Mr.  Root  to  instruct  the  delegates  to  the 
Third  American  Conference  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1906  to  consider 
the  subject,  but  recommended  that  it  be  referred  to  the  Hague 
Conference  of  1907.  There,  the  United  States  delegation  brought 
it  forward  in  a  somewhat  revised  form  providing  that  the  use  of 
force  for  the  collection  of  contract  debts  is  not  permissible  until 
after  the  justice  and  the  amount  of  the  debt,  as  well  as  the  time 
and  manner  of  payment,  shall  have  been  determined  by  arbitra- 
tion.  This  proposal,  which  in  part  is  wider  and  in  part  narrower 
than  the  Drago  doctrine,  is  known  as  the  Porter  proposition  (hav- 
ing been  sponsored  by  General  Horace  Porter),  and  as  finally 
adopted  in  a  convention,  by  a  vote  of  39  in  favor  and  5  absten- 
tions, reads  as  follows  : 

* '  The  Contracting  Powers  agree  not'to  have  recourse  to  armed 
force  for  the  recovery  of  contract  debts  claimed  from  the  govern- 
ment of  one  country^  by  the  government  of  another  country  as 
being  due  to  its  nationals. 

"  This  understanding  is,  however,  not  applicable  when  the 
debtor  state  refuses  or  neglects  to  reply  to  an  offer  of  arbitration, 
or,  after  accepting  the  offer,  prevents  any  compromis  from  being 
agreed  on,  or,  after  the  arbitration,  fails  to  submit  to  the  award." 

Civil  War  Claims 

Various  states  of  Latin  America,  exposed  as  they  have  been  to 
constant  revolutionary  movements,  have  on  numerous  occasions 
been  subjected  to  liability  by  the  countries  of  Europe  for  injuries 


INTERNATIONAL   CLAIMS  71 

inflicted  on  foreigners  by  insurgents  or  during  civil  war.  This, 
too,  notwithstanding  the  general  principle  of  international  law, 
adopted  by  the  United  States  and  by  nearly  all  claims  commis- 
sions of  arbitration,  that  a  state  is  not  responsible  for  injuries 
sustained  by  aliens  at  the  hands  of  insurgents  beyond  control  of 
the  government,  unless  there  is  proven  fault  or  a  want  of  due  dili- 
gence on  the  part  of  the  authorities  in  preventing  the  injury  or 
in  suppressing  the  revolution. 

This  doctrine  is  predicated  on  the  assumption  that  the  govern- 
ment is  reasonably  well  ordered,  and  that  revolution  and  disorder 
are  abnormal  conditions.  European  governments,  in  pressing 
their  claims,  have  charged  a  lack  of  due  diligence  in  preventing  or 
suppressing  revolutions,  inherent  disorganization  or,  often,  no 
good  legal  ground  of  liability  at  all.  Such  claims  have  been 
brought  against  Argentina,  in  1858;  against  Chile,  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1891;  against  Brazil,  in  1894;  and  against  Venezuela,  in 
1892  and  in  1903. 

In  order  to  avoid  this  pressure  of  claims,  arising  out  of  civil 
war,  the  Latin  American  states  have  succeeded  in  concluding 
numerous  treaties  with  European  nations  by  which  the  latter 
admit  the  non-liability  of  the  government  for  injuries  sustained  by 
their  subjects  in  civil  war  at  the  hands  of  revolutionists  or  savage 
tribes,  provided  the  damage  is  not  caused  through  the  fault  or 
negligence  of  the  authorities  of  the  government.  The  republics  of 
Latin  Americii  have,  among  themselves,  concluded  treaties  provid- 
ing for  absolute  non-liability,  whether  the  injuries  sustained  by 
their  respective  citizens  are  due  to  the  acts  of  insurgents  or  legiti- 
mate authorities.  They  have  also  resorted  to  other  methods  to 
avoid  the  presentation  of  claims  by  foreigners  for  injuries  sus- 
tained during  civil  war.  In  the  resolutions  of  Pan-American 
Congresses,  in  their  constitutions  and  in  their  statutes,  they  have 
provided  that  the  alien  taking  part  in  a  civil  struggle  shall  be 
treated  as  a  native  and  shall  lose  his  privilege  of  alienage.  More- 
over, relying  largely  on  the  authority  of  Calvo,  these  states  assert 
that  inasmuch  as  states  do  not  recognize  any  right  of  indemnity 
in  favor  of  their  own  citizens,  aliens  cannot  enjoy  such  a  privilege, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  when  they  enter  a  state  they  submit  them- 
selves to  the  local  law. 

Claims  arising  out  of  a  successful  revolution  stand  upon  a 
different  footing.  The  government  created  through  a  successful 
revolution  is  deemed  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  revolutionists  as 
well  as  for  those  of  the  titular  government  it  has  displaced.    Its 


l2  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

acts  are  considered  as  at  least  those  of  a  general  de  facto  govern- 
ment, for  which  the  state  is  liable  from  the  beginning  of  the  revo- 
lution, on  the  theory  that  the  revolution  represented  ah  iyiitio  a 
changing  national  will,  crystallizing  in  the  final  successful  result. 
Carranza's  government  in  Mexico,  for  example,  is  liable  not  only 
for  its  own  acts  while  a  revolutionary  party  but  also  for  those  of 
the  Huerta  goverimient  which  it  displaced. 

Tortious  Injuries 

Perhaps  the  largest  class  of  claims  against  Latin  American 
states  arises  out  of  acts  of  violence  or  oppression  by  administra- 
tive authorities  of  the  government  in  times  of  nominal  peace.  The 
readiness  with  which  such  claims  have  often  been  supported, 
justly  and  unjustly,  by  European  governments  has  led  several  of 
the  Latin  American  countries,  in  their  conventions,  in  treaties, 
constitutions  and  municipal  legislation,  to  adopt  the  rule  that 
every  claim  advanced  by  a  foreigner,  whether  against  an  individ- 
ual or  against  the  state,  must  find  its  final  settlement  before  the 
local  courts,  and  only  in  the  event  of  a  denial  of  justice  can  diplo- 
matic interposition  be  entertained. 

Other  more  subtle  measures  have  been  adopted  by  these  states 
to  avoid  the  irksome  pressure  of  pecuniary  claims  of  foreigners. 
For  example,  legislation  often  provides  that  '*  foreigners  are 
entitled  to  enjoy  all  the  civil  rights  enjoyed  by  natives  "  and  that 
*'  a  nation  has  not,  nor  does  it  recognize  in  favor  of  foreigners, 
any  other  obligations  or  responsibilities  than  those  established  by 
[its]  constitution  and  laws  in  favor  of  [its]  citizens." 

It  has  already  been  observed  that  some  states,  while  admitting 
the  possibility  of  invoking  diplomatic  interposition  if,  after  the 
exhaustion  of  local  remedies,  a  denial  of  justice  has  been  estab- 
lished, seek  to  limit  interposition  by  a  restrictive  legislative  defini- 
tion of  "  denial  of  justice."  This  device,  in  practice,  has  not  been 
efficacious  in  averting  the  pressure  of  claims,  because  claimant 
governments  insist  on  determining  for  themselves,  unrestricted 
by  legislative  limitations,  the  existence  of  a  denial  of  justice. 

Other  measures  which  are  designed  to  effect  relief  from  oner- 
ous foreign  claims  are  statutory  provisions  for  suit  against  the 
wrongdoing  officer,  without  possibility  of  impleading  the  state; 
for  the  presentation  of  claims  to  a  domestic  commission  or  board 
of  claims,  subject  to  conditions  of  varying  degrees  of  severity;  or 
for  the  imposition  of  local  citizenship  and  deprivation  of  alienage 


INTERNATIONAL   CLAIMS  73 

on  the  performance  or  omission  of  certain  acts.  The  provision  for 
matriculation  as  a  foreigner  has  already  been  referred  to  as  an 
attempt,  in  part,  to  avoid  claims. 

Contract  Claims 

In  the  case  of  claims  arising  out  of  contracts,  formal  interposi- 
tion, so  far  as  the  United  States  is  concerned,  is  not  customary. 
The  good  offices,  however,  of  our  diplomatic  representatives  in 
assisting  claimants  have  generally  been  authorized  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  State.  The  rule  that  the  government  will  not  interpose 
officially  in  support  of  contract  claims  has  been  qualified  in  numer- 
ous cases:  (1)  citizens  of  the  United  States  must  have  free  and 
fair  access  to  the  courts  for  a  judicial  determination  of  their 
rights;  (2)  interposition  will  be  undertaken  if  the  foreign  govern- 
ment arbitrarily  annuls  the  contract  without  recourse  to  the  courts ; 
or  (3)  if  there  is  a  confiscatory  or  fraudulent  breach  of  the  con- 
tract; and  (4)  the  United  States  has  never  hesitated  to  submit 
contract  claims  to  arbitration,  and  hundreds  of  such  claims  have 
been  arbitrated. 

The  same  policy  has  been  followed  by  the  United  States  in 
the  case  of  claims  arising  out  of  unpaid  foreign  bonds.  In  this 
field,  the  Drago  doctrine  and  the  Porter  proposition,  already  men- 
tioned, have  endeavored  to  establish  a  rule  of  action.  Although 
numerous  cases  of  intervention  have  occurred  in  order  to  collect 
unpaid  bonds,  the  general  rule  to  the  contrary  has  been  supported 
by  the  weight  of  authority  in  practice,  in  theory  and  in  the  writ- 
ings of  international  lawyers. 

This  brief  discussion  of  pecuniary  claims  against  Latin 
American  countries  has  not  dealt  with  the  important  part  which 
this  matter  has  played  in  the  political  relations  of  several  of  the 
weaker  republics  of  Latin  America.  With  their  growth  in  politi- 
cal stability  and  organization  it  is  probable  that  in  the  future  they 
will  not  have  to  suffer  so  severely  from  the  onerous  burden  of 
foreign  diplomatic  claims.  The  movement  which  has  been  initiated 
for  the  submission  of  pecuniary  claims  to  an  international  court  of 
claims,  with  its  potentialities  for  a  greater  measure  of  justice  to 
the  claimant,  to  his  ow^n  government  and  to  the  defendant  govern- 
ment, should  enlist  the  hearty  support  of  Latin  America. 


Industrial  and  Commercial  Expansion  of 
Latin  America 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


The  first  great  period  in  all  the  history  of  the  Latin  regions 
of  the  New  World,  the  period  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
discoveries,  extended  from  1492  to  1542,  or  somewhat  beyond  the 
latter  date.  The  second  great  period  was  the  period  of  emancipa- 
tion, in  the  larger  meaning  of  that  word.  It  extended  from  1794  to 
1902:  during  more  than  100  years  the  manumission  of  slaves,  the 
declarations  of  independence,  the  wars  for  freedom,  and  the 
struggles  to  make  a  success  of  self-government  were  the  leading 
titles,  so  to  speak,  in  a  story  of  enormous  human  interest.  The 
third  great  period  is  the  present  one  —  the  period  of  industrial 
and  commercial  expansion,  in  which  governmental  stability 
becomes  obviously  convenient  and  necessary. 

Carefully  revised  statistics  which  show  the  extent  of  this 
development  as  it  aifects  foreign  trade,  in  the  opening  years  of  the 
third  great  period,  will  be  found  in  the  immediately  following 
paragraphs. 

The  Development  in  Foreign  Trade 

The  total  amount  of  Latin  American  foreign  trade  in  1897 
was  only  $910,422,499.  By  1915  it  had  increased  to  $2,469,047,020, 
or  171  per  cent,  with  such  gain  in  imports  and  exports  as  the  fol- 
lowing table  shows  at  a  glance : 

Growth  of  Latin  American  Commerce 


Imports 

Exports 

Total 

1915 

$811,268,634 
415,079,562 

$1,657,778,386 
495,342,937 

$2,469,047,020 
910,422,499 

1897 

Increase 

Per  cent  of  increase 

$396,189,072 
95 

$1,162,435,349 
235 

$1,558,624,521 
171 

[74] 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  75 

But  even  this  table  fails  to  do  full  justice  to  the  mounting 
volume  of  commerce,  since  the  total  in  1913,  the  last  nornial  year 
before  the  war,  was  $2,874,612,151,  with  imports  valued  at 
$1,321,861,199. 

It  has  been  well  said,  in  the  Bidletin  of  the  Pan  American 
Union,  November  1916,  that  the  long  list  of  articles  imported 
includes  *'  nearly  all  the  finished  manufactured  products  of  either 
Europe  or  the  United  States.  The  standards  of  living  are  practi- 
cally the  same  as  in  other  parts  of  the  civilized  world."  As 
for  the  exports,  these  are  ''  almost  entirely  raw  material  for 
manufacturing  purposes  and  primary  foodstuffs,  but  there  are 
broad  differences  as  to  localities  of  production,"  the  products  of 
the  different  countries  varying  in  a  marked  degree.  In  each 
republic  we  note  characteristic  variations  also  in  the  demand  for 
finished  manufactured  products.  (See  discussions  of  commerce, 
imports,  exports,  etc.,  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  each  separate 
country.) 

Exports  from  Latin  America 

The  chief  exports  from  Latin  America  are  mentioned  in  the 
following  list : 

From  Argentina  the  exports,  almost  entirely  of  the  agricul- 
tural and  meat-producing  industries,  are  wheat,  maize,  linseed, 
oats.  Hour,  bran,  frozen  and  chilled  meats,  hides,  wool,  skins,  meat 
extracts,  butter,  and  residuary  animal  products  of  all  kinds.  Less 
important  are  the  exports  of  quebracho  wood  and  extract,  of  whale- 
bone, of  copper,  etc. 

From  Bolivia  the  exports  are  tin,  silver,  bismuth,  copper,  rub- 
ber, etc. 

From  Brazil,  coffee,  rubber,  hides,  yerba  mate,  cacao,  tobacco, 
skins,  sugar,  cotton,  gold,  manganese,  nuts,  carnauba  wax,  mona- 
zite  sand,  etc. 

From  Central  America,  coffee,  bananas,  gold  and  silver,  hides 
and  skins,  rubber,  indigo,  sugar,  etc. 

From  Chile,  nitrate  of  soda,  copper,  bar  silver,  hides,  wool, 
chinchilla  fur,  wax,  fruits,  wine,  grains,  etc. 

From  Colombia,  coffee,  bananas,  tobacco,  ivory  nuts,  rubber, 
cacao,  dividivi,  etc. 

From  Cuba,  sugar,  tobacco,  molasses,  distillates,  iron  and 
copper  ore,  hardwoods,  hides  and  skins,  honey,  beeswax, 
sponges,  etc. 


76  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

From  the  Dominican  Republic  and  Haiti,  sugar,  cacao, 
tobacco,  coffee,  bananas,  beeswax,  hides;  minor  Haitian  expoi^ts 
being  cotton  and  cottonseed,  logwood,  etc. 

From  Ecuador,  cacao,  ivory  nuts,  **  Panama  "  hats,  rubber, 
coffee,  gold,  hides,  etc. 

From  Mexico,  silver,  gold,  antimony,  mercury,  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  coffee,  rubber,  chicle,  chick  peas,  guayule,  henequen,  mahog- 
any, ebony,  hides  and  skins,  etc. 

From  Paraguay,  hides,  quebracho  extract,  yerba  mate,  hard- 
w^oods,  tobacco,  oranges,  etc. 

From  Peru,  copper,  rubber,  sugar,  cotton,  wool,  hides  and 
skins,  ' '  Panama  ' '  hats,  etc. 

From  Uruguay,  wool,  hides  and  skins,  beef  extracts,  wheat 
and  flour,  tallow  and  other  animal  fats,  residuary  animal 
products,  etc. 

From  Venezuela,  coffee,  cacao,  rubber,  balata,  goatskins, 
asphalt,  hides,  live  cattle,  aigrettes,  dividivi,  etc. 

Commerce  with  the  United  States 

The  Foreign  Trade  Department  of  the  National  City  Bank  of 
New  York  kindly  gives  us  the  facts  in  regard  to  exports  from  the 
United  States  to  Latin  American  countries  reported  during  the 
week  ended  20  Jan.  1917.  It  is  shown  that  the  value  of  our 
exports  from  the  Port  of  New  York  to  Argentina  that  week  was 
$1,679,226;  to  Bolivia  $18,565;  to  Brazil  $1,063,408;  to  Chile  $296,- 
793;  to  Colombia  $213,270;  to  Cuba  $1,796,151;  to  Dominican 
Republic  $357,951;  to  Ecuador  $75,573;  to  Haiti  $287,765;  to 
Mexico  $96,113;  to  Panama  $344,140;  to  Paraguay  $5,784;  to  Peru 
$261,943 ;  to  Uruguay  $279,246 ;  to  Venezuela  $492,728.  The  inter- 
esting quality  of  this  particular  statement  will  be  understood  more 
readily  if  we  add  the  generalization  that  our  exports  to  the  20 
republics  named  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the  article  Latin 
America  have  practically  quadrupled  since  1900.  The  following 
valued  communication  from  the  same  source  contains  statements 
of  fact  in  relation  to  the  enormous  and  rapidly  growing  trade : 

''  Commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Latin  America  was 

over  one  billion  dollars  in  the  fiscal  year  1916  against  three-quar- 

I     ters  of  a  billion  in  1913,  one-half  billion  in  1906  and  one-quarter 

'     billion  in  1900.  [Amoredetailedstatementputsthe  trade  with  these 

20  neighboring  republics  at  $1,150,000,000  in  the  fiscal  year  1916; 

$766,000,000  in  1913 ;  $503,000,000  in  1906  and $278,000,000  in  1900.] 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  77 

'Exports  to  these  20  republics  in  1916  were  about  $410,000,000 
against  $324,000,000  in  1913,  $209,000,000  in  1906  and  $111,000,000 
in  1900.  Imports  from  these  countries  were  in  1916  about  $750.- 
000,000  against  $442.000.000  in  1913^^294,000.000  in  1906  and 
$167^000,000inI2m^  The  trade  with  Cuba,  Argentina  and  Brazil 
shows  the  most  striking  gains.  From  jCuba, the  imports  of  1916 
are  approximately  $225,000,000  against  but  $31,000,000  in  1900, 
and  the  exports  to  that  island  about  $128,000,000  in  1916  against 
but  $26,000,000  in  1900.  From  Argentina,  the  imports  of  1916 
are  approximately  $100,000,000  against  bur$8,000,000  in  1900,  and 
the  exports  to  that  country  in  1916  about  $65,000,000  against  $11,- 
000,000  in  1900.  From  Brazil  jhe  imports  of  1916  are  $133,000,000 
against  $58,000,000  in  1900  and  the  exports  thereto  $41,000,000 
against  $11,000,000  in  1900.  From  Mexico  the  imports  of  1916  are 
approximately  $100,000,000  against  $28,000,000  in  1900  and  the 
exports  thereto,  $50,000,000  against  $35,000,000  in  1900,  the  figures 
for  1916  being  about  $16,000,000  below  those  of  1907.  Manufactures 
form  the  bulk  of  the  exports  to  the  Latin  American  countries.  A 
close  analysis  of  the  trade  with  South  America  shows  that  about 
87  per  cent  of  our  exports  thereto  are  manufactures  and  this  pro- 
portion probably  holds  good  as  to  the  other  [Latin  American] 
countries,  suggesting  that  our  exports  of  manufactures  to  Latin 
America  in  1916  amounted  to  about  $360,000,000  against  about 
$95,000,000  in  1900.  Of  the  $750,000,000  of  imports  from  these  20 
countries  in  1916,  sugar  was  about  $200,000,000,  coffee  over  $100,- 
000,000,  hides  and  skins  about  $75,000,000,  wool  about  $40,000,000, 
and  rubber  about  $30,000,000. ' ' 

We  shall  presently  offer  brief  analytical  statements  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  Latin  American  republics  showing  its  distri- 
bution among  the  four  nations  that  have  taken  the  lead  in  this 
quest.  But  before  coming  to  that  let  us  give  attention  to  detailed 
figures  of  exports  from  the  United  States  to  South  America  alone 
for  the  calendar  year  1916,  compared  wdth  1915  and  1914.  (Consult 
The  Americas,  February  1917,  pages  35-37). 

The  shipments  of  cotton  yarn  to  South  America  out  of  the 
port  of  New  York  alone  in  1916  aggregated  over  $3,000,000  in 
value  against  $626,394  from  the  whole  country  in  the  fiscal  year 
1915,  $51,493  in  1914,  and  $160,117  in  1913.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  yarn  exported  to  South  America  goes  to  Argentina;  smaller 
quantities  going  to  Brazil,  Chile,  Peru,  Colombia,  and  Uruguay. 
Agricultural  implements  were  formerly  among  the  most  important 
of  our  exports  to  South  America,  the  total  value  of  such  shipments 


78  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

having  been  nearly  $7,000,000  in  the  year  preceding  the  war.    In 
1914  the  total  was  only  $2,000,000,  approximately;  in  1915  it  had 
increased  about  $1,000,000,  and  in  1916  the  total  to  all  South 
America  was  $4,348,075.    The  largest  South  American  market  for 
agricultural  implements  is  Argentina,  the  total  to  that  republic  in 
1916  having  been  $3,582,592.     Exports  of  fiour  from  the  United 
States  to  South  America  in  1916  were  limited  to  960,045  barrels 
against  1,917,344  barrels  in  1915,  Brazil  having  been  the  chief 
market.    The  total  value  of  the  shipments  of  automobiles  from  the 
United  States  to  South  America  in  1916  was  $5,040,485  compared 
with  $1,862,326  in  1915  and  $863,360  in  1914;  and  the  numbers 
show  the  increase  still  more  strikingly,  having  been  8,728  in  1916 
compared  with  3,537  in  1915  and  1,149  in  1914.    The  total  value  of 
the  carriages  exported  from  the  United  States  to  South  America 
in  1916  was  only  $20,963  against  $52,427  in  1914 ;  of  wagons  in  the 
same  years,  $125,041  and  $307,330,  respectively.    In  1916  the  value 
of  railway  cars  shipped  from  the  United  States  to  South  x\merica 
aggregated  $1,278,071;  in  1915,  $352,619,  and  $1,422,339  in  1914. 
The  total  value  of  bituminous  coal  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  South  America  (mainly  to  Argentina  and  Brazil)  in  1916 
was  $6,453,493 ;  in  1915  it  was  $4,783,676,  and  $1,838,140  in  1914. 
The  total  value  of  cotton  cloths  exported  from  the  United  States 
to  South  America  in  1916  was  $11,973,352  against  $3,689,419  in 
1915,  and  $2,215,399  in  1914.     This  gain  occurred  chiefly  in  the 
movement  to  Argentina,  to  which  the  exports  of  the  calendar  year 
in  question  were  30,000,000  yards  against  about  2,000,000  in  the 
fiscal  year  1915.    To  Brazil  which  grows  its  own  cotton  and  manu- 
factures much  of  its  own  cloths  our  exports  of  1916  were  3,165,561 
yards  against  701,489  in  1915,  and  443,614  iii  1914.    To  Chile  the 
movement  of  1916  was  20,844,608  yards  against  8,268,161  in  the 
preceding  year,  and  to  Colombia  41,039,217  yards  against  22,848,- 
]35  in  1915,  and  11,246,301  in  1914.    The  value  of  our  exports  of 
binder  twine  to  all  South  America  in  1916  was  $1,350,526  against 
$1,601,480  in  1915  and  but  $270,401  in  1914,  though  in  1913  the 
total  to  South  America  was  approximately  $1,300,000.    American 
locomotives  exported  to  South  America  in  1916  were  valued  at 
$679,503  against  $249,507  in  1915,  the  chief  increase  occurring  in 
the  exports  to  Brazil.     The  aggregate  value  of  sewing  machines 
exported  from  the  Laiited  States  to  South  America  in  1916  was 
$788,864  against  $408,350  in  1915,  while  of  typewriters  the  total 
for  1916  was  $771,140  against  $376,074  in  1915,  and  $439,670  in 
1914.      In  many  other  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,  there  was 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  79 

also  a  marked  advance.  Exports  of  wrought-iroii  pipe,  for 
example,  to  all  South  America  in  1916  amounted  to  $1,580,785 
against  $759,226  in  1915 ;  iron  sheets  and  plates  in  1916  to  $1,850,- 
942  against  $1,428,157  in  1915,  and  $713,893  in  1914.  In  the  trade 
movement  from  the  United  States  to  South  America  as  a  whole, 
the  shipments  of  tin  plate  to  that  continent  in  1916  amounted  to 
$3,751,272  against  $1,752,760  in  1915,  and  but  $229,992  in  1914,  the 
bulk  of  this  increase  having  been  to  Argentina  and  Brazil.  Wire 
sent  to  South  America  from  the  United  States  had  the  total  value 
in  1916  of  $7,360,222  against  $4,289,877  in  1915,  and  $1,321,239  in 
1914,  this  increase  having  occurred  chiefly  in  the  movements  to 
Argentina.  The  statistics  of  our  exports  of  kid  upper  leather 
showed  very  large  gains,  especially  to  Argentina  and  Brazil,  the 
total  to  the  continent  in  the  year  1916  amounting  to  $2,019,874 
against  $1,382,283  in  1915,  and  $1,057,247  in  1914;  similarly,  the 
statistics  of  exports  of  boots  and  shoes  showed  a  total  valuation 
for  1916  of  $1,506,974  against  $1,333,854  in  1915  and  $1,364,148  in 
1914.  The  European  demand  for  meat  products  interrupted  some- 
what the  usually  large  movements  of  lard  to  South  America,  the 
total  for  the  year  1916  having  been  but  $1,386,584  against  $1,649,- 
131  in  1915  and  $1,421,124  in  1914.  Exports  of  rosin  from  the 
United  States  to  the  South  American  continent  in  1916  were 
valued  at  $2,073,167  against  $1,597,618  in  1915  and  $1,037,738  in 
1914,  the  principal  increase  being  in  the  movements  to  Argentina 
and  Brazil;  and  exports  of  turpentine  showed  a  corresponding  in- 
crease, having  been  in  1916,  $645,707  against  $598,372  in  1915  and 
$461,826  in  1914.  The  exports  of  illuminating  oil  from  the  United 
States  to  all  of  South  America  in  1916  were  valued  at  $5,893,206 
against  $5,928,128  in  1915  and  $6,071,999  in  1914,  though  in  lubri- 
cating oil  there  was  a  marked  increase,  the  total  to  Argentina, 
Brazil  and  Chile  in  1916  having  been  $2,761,618  against  $1,972,296 
in  1915  and  $1,510,867  in  1914.  Naphthas,  including  gasoline  and 
similar  products  of  distillation,  w^ere  shipped  to  the  same  countries 
in  large  quantities,  the  total  value  in  1916  having  been  $4,014,960 
against  but  $377,327  in  the  full  fiscal  year  of  1915.  For  news 
print  paper  the  demand  upon  the  United  States  showed  a  material 
increase,  the  total  movements  to  Argentina  and  Chile  amounting 
to  $1,327,021  in  1916  against  $1,231,620  in  1915  and  $636,060  in 
1914.  The  total  value  of  the  class  of  American  lumber  designated 
as  '*  boards,  planks  and  deals  "  shipped  to  all  South  America  in 
the  year  1916  was  but  $2,448,981  against  $3,049,184  in  1915  and 
$3,719,324  in  1914.    Exports  of  furniture  from  the  United  States 


80  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  South  America  in  1916  were  valued  at  $471,575.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  strong  upward  tendency  does  not  embrace  all 
items. 

A  General  Survey  of  the  Foreign  Trade  and  Its  Distribution 

Under  normal  conditions  before  the  war,  the  trade  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany  with  Latin  America  extended  to  all  of 
the  20  republics,  with  such  proportionate  shares  in  the  trade  of 
each  republic  that  we  are  justified  in  speaking  of  a  more  or  less 
even  distribution  of  commercial  advantages  throughout  that  gen- 
eral field,  so  far  as  these  three  European  nations  Avere  concerned. 
But  the  position  of  the  United  States  was  strikingly  different  in 
this  respect,  and  the  trade  of  the  United  States  was  most  unevenly 
distributed.  This  important,  and  somewhat  difficult,  part  of  the 
subject  must  be  examined  with  special  care. 

The  distinguished  author  of  the  article  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Pan  American  Union,  cited  above,  has  pointed  out  the  preponder- 
ance of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  in  the  northern  tier  of 
Latin  American  countries  where,  even  before  the  war,  its  volume 
was  greater  than  that  of  England,  France,  Germany,  and  all  other 
countries  combined;  and  he  writes:  ''  In  1913,  for  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral America,  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  the  Dominican  Republic,  imports 
from  the  United  States  represented  54.11  per  cent  of  the  total. 
The  percentages  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  France 
were,  respectively,  12.33,  9.92,  and  6.77  —  a  total  of  29.02  per  cent 
or  but  little  over  one-half  the  imports  from  the  United  States.  A 
large  part  of  the  remaining  per  cent  (16.87)  allotted  to  all  other 
countries  is  represented  by  the  interchange  of  commodities 
between  the  Latin  Republics  themselves  —  a  trade  seldom,  if  ever, 
competitive  with  that  of  the  four  leading  commercial  ^untries 
mentioned."  Some  of  the  northern  countries  of  South  America 
also  were  sharers  in  the  close  transportation-and-commercial 
relationship  that  distinguished  the  northern  tier  (otherwise 
expressed,  the  Central  and  North  American  group)  of  Latin 
American  countries.  Thus,  in  the  last  normal  year  before  the  war 
the  import  percentages  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  and 
Peru  were  as  follows:  Of  Colombia's  total,  26.74  per  cent  came 
from  the  United  States,  20.46  per  cent  from  Great  Britain,  14.06 
per  cent  from  Germany,  and  15.45  per  cent  from  France;  of  Vene- 
zuela's total,  38.51  per  cent  came  from  the  United  States,  23.27  per 
cent  from  Great  Britain,  14.35  per  cent  from  Germany,  6,06  per 
cent  from  France;  of  Ecuador's  total,  31.89  per  cent  came  from 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  gl 

the  United  States,  29.63  per  cent  from  Great  Britain,  17.80  per 
cent  from  Germany,  and  4.92  per  cent  from  France;  of  Peru's 
total,  28.82  per  cent  came  from  the  United  States,  26.24  per  cent 
from  Great  Britain,  17.34  per  cent  from  Germany,  and  4.60  per 
cent  from  France.  But  in  all  the  remaining  South  American 
republics  (i.  e.,  the  more  distant  ones)  the  imports  from  the 
United  States  were  **  much  less  than  those  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  in  Bolivia,  Chile,  Paragua.y,  Uruguay,  and  Argen- 
tina less  than  from  Germany,  and  in  Paraguay  less  than  from 
France  as  well."  Such  were  the  salient  facts  in  relation  to  Latin 
America's  imports  from  leading  commercial  countries  before  the 
war.  Let  us  now  study  Latin  America's  exports  to  the  same  coun- 
tries during  the  same  period. 

In  the  northern  tier  of  Latin  American  countries  —  Mexico, 
Central  America,  Panama,  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic —  the  export  percentages  then  were  the  following :  Exports  to 
the  United  States,  69.67  per  cent,  to  Great  Britain,  12.12  per  cent, 
to  Germany,  7.68  per  cent,  to  France,  4.88  per  cent.  In  Brazil  the 
position  of  the  United  States  in  respect  to  exports  was  decidedly 
noteworthy  (see  the  article  Brazil),  the  value  of  Brazil's  exports  to 
the  United  States  being  $102,560,000,  to  Great  Britain  $41,700,000, 
to  Germany  $44,390,000  and  to  France  $38,685,000.  But  in  South 
America  as  a  whole  the  export  percentages  were  the  following: 
Exports  of  South  America  in  1913  to  the  United  States  25.83  per 
cent,  to  Great  Britain  24.31  per  cent,  to  Germany  13.95  per  cent, 
and  to  France  9.05  per  cent.  The  extraordinary  changes  during 
the  years  1914  and  1915,  and  the  new  conditions  that  have  been 
created  since  the  commerce  of  Latin  America  began  to  recover 
from  the  paralyzing  effects  of  the  first  stages  of  the  war,  are 
reflected  and  summarized  in  the  following  brief  statement: 
Analysis  of  Latin  America's  import  trade  statistics  in  1914  shows 
23.92  per  cent  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  27.94  per  cent  for  the 
United  States ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  export  percentages  were 
22.32  per  cent  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  38.20  per  cent  for  the 
United  States.  In  1915  the  United  Kingdom  held  21.03  per  cent 
and  the  United  States  had  41.82  per  cent  of  Latin  America's  import 
trade,  while  the  export  percentages  w^ere  22.46  for  the  United 
Kingdom  and  38.65  per  cent  for  the  United  States.  The  share  of 
France  in  Latin  America's  import  and  export  trade  during  1915 
was  represented  by  4.71  per  cent  for  imports  and  6.60  for  exports. 

The  share  of  each  of  the  20  republics  in  the  foreign  commerce 
we  have  endeavored  to  describe  is  shown  in  the  following  tables : 


82 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Table   Showing  for  Each  of  the  20  Republics  the  Values,  and 
Distribution  of  Imports 


Countries 


Mexico 

Guatemala 

Salvador! 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Costa  Rica 

Panama 

Cuba 

Dominican  Republic 

Haiti 

Northern  Tier  of  Republics . 
Per  cent  of  imports 

Argentina 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Southern  Tier  of  Republics . 
Per  cent  of  imports 

Total  of  the  20  Republics . . . 
Per  cent  of  imports 


Total  from  all 

countries, 

1915 


*$85,000,000 
5,072,476 

*3, 986, 038 
5,875,000 
3,159,220 
4,478,782 
9,305,477 
155,448,233 
9,118,514 

§4,344,763 


United 

Kingdom, 

1915 


*$12,000,000 

577,206 

*700,000 

303,000 

302,294 

548,810 

1,175,291 

15,287,998 

630,923 

296,228 


285,788,503 
100.00 


31,821,750 
11.13 


220,085,951 
8,804,081 

146,082,483 
55,922,218 
18,658,179 
*8, 700, 000 
2,333,711 
15,044,347 
36,378,925 
13,470.236 


525,480,131 
100.00 


811,268,634 
100.00 


65,748,411 

1,417,333 

32,028,670 

13,288,603 

*5, 800, 000 

*3, 000, 000 

771,037 

*5, 000, 000 

*9, 000, 000 

2,747,357 


138,801,411 
26.41 


170,623,161 
21.03 


Germany, 
1915 


*S450,000 

146,053 

*80,000 

96,000 

36,960 

42,979 

9,628 

799,903 

95,317 

20,509 


1,777,349 
0.62 


5,483,711 

419,551 

2,254,621 

3,583,589 

♦400,000 

*200,000 

161,669 

*300,000 

*350,000 


13,153,141 
2.50 


14,930,490 
1.84 


France, 
1915 


*$7,000,000 

124,492 

*250,000 

55,000 

138,218 

84,132 

180,135 

5,197,110 

93,200 

167,779 


13,290,066 
4.65 


12,911,330 

165,592 

7,217,243 

1,700,383 

*850,000 

*500,000 

56,755 

500,000 

*350,000 

664,530 


24,905,833 

4.74 


38,195,899 
4.71 


United 

States, 

1915 


*$41,071,140 
3,751,761 
t2, 643, 759 
5,177,000 
2 , 592 , 799 
3,031,997 
7,022,858 
104,723,108 
7,361,259 
3,806,673 


181,182,354 
63.39 


54,474,137 

1,858,854 

46,858,165 

18,638,455 

18,980,177 

t3, 368, 493 

210,232 

t7, 905, 557 

t7, 865, 602 

7,943,213 


158,102,885 
30.09 


339,285,239 
41.82 


*  Estimated.         t  United  States  exports  to.         t  Official  returns  11  months,  1915:     Imports,  $3,653,868. 
§  Statistics  for  the  port  of  Jeremie  not  included. 

Table  Showing  the  Values  and  Distribution  from  each  of  the 

20  Republics 


Countries 


Total  t9  all 

countries, 

1915 


United 

Kingdom, 

1915 


Germany, 
1915 


France, 
1915 


United 
States, 
1915 


Mexico 

Guatemala 

Salvador! 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Costa  Rica 

Panama 

Cuba. 

Dominican  Republic 

Haiti  § 

Northern  Tier  of  Republics 
Per  cent  of  exports 

Argentina 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile. 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Peru .  . 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Southern  Tier  of  Republics. 
Per  cent  of  exports 

Total  of  the  20  Republics .  '. '. 
Per  cent  of  exports 


♦$156,000,000 

11,566,585 

♦10,963,985 

3,858,000 

4,567,201 

9,971,582 

3,348,262 

254,291,763 

15,209,061 

♦13,000,000 


♦$30,000,000 

1,322,271 

♦600,000 

1,000 

438,500 

4,438,233 

♦180,000 

33,033,016 

84 , 366 

♦800,000 


♦$100,000 

60,237 

♦60,000 

690 

"  'i3;225 

♦15,000 

7 

5,644 

♦100,000 


♦$5,000,000 

1,250,666 

666i684 

62,975 

♦12,000 

1,135,404 

189,448 

♦5,000,000 


482,776,439 
100.00 


70,897,386 
14.68 


344,803 
0.07 


13,250,511 

2.74 


541,5.32,224 
37,132,037 

257,176,851 

117,606,364 
29,265,349 

♦15,400,000 

8,624,269 

68,638,128 

76,222,298 

23,404,427 


160,022,860 

♦25,000,000 

31,096,231 

40,582,411 

♦5,000,000 

♦1,600,000 

302,336 

♦22,000,000 

14,000,000 

2,041,221 


♦20,000 
110 

♦46! 666 

♦30,000 

6,750 

♦40,000 

50,000 


39,144,306 
♦2,000,000 
29,285,313 

3,554,091 

♦400,000 

♦4,200,000 

108,412 

1,000,000 
13,500,000 

2,978,060 


1,175,001,947 
100.00 


301,645,059 
25.67 


186,860 
0.02 


96,170,182 
8.35 


1,657,778,386 
100.00 


372,542,445 
22.46 


531 , 663 
0.03 


109,420,693 
6.60 


t$83,551,993 

6,881,410 

tl, 864, 898 

2,987,000 

3,079,810 

4,864,803 

3,118,754 

206,164,414 

12,044,271 

tl, 494, 927 


326,052,280 
67.50 


87,147,548 

t960,189 

107,523,931 

50,199,243 

18,953,023 

t5, 416, 565 

464,403 

tl 5, 803, 688 

tl3,889,464 

13,170,113 


313,528,167 
26.69 


639,580,447 
38.65 


♦  Estimated.        t  United  States  imports  from.        J  OflScial  returns  11  months,  1915:  Exports,  $10,050,320. 
§  Statistics  for  the  port  of  Jeremie  not  included. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND   COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  83 

Trade  between  Latin  American  Countries 

We  must  bear  in  mind  two  important  facts  when  considering 
the  limitations  of  commerce  between  these  republics :  In  the  first 
place,  the  Latin  American  countries,  although  not  wholly  non- 
manufacturing,  have  developed  their  manufacturing  industries  to 
such  a  comparatively  slight  extent  that  they  still  depend  *'  almost 
entirely,"  it  has  been  truly  said,  "  upon  imports  from  the  manu- 
facturing countries  for  most  of  the  appliances  of  industry  and 
commerce  and  also  for  the  conveniences  and  many  of  the  necessi- 
ties of  life  ' ' ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  they  naturally  expect  these 
same  countries  to  purchase  the  Latin  American  raw  products  and 
foodstuffs.  Therefore  the  values  of  imports  and  exports  distrib- 
uted or  interchanged  within  this  field  seem  relatively  small. 

Argentina's  imports  from  Brazil  in  1915  were  valued  at  $10,- 
069,055;  from  Mexico,  $14,664,808;  from  Uruguay,  $1,828,268; 
from  Paraguay,  $1,823,268;  from  Cuba,  $845,033;  from  Chile, 
$752,952;  from  Bolivia,  $348,094;  from  Peru,  $1,241.  The  imports 
from  Brazil  amounted  to  4.6  per  cent  of  the  total  Argentine 
imports  in  1915,  and  to  5.5  per  cent  in  the  first  nine  months  of 
1916.  Argentina's  exports  to  Brazil  in  1915  were  valued  at  $21,- 
248,098;  to  Uruguay,  $7,318,731 ;  to  Paraguay,  $1,503,806;  to  Chile, 
$1,678,819;  to  Bolivia,  $503,721;  to  Peru,  $264,184;  to  Cuba,  $220,- 
287;  to  Mexico,  $133,090.  The  exports  to  Brazil  amounted  to  3.9 
per  cent  of  the  total  Argentine  exports  in  1915,  and  to  4.3  per  cent 
in  the  first  nine  months  of  1916. 

Bolivia's  imports  from  Chile  in  1914  were  valued  at  $2,140,- 
045;  from  Peru,  $1,114,845;  from  Argentina,  $1,006,137;  from 
Brazil,  $308,340;  from  Uruguay,  $16,083;  from  Ecuador,  $2,408; 
Bolivia's  exports  to  Chile,  $483,774;  to  Peru,  $395,199;  to  Argen- 
tina $345,344;  to  Uruguay,  $5,009;  to  Brazil,  $791. 

Brazil's  imports  from  and  exports  to  Argentina  and  Bolivia 
are  given  above.  To  Chile,  Brazil's  exports  in  1915  were  valued  at 
$715,593.  From  Uruguay,  Brazil's  imports  in  1915  were  valued  at 
$2,171,904,  and  her  exports  to  Uruguay  at  $4,438,631.  In  the  fiscal 
year  1914—15,  her  imports  from  Cuba  were  valued  at  $18,582. 

Chile's  imports  from  Peru  in  1914  were  valued  at  $5,380,220; 
from  Argentina,  $2,164,939 ;  from  Brazil,  $725,975 ;  from  Uruguay, 
$528,083;  from  Ecuador,  $449,409;  from  Cuba,  $169,821;  from 
Guatemala,  $48,525.  Chile's  exports  to  Argentina  in  1914  were 
valued  at  $1,511,508;  to  Brazil,  $151,829;  to  Peru,  $356,882;  to 
Uruguay,  $234,379;  to  Panama,  $61,550;  to  Mexico,  $22,797. 


84  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Colombia's  imports  from  Cuba  during  the  fiscal  year  1914—15 
were  valued  at  $137,990,  and  her  exports  to  the  same  island  at 
$13,647 ;  her  imports  from  Ecuador,  $25,123  in  1914,  and  exports  to 
Ecuador,  $34,249;  imports  from  Peru,  $39,797,  and  exports  to 
Peru,  $6,417;  exports  to  Salvador,  also  in  1914,  $3,633;  imports 
from  Venezuela,  $100,369,  and  exports  to  Venezuela,  $14,028  in 
1914. 

Costa  Rica 's  imports  from  other  Central  American  countries 
in  1915  were  valued  at  $132,999,  and  from  Colombia,  Cuba, 
Ecuador,  Mexico,  Panama,  and  Peru,  $257,597 ;  the  total  of  exports 
to  the  last-mentioned  group  being  $277,979,  and  to  the  other  Cen- 
tral American  countries,  $91,186. 

'Cuba's  imports  from  Uruguay  during  the  fiscal  year  1914—15 
were  valued  at  $1,588,847 ;  from  Mexico,  $1,710,763 ;  from  Ecuador, 
$97,337;  from  Venezuela,  $18,689;  from  the  Dominican  Republic, 
$22,515;  from  Argentina,  Chile  and  Colombia,  as  above.  Cuba's 
exports  to  Uruguay,  the  same  year,  were  valued  at  $239,695;  to 
Panama,  $111,182;  to  Peru,  $59,363;  to  Mexico,  $61,733;  to  Brazil, 
$18,582. 

The  Dominican  Republic's  imports  from  Cuba  in  1914  were 
valued  at  $12,438,  and  exports  to  the  same  country  at  $7,029. 

Ecuador's  imports  from  Peru  in  1914  were  valued  at  $299,128; 
from  Panama,  $34,456 ;  from  Colombia  as  above.  Her  exports  to 
Peru  were  valued  at  $84,704;  to  Panama,  $28,856;  to  Argentina, 
$20,092;  to  Chile,  Cuba,  and  Colombia  as  above. 

Guatemala's  imports  from  Cuba  in  1915  were  valued  at  $5,318; 
from  South  America,  $4,119;  from  Central  American  countries, 
$105,943 ;  from  Mexico,  $4,339.  Exports  from  Guatemala  to  South 
America,  $357,901 ;  to  Mexico,  $145,667 ;  to  Central  American  coun- 
tries, $132,835,  and  (through  the  frontiers  of  Salvador  and  Hon- 
duras), an  additional  $10,151. 

Haiti's  imports  from  the  Latin  American  countries  are  negli- 
gible in  amount  —  estimated  at  1  per  cent,  approximately,  in  1915. 
There  are  no  statistics  which  could  be  relied  upon  to  show  Latin 
American  destinations  of  exports  from  Haiti  in  recent  years. 

Honduras  imported  from  Central  American  countries  in  the 
fiscal  year  1914-15  goods  valued  at  $113,000.  Her  exports  to  the 
same  countries  were  valued  at  $53,455. 

Mexico's  imports  from  the  West  Indies  during  the  fiscal  year 
1912-13  were  valued  at  $123,664;  from  Central  America,  $67,432; 
from  Chile,  $168,827;  from  Argentina,  $611,244,  and  from  South 
America  as  a  whole,  $959,106.     Mexico's  exports  to  the  West 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  EXPANSION  85 

Indies  during  the  same  year  (the  latest  for  which  Mexican  statis- 
tics are  available)  were  valued  at  $886,066;  to  Central  America, 
$1,227,552;  to  South  America,  $103,640. 

Nicaragua's  imports  from  Salvador  in  1914  were  valued  at 
$3,779;  from  Costa  Rica,  $3,299;  from  Guatemala,  $1,553;  from 
Honduras,  $1,206.  Her  exports  to  Salvador  were  valued  at 
$27,915;  to  Honduras,  $15,695;  to  Guatemala,  $6,886;  to  Costa 
Rica,  $1,439. 

Panama's  imports  from  all  Spanish  America  were  valued  at 
$238,684.48  in  1913  (the  latest  year  for  which  such  statistics  ar« 
available)  and  the  exports  to  all  Spanish  America  were  valued  at 
$281,067.09. 

Paraguay's  imports  from  and  exports  to  Argentina  in  1915 
were  valued  at  $765,354  and  $3,528,186,  respectively;  imports  from 
and  exports  to  Uruguay,  $30,140  and  $556,812;  imports  from  and 
exports  to  Brazil,  $8,904  and  $27,432. 

Peru's  imports  from  Chile,  Cuba,  Ecuador  and  Colombia  as 
given  above;  from  Costa  Rica  in  1914  they  were  valued  at  $21,539; 
from  Salvador,  $19,512;  from  Argentina,  $9,404,  and  from  Brazil, 
$7,862.  Peru's  exports  to  Panama  in  1914  were  valued  at  $46,069 ; 
to  Urugua)',  $15,918;  to  Brazil,  $14,953. 

Salvador's  imports  from  Mexico  in  1914  were  valued  at 
$29,788;  from  Costa  Rica,  $14,577;  from  Honduras,  $2,500;  from 
Guatemala,  $1,450;  from  Ecuador,  $1,951;  from  Nicaragua,  as 
above.  Salvador's  exports  to  Panama  in  1914  were  valued  at 
$43,232;  to  Chile,  $32,329;  to  Costa  Rica,  $27,910;  to  Ecuador, 
$21,620;  to  Honduras,  $7,234;  to  Guatemala,  $6,711;  to  Mexico, 
$280. 

Uruguay's  imports  from  Argentina  during  the  six  months 
from  September  1915  to  February  1916,  inclusive,  were  valued  at 
$3,840,933.20;  from  Brazil,  $2,382,708.64;  from  Mexico,  $80,483.52; 
from  Cuba,  $77,526.80;  from  Paraguay,  $43,961.84.  The  exports 
to  Argentina  during  the  same  period  were  valued  at  $5,144,450.48; 
to  Cuba,  $558,303.20;  to  Brazil,  $411,433.36. 

Venezuela's  imports  from  Panama  in  1914  were  valued  at 
$33,795;  from  Colombia,  $14,028;  from  Cuba,  $1,833;  from  Ecua- 
dor, $550.  Venezuela's  exports  to  the  Dominican  Republic  in  1914 
were  valued  at  $1,299;  to  Panama,  $832;  to  Cuba,  $561;  to 
Colombia,  $100,369. 


86  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Bibliography 

Published  since  1913: — Americas,  The  (New  York,  published  monthly,  offerinj^ 
most  recent  and  authoritative  information,  1914r-17) ;  Aspinall,  A.  E.,  The  Pocket 
Guide  to  the  West  Indies,  British  Guiana,  British  Honduras,  the  .  .  .  Spanish 
Main,  and  the  Panama  Canal  (Chicago  and  New  York  1914) ;  Babson,  R.  W.,  The 
Future  of  South  America  (Boston  1915) ;  Barrett,  J.,  Pan  America  and  Pan 
Americanism  (New  York  1915) ;  Blakeslee,  G.  H,,  ed.,  Latin  America:  Clark  Uni- 
versity Addresses  (New  York  1914) ;  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary 
Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New  York  1915) ;  Financial  Conference,  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915) ;  Hague,  E.,  Folk  Songs 
from  Mexico  and  South  America  (New  York  1914) ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  and  its  Interpretation  (Boston  1915) ;  Johnston,  H.,  Pioneers  in  Tropical 
America  (Glasgow  1914) ;  Lough,  W.  H.,  Financial  Developments  in  South  Ameri- 
can Countries,  and  Banking  Opportunities  in  South  America  (both  Washington 
1915);  Mancini,  J.,  Bolivar  (Paris  and  Mexico  1914);  Pan  American  Union, 
General  Descriptive  Data  in  20  separate  pamphlets,  one  devoted  to  each  of  the 
Latin  American  republics  (Washington  1915-17),  and  Latin  America  (Washington 
1916)  ;  Reyes,  R.,  The  Two  Americas  (New  York  1914) ;  Scientific  Congress,  Second 
Pan  American,  The  Final  Act  and  Interpretative  Commentary  Thereon  (Washing- 
ton 1916:  published  before  the  proceedings,  in  many  volumes,  could  be  issued); 
Shepherd,  W.  R.,  Latin  America  (New  York  1914). 

Export  Trade  —  United  States  and  Latin  America : —  Primary  Bases  of  an 
Export  Trade  (reprinted  from  Bulletin  Pan  American  ?7«io»,  Washington  1915); 
Some  Considerations  Respecting  Latin  American  Trade,  signed  W.  C.  W.  [Wells], 
reprinted  from  October  1915  Bulletin  Pan  American  Union;  Latin  American 
Foreign  Trade:  General  Survey,  reprinted  from  December  1914  Bulletin  Pan 
American  Union;  Long  Credits  and  the  New  Banking  A  ct,  reprinted  from  Bulletin 
Pan  American  Union  (n.  d.),  and  Filsinger,  E.  B.,  Exporting  to  Latin  America 
(New  York  1916). 


Latin  American  Tariffs 

ALL  customs  tariffs  may  be  comprehended  under  two  classili- 
cations,  ad  valorem  and  specific.  An  ad  valorem  tariff  is 
one  where  the  duty  collected  is  a  given  proportion 
(per  centum)  of  the  commercial  value  of  the  articles.  For  exam- 
ple, shoes  pay  20  per  cent  duty,  therefore  a  pair  of  shoes  worth 
$4  pays  80  cents  duty.  A  specific  tariff  is  one  where  the  duty  col- 
lected is  on  the  measure  of  the  article  —  so  much  a  piece,  a  pound, 
a  yard,  a  gallon,  etc.  For  example,  shoes  pay  80  cents  a  pair,  coal 
oil  $1  a  barrel,  etc.  Occasionally  duties  are  laid  both  specific  and 
ad  valorem,  shoes  50  cents  a  pair  and  10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

The  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  tariffs  is  not  merely 
in  the  manner  of  computing  but  is  fundamental  and  exerts  a  great 
influence  on  currents  of  trade  and  on  manufacture.  A  country 
accustomed  to  view  tariffs  from  the  standpoint  of  values  finds 
itself  handicapped  when  called  on  to  operate  under  a  specific  tariff. 
When  one  has  paid  duties  on  20  grades  of  shoes  worth  from  one 
to  ten  dollars  a  pair  (the  duty  at  20  per  cent  being  20  cents  on 
the  lowest  and  $2  on  the  highest)  and  finds  himself  suddenly  called 
on  to  pay  a  single  rate  of  duty  (a  dollar  a  pair)  on  all  grades  of 
shoes,  or,  if  grades  are  established,  finds  the  grades  to  be  not  value 
grades  but  size  or  material  grades,  he  finds  the  whole  trade  prop- 
osition changed.  It  is  the  same  if  one  be  an  exporter  of  shoes  to 
some  foreign  country  which  changes  from  ad  valorem  to  specific 
duties,  or  vice  versa. 

The  economic  effect  of  specific  and  ad  valorem  differences  is  a 
problem  which  must  be  worked  out  separately  for  each  exporting 
and  each  importing  country,  for  each  line  of  industry,  for  each 
subdivision  of  the  industry,  for  each  article  and  often  for  each 
factory. 

The  United  States  tariff  is  an  a^^  valorem  tariff  (with  a  few 
exceptions)  and  most  American  industries  are  built  upon  ideas 
underlying  this  kind  of  a  tariff.  Latin  American  tariffs  (except 
Panama  and  a  very  few  specialties  in  other  countries)  are  all 
specific. 

The  adjustment  of  an  export  trade,  originating  in  an  ad 
valorem  country,  to  the  exigencies  of  a  specific  tariff  presents  tech- 
nical difficulties  as  well  as  economic  difficulties,  but  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other  is  susceptible  to  the  application  of  general  rules. 

[87] 


1. 


88  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Each  case  should  be  submitted  to  the  joint  consideration  of  an 
expert  in  manufacture  and  an  expert  in  the  tariff  customs  and 
trade  conditions  of  the  country  to  which  the  goods  are  to  be  sent. 

There  is  another  side  of  the  tariffs  where  the  novice  in  export- 
ing is  almost  sure  to  go  wrong,  i.  e.,  in  consideration  of  the  eco- 
nomic effect  of  any  tariff,  ad  valorem  or  specific.  Here  it  is  com- 
paratively easy  to  point  out  a  few  general  considerations  which 
may  prove  of  value. 

The  effect  of  Latin  American  tariff's  on  the  volume  and  char- 
acter of  imports  from  the  United  States  and  other  foreign  coun- 
tries is  very  great,  yet  this  effect  is  frequently,  even  generally,  mis- 
understood by  the  American  business  man  in  his  preliminary 
inquiries  about  Latin  America  as  a  field  for  United  States  exports. 
Such  a  one  is  almost  certain  to  misstate  the  problem.  Accustomed 
as  he  is  to  look  at  customs  tariffs  from  the  viewpoint  of  protection 
and  knowing  the  intimate  relation  which  exists  between  tariff  pro- 
tection and  the  ability  of  the  foreign  manufacturer  to  enter  the 
United  States  markets  in  the  face  of  this  protection,  he  more  or 
less  naturally  concludes  that  under  the  tariff  his  goods  bear  the 
same  relation  to  Latin  American  countries  as  English  or  French 
goods  bear  to  this  country  under  its  tariff".  Consequently  the  first 
enquiry  he  makes  is  —  What  is  the  amount  of  the  duty  ?  — believing 
that  on  the  determination  of  this  fact  depends  in  a  large  measure 
the  ability  of  his  goods  to  enter  Latin  American  markets.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  not  in  one  case  in  ten  thousand  does  the  rate  of  the 
tariff  play  any  part  whatever  in  determining  the  question  whether 
his  goods  can  enter  Latin  American  markets  on  advantageous 
terms.  The  parity  of  the  rates  in  the  particular  schedule,  the 
IJarity  of  schedules  and  the  classifications  are  all  important,  but 
the  rate  itself  when  applied  alike  to  his  and  all  competing  goods 
is  seldom  of  any  importance.  The  truth  is  that  Latin  American 
tariffs  are  not  protective  tariff's,  but  revenue  tariffs.  Even  in  the 
few  schedules,  in  two  or  three  countries,  w^here  the  protective 
feature  appears  to  be  prominent,  in  reality  it  is  not  so.  It  may 
be  taken  as  axiomatic  that  there  can  be  no  protective  tariff  where 
there  is  no  home  industry  to  protect.  No  matter  how  high  the 
rate  may  be,  even  though  prohibitive,  it  is,  in  this  case,  not  pro- 
tective. It  may  be  restrictive  —  all  tariffs  are  restrictive  to  some 
degree  —  yet  it  need  not  limit  to  any  great  extent  the  import  of 
goods.  The  purpose  of  all  Latin  American  tariffs  is  to  produce 
revenue,  and  revenue  is  not  produced  by  exclusion.  Even  where, 
as  in  some  Brazilian  schedules,  a  protective  purpose  on  the  part 
of  the  legislative  power  undoubtedly  existed,  the  domestic  industry 


LATIN  AMERICAN  TARIFFS         ~  89 

not  responding  to  the  purpose,  left  the  tariff  on  a  simple  revenue 
base,  or  a  restricted  or  a  prohibitive  base  as  the  case  might  be. 

The  vital  questions  which  meet  the  prospective  exporter  to 
Latin  America  are  whether  there  exists  or  can  be  created  a  demand 
for  his  goods,  and  whether  he  himself  can  compete  in  quality  and 
price  with  others  on  the  same  plane  as  himself,  not  with  others 
sheltered  behind  a  high  protective  wall.  The  wall  exists,  but  the 
competitors  are  on  the  same  side  as  himself.  The  fact  that  an 
article  worth  one  dollar  in  the  United  States  must  pay  a  duty  of 
fifty  cents  in  Venezuela  is  not  of  much  economic  import  to  the 
American  exporter  provided  the  consumer  in  Venezuela  wants 
the  article  and  is  willing  to  pay  the  increased  price.  It  might  be 
quite  different  if  some  one  in  Venezuela  were  making  the  same 
article,  but  where  there  is  no  competing  domestic  industry  the 
tariff  rate  is  not  of  prime  importance,  provided  the  facts  be  that 
the  goods  are  wanted,  the  country  is  able  to  pay  for  them,  and  that 
imports  from  all  countries  stand  on  the  same  plane. 

The  great  bulk  of  Latin  American  imports,  amounting  to  at 
the  very  least  95  per  cent  thereof,  are  of  goods  not  manufactured 
or  produced  in  the  countries,  or  if  produced  at  all  not  of  the  grades 
and  qualities  of  the  imported  goods.  This  fact  lies  at  the  root 
of  all  Latin  American  tariff  questions. 

It  is  said  above  that  all  the  Latin  American  tariffs,  except 
that  of  Panama,  are  specific.  This  may  not  always  so  appear  to 
the  casual  reader  of  these  laws.  For  example  the  tariff  of  Argen- 
tina as  to  more  than  three-fourths  of  its  schedules,  and  these 
nearly  all  the  important  ones,  appears  to  be  ad  valorem.  In 
reality  however  only  three  or  four  schedules  are  ad  valorem.  The 
bulk  of  Argentine  schedules  apparently  ad  valorem  are  made  spe- 
cific by  means  of  a  second  tariff  called  the  Valuation  Tariff 
(properly  appraisement  schedules)  by  which  fixed  values  are  put 
upon  goods  and  upon  which  fixed  values  the  ad  valorem  rates  are 
computed.  The  appraisement  values  being  fixed  are  in  most  cases 
necessarily  artificial. 

For  example,  pianos  in  Argentina  pay  25  per  cent  ad  valorem, 
but  the  Valuation  Tariff  schedules  pianos  according  to  their  shape 
into  three  classes,  upright,  grand  and  baby  grand.  The  first  is 
valued  at  150  pesos  (gold),  the  second  at  500  pesos  and  the  third 
at  300  pesos.  Every  upright  piano  no  matter  what  its  true  value 
pays  3714  pesos  duty  (25  per  cent  of  150),  every  grand  125  pesos 
and  every  baby  grand  75  pesos. 

The  example  will  give  an  insight  into  the  true  economic  appli- 
cation of  Latin  American  (or  of  any  other)  specific  tariffs.     The 


90  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

American  piano  manufacturer  makes  the  three  shapes,  but  the 
cost  and  value  of  the  pianos  are  not  in  any  great  degree  gauged 
by  their  shapes.  An  upright  piano  may  cost  as  much  and  sell  for 
as  much  as  a  grand  piano,  or  a  very  fine  upright  may  be  worth  as 
much  as  three  very  cheap  grands.  Apply  these  facts  to  the  Argen- 
tine tariff.  An  American  grand  piano  worth  $600  and  a  French 
upright  worth  the  same  are  entered  at  the  same  time  in  Buenos 
Aires.  Supposing  freight,  insurance  and  other  incidentals  to  be 
the  same,  $50  in  each  case,  the  American  piano  is  cleared  through 
the  Custom  House  costing  $771.25  while  the  French  piano  stands 
at  $686.38.  In  other  words  the  American  piano  has  paid  a  duty 
of  $121.25  and  the  French  piano  a  duty  of  only  $86.38,  and  pre- 
suming that  these  two  pianos  enter  into  competition  the  one  with 
the  other,  the  American  is  handicapped  by  $84.87  at  the  start. 

So  in  textiles.  The  effect  of  the  tariff  law  in  Latin  American 
countries  is  often  to  favor  one  kind  or  quality  of  textile  as  against 
a  certain  other  kind  or  quality.  The  failure  to  understand  these 
facts  is  responsible  for  many  of  the  failures  of  American 
exporters  in  their  first  ventures  in  introducing  their  goods  into 
Latin  America.  Complaints  are  sometimes  made  that  English 
or  German  manufacturers  pay  a  lower  tariff  rate  in  Latin  America 
than  do  United  States  manufacturers.  This  is  not  true,  in  fact 
all  American  goods  enjoy  a  preferential  in  one  country  (Cuba) 
and  a  limited  list  of  American  goods  a  preferential  in  another 
country  (Brazil).  For  the  rest  the  duties  are  alike  to  all.  What 
happens  is  this :  the  Englishman  or  German  manufactures  to  meet 
the  tariff  and  the  American  does  not.  By  a  slight  change  in  the 
warp  or  woof  of  the  textile,  not  changing  its  value,  its  durability, 
its  appearance  and  perhaps  not  its  cost,  the  Englishman  or  Ger- 
man radically  changes  the  tariff  status  of  the  textile.  The  Amer- 
ican exporter  not  appreciating  what  has  been  done  believes  that 
he  has  been  unfairly  discriminated  against. 

So  in  metal  goods.  Small  brass  or  copper  ornamentation  on 
steel  or  iron  furniture  will  often  change  the  appraisement  from 
iron  to  brass  at  a  much  higher  rate. 

Straw  hats  with  silk  bands  may  pay  a  rate  four  times  as  high 
as  hats  without  bands.    The  bands  can  be  shipped  separately. 

Then  again  the  misnaming  of  articles  frequently  throws  them 
into  a  higher  class.  Calling  leather  substitutes  leather  may  make 
Ihem  dutiable  as  leather.  Calling  glaze  or  enamel  paint  varnish 
may  make  it  dutiable  at  the  higher  rate  of  varnish.  No  general 
rules  are  applicable,  in  these  cases.  Each  proposition  must  be 
studied  for  itself  and  for  each  country. 


General  Commercial  Regulations  in 
Latin  America 


By  Iuving  E.  Rines 


IN  many  respects  the  commercial  codes  of  the  Latin- American 
countries  are  similar,  the  differences  occurring  chiefly  in 
minor  details.  The  codes  of  some  countries  are  quite  com- 
plete while  a  few  lack  many  of  the  features  essential  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  principles  on  which  business  in  general  is 
conducted;  for  such  omissions  one  must  consult  the  civil,  penal 
and  maritime  codes,  and  the  various  constitutions,  though  in  some 
cases  these  are  absolutely  contradictory.  Some  countries  have 
based  their  commercial  codes  on  those  of  other  countries,  contig- 
uous or  otherwise,  and  others  have  adopted  foreign  codes  outright 
with  the  few  changes  necessary  to  harmonize  them  with  laws 
already  in  force.  All  the  codes  have  been  largely  influenced  by 
Spanish  and  French  usages  and  practices,  but  probably  to  the 
greatest  extent  by  the  Brazilian  code.  By  law  556  of  25  June  1850, 
which  became  effective  25  Dec.  1850,  Brazil  came  into  possession 
of  a  code  which  still  remains  in  force,  with  the  alterations  intro- 
duced by  some  recent  laws.  Some  claim  that  this  code  furnished 
the  basis  for  a  large  portion  of  the  old  Argentine  code  of  1855, 
but  even  though  this  contention  does  not  accord  strictly  with  the 
facts,  it  at  least  considerably  influenced  the  shaping  of  this  code 
and  Argentina's  later  code  of  1889.  The  Argentine  code  was 
adopted  as  the  law  of  Uruguay  in  a  slightly  modified  form  and 
later  was  revised  by  that  country  to  incorporate  laws  already  in 
force,  some  sections  being  entirely  deleted,  some  reformed  and 
others  added.  The  Argentine  code  furnished  the  foundation  of 
the  Chilean  code  of  1865,  though  the  latter  contains  numerous 
improvements;  and  in  1903  this  same  code  with  all  its  modifica- 
tions was  adopted  in  its  entirety  by  Paraguay.  The  Colombian 
civil  code  and  that  of  Chile  are  identical,  the  latter,  in  its  treat- 
ment of  obligations  especially,  being  taken  from  the  French  civil 
code.  A  large  portion  of  the  Venezuelan  code  of  1904  is  based  on  the 
French  code  of  1808  but  numerous  provisions  were  appropriated 
from  the  German  code  of  1900  and  the  Italian  code  of  1882,  while 

[911 


92  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  Spanish  and  French  laws  relating  to  certain  phases  of  commer- 
ical  activities  served  as  models  for  the  Venezuelan  compilers. 
The  main  features  of  the  original  Ecuadorean  code  were  taken 
from  the  old  Spanish  laws  and  the  French  and  Chilean  commercial 
laws  in  force  prior  to  1880,  but  though  the  code  was  revised  it  still 
possesses  a  large  proportion  of  the  deficiencies  of  the  old  code. 
The  present  Peruvian  code  is  the  Spanish  code  of  1885  with  sev- 
eral substitutions  and  additions  of  articles,  one  section  being  taken 
from  the  Italian  code.  The  chaotic  conditions  existing  in  Mexico 
during  the  past  few  years  and  the  promulgation  of  a  new  constitu- 
tion on  5  Feb.  1917  render  any  statement  of  conditions  in  that 
country  practically  useless.  The  codes  of  Guatemala,  Honduras 
and  El  Salvador  are  patterned  after  the  Chilean  and  Spanish 
codes,  many  sections  being  identical,  but  they  include  some  features 
of  the  most  notable  codes  of  Europe  and  America.  In  Cuba 
the  code  is  practically  the  Spanish  code  of  22  Aug.  1885  extended 
to  Cuba  by  royal  decree  28  Jan.  1886  but  which  has  been  amended 
by  the  United  States  military  governors  and  later  by  the  Cuban 
Congress.  The  Dominican  code  is  based  largely  on  the  "  French 
Codes  of  the  Kestoration."  In  Costa  Rica  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  Spanish  connnercial  code  still  flourishes  in  all  its  vigor. 

Hence  it  is  possible,  only  in  the  most  general  terms,  to  eluci- 
date the  fundamental  principles  under  which  commercial  opera- 
tions may  be  conducted,  and  even  some  of  the  regulations  incor- 
porated in  the  following  paragraphs  may  not  be  applicable  to  all 
countries,  though  in  many  cases  discrepancies  have  been  indicated. 
Manifestly,  to  include  specific  and  detailed  information  for  each 
country  would  be  impossible,  particularly  regarding  the  registra- 
tion of  merchants,  the  laws  relating  to  contracts,  trade  marks, 
patents,  mines,  companies,  partnerships,  etc. ;  and  for  such  details 
the  codes  of  each  country  must  be  consulted  separately.  Besides, 
the  laws  relating  to  bankruptcy  vary  greatly  in  details  as  do  also 
the  maritime  codes ;  and.  the  questions  of  admission  of  oral  and 
written  evidence  in  commercial  actions  and  lawsuits  and  of  the 
conduct  of  cases  before  the  various  legal  tribunals  are  so  widely 
divergent  and  involve  so  many  technicalities  and  niceties  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  dealing  with  them  in  generalities.  Fur- 
thermore, many  phases  of  commercial  life  are  discussed  elsewhere 
(such  as  banking,  finance,  currency,  tariff,  consular  regulations  and 
■procedure,  credit,  taxes  and  trading  licenses,  property  rights, 
railroads,  insurance,  labor,  etc.)  and  for  obvious  reasons  the 
commercial  regulations  relating  to  these  subjects  are  omitted 
here. 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  93 


Acts  of  Commerce 


As  defined  by  the  Uruguayan  code,  the  law  considers  to  be 
acts  of  commerce  in  general:  (1)  Every  purchase  of  an  article  to 
resell  or  to  hire  out,  whether  it  be  in  the  same  state  or  condition 
as  when  purchased  or  whether  it  has  been  given  another  form  of 
greater  or  less  value;  (2)  Every  bill  of  exchange,  banking,  broker-, 
age,  or  auctioneering  transaction;  (3)  Every  transaction  relating 
to  negotiable  instruments  or  any  other  kind  of  a  document  trans- 
ferable by  indorsement;  (4)  Manufactures,  commissions,  bailment 
or  transport  of  goods  by  water  or  land;  (5)  Joint  stock  com- 
panies of  whatever  object;  (6)  Charter  parties,  insurances,  pur- 
chase or  sale  of  ships,  tackle,  provisions,  and  everything  relating 
to  mercantile  commerce;  (7)  The  acts  or  operations  of  managers, 
bookkeepers  and  other  employees,  relating  to  the  business  of  their 
employers;  (8)  Agreements  as  to  wages  of  assistants  and  other 
employees.  Other  codes,  such  as  that  of  Venezuela,  define  com- 
mercial acts  more  minutely  but  probably  no  more  comprehen- 
sively. Under  the  Colombian  code  the  following  are  presumed  not 
to  be  commercial  transactions:  (1)  Purchases  of  articles  intended 
by  the  buyer  for  domestic  consumption,  and  the  sale  of  surplus 
stores;  (2)  Sales  made  by  farmers  and  graziers  of  the  produce  of 
their  crops  or  cattle;  (3)  Purchases  made  by  public  officials  or 
employees  for  the  public  service;  (4)  Purchases  of  articles 
accessory  to  the  manufacture  of  works  of  art  or  acces- 
sory to  the  mere  sale  of  the  produce  of  handicrafts.  Argen- 
tina condemns  as  illegal  all  gambling  transactions  such  as  ficti- 
tious buying  and  selling  and  the  payment  of  the  difference  (as  in 
the  case  of  bucket  shops).  In  Colombia  a  lottery  is  not  commer- 
cial transaction,  wherefore  an  association  formed  by  persons  not 
traders  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  such  gambling  transactions 
should  not  be  considered  a  commercial  association. 

Merchants 

In  general  terms  merchants  may  be  defined  as  those  who, 
having  the  free  management  of  their  properties  under  the  ordi- 
nary law,  and  the  legal  capacity  to  contract,  habitually  practice 
on  their  account  as  traders,  whether  as  manufacturers,  or  merely 
as  buyers  and  sellers  (wholesale  or  retail) ;  whether  their  opera- 
tions be  Confined  to  the  country  itself  or  be  carried  on  abroad;  or 
whether  they  be  engaged  in  a  single  branch  or  in  several  branches 
of  commerce  at  the  same  time.  Unless  proven  to  the  contrary,  all 
dealings  by  such  persons  are  presumed  to  be  acts  of  commerce 


94  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  therefore  such  persons  are  subject  to  commercial  jurisdiction, 
regulations  and  legislation.  In  Bolivia  traders  may  engage  either 
in  wholesale  or  retail  trading  but  not  in  both  at  the  same  time. 
Besides  free  agents,  the  following  persons  have  the  right  to  trade 
in  Brazil:  (1)  Minors  who  have  been  legally  freed  or  emancipated 
from  parental  tutelage;  (2)  Children  over  18  years  of  age  still 
under  parental  tutelage  who  have  the  parental  consent,  registered 
by  a  notary.  If  a  son  21  years  of  age  has  been  in  business  partner- 
ship with  his  father  but  with  the  latter 's  written  consent  should  open 
a  business  establishment  he  shall  be  considered  free  from  parental 
or  other  tutelage  and  of  age  for  all  legal  purposes  and  effects  in 
commercial  transactions;  (3)  Married  women  18  years  of  age  if 
they  obtain  their  husbands'  consent,  registered  by  a  notary,  may 
trade  in  their  own  name,  those  separated  from  their  husbands  not 
requiring  consent.  Before  beginning  to  trade,  minors,  children 
under  parental  tutelage,  and  married  women  must  register  their 
claims  to  civil  qualification  in  the  commercial  registry  in  charge 
of  the  commercial  councils  of  their  districts.  In  Uruguay,  if  the 
father  be  deceased,  the  son  must  be  freed  from  tutelage  in  the 
administration  of  his  estate  in  the  form  prescribed  by  common 
law.  Some  countries,  as  Peru,  make  the  age  limit  21  years  for 
single  persons  and  16  years  for  married  women  if  consent  be  given 
by  the  husband. 

Marriage  does  not  release  a  female  merchant  from  her  obli- 
gations. When  a  female  trader  marries,  she  is  presumed  to  have 
been  authorized  by  the  husband  to  continue  her  judicial  acts  unless 
he  publicly  and  otherwise  by  circular,  advertisement,  etc.,  noti- 
fies to  the  contrary  everyone  with  whom,  at  the  time,  she  had 
commercial  transactions.  A  married  woman  of  full  age  may  prac- 
tise commerce  with  the  authorization  of  her  husband  or  if  there 
has  been  a  legal  separation  of  property,  though  such  authorization 
may  be  merely  tacit,  but  the  revocation  of  such  authorization  must 
be  a  notarial  instrument,  duly  registered  and  published.  The  age 
of  a  woman  trader  varies  in  the  different  countries,  ranging  from 
18  years  in  Brazil  to  25  in  Chile,  but  in  some  countries  provisions 
are  made  whereby  women  below  the  minimum  age  may  engage  in 
commerce.  In  Chile  women  between  21  and  25  may  trade  on 
obtaining  from  husbands  of  full  age  the  necessary  formal  author- 
ity, or  in  default  thereof  on  the  authority  of  a  judge.  A  married 
woman  who  does  not  carry  on  a  trade  separate  from  that  of  her 
husband  is  not  considered  a  merchant  (nor  in  Uruguay  the  wife 
of  a  merchant  who  merely  assists  her  husband  in  business).  A 
divorced  woman  of  full  age  and  one  who  has  obtained  separation 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  95 

of  property  may  trade  after  the  registration  and  publication  of 
such  decrees,  but  a  divorced  woman  between  21  and  25  years  of 
age  must  obtain  qualification  of  age  (emancipation).  In  Colom- 
bia, in  order  to  be  able  to  contract  or  bind  themselves,  married 
women  must  obtain  the  consent  of  their  husbands,  if  not 
separated  in  so  far  as  ownership  of  goods  is  concerned.  If  the 
husband  be  under  age,  his  curator  must  authorize  the  wife  to 
trade  if  not  opposed  by  the  husband;  and  in  such  a  case,  if  the 
wife,  too,  should  be  under  21,  the  authority  of  her  curator  is  also 
necessary. 

In  most  countries  a  wife  cannot  execute  acts  of  commerce 
against  the  wish  of  her  husband  nor  can  she  contract  obligations 
on,  alienate  or  mortgage  the  immovable  property  of  her  husband, 
acquired  before  marriage,  if  properly  inscribed  in  the  register  15 
days  after  marriage,  nor  the  real  property  which  belongs  to  both  in 
common  unless  specifically  authorized.  In  Bolivia,  if  the  authoriz- 
ing instrument  do  not  empower  the  wife  to  mortgage  the  immov- 
able property  of  the  husband  or  the  common  property  of  both,  her 
dowry  and  paraphernalia  alone  shall  be  liable  for  the  results  of 
her  trading  venture.  This  applies  also  in  Colombia,  if  the  wife 
should  trade  only  by  judicial  authority  or  by  authority  of  her 
curator.  In  Chile  a  woman  who  trades  with  the  expressed  or 
implied  authorization  of  her  husband  involves  her  husband's 
property  the  same  as  if  the  act  were  his  own;  she  also  binds  her 
own  property  up  to  the  amount  of  the  separate  profit  which  she 
derives  from  the  act;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  instrument  of 
authorization  may  limit  the  liability  by  excluding  the  husband's 
property  and  that  of  the  conjugal  partnership.  Neither  husband 
nor  wife  separately,  nor  both  together,  may  sell  or  mortgage  the 
real  estate  of  the  wife  save  in  certain  instances.  Article  159  of  the 
Venezuela  civil  code  provides  that  if  the  wife  be  blameable  for  a 
judicial  separation,  the  husband,  should  he  so  desire,  may  control 
the  property  of  the  common  estate.  In  Uruguay  a  wife  authorized 
to  trade  may  not  sue  in  court  either  on  acts  or  contracts  arising 
out  of  her  business  without  the  express  consent  of  her  husband  or, 
failing  this,  the  consent  of  the  court.  In  Brazil  minors  and  chil- 
dren under  parental  tutelage  who  are  traders  can  validly  con- 
tract obligations  on  or  mortgage  or  alienate  their  real  property 
without  being  entitled  to  allege  the  benefit  of  restitution. 

Among  those  forbidden  to  trade  in  Brazil  are  the  presidents 
and  military  commanders  of  the  various  states;  magistrates 
appointed  for  life;  municipal  judges  and  judges  of  orphans;  offi- 
cers of  the  public  treasury;  military  officers  of  the  first  line,  of 


96  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

sea  and  land,  unless  pensioned,  and  also  those  of  the  police  force ; 
and  bankrupts  who  have  not  been  legally  discharged.  If  they  do 
not  make  a  business  of  it,  however,  such  persons  may  lend  money 
at  interest  and  hold  shares  in  many  commercial  associations  pro- 
vided they  do  not  participate  in  the  management  of  the  associa- 
tion. To  the  above  list  Argentina  adds  clergymen  wearing  clerical 
costumes,  ecclesiastical  corporations,  and  persons  subject  to  an 
interdiction;  while  Bolivia  adds  persons  forbidden  to  administer 
their  property,  married  women  (in  certain  cases),  persons 
declared  to  be  infamous  (though  the  punishments  of  infamy  and 
civil  death  have  been  abolished),  minors,  although  emancipated, 
until  21  years  of  age,  and  generally  all  such  persons  who  by  law 
are  forbidden  to  contract  in  certain  cases.  Peru  adds  exchange 
agents  and  commercial  brokers  of  all  kinds;  Salvador  includes 
immature  persons  (males  who  have  not  completed  14  years  and 
females  who  have  not  completed  12  years) ;  and  Nicaragua 
includes  those  ''  of  notoriouslv  abandoned  conduct." 


Registration  of  Merchants 

Most  of  the  countries  stipulate  that,  to  enjoy  the  advantages 
of  the  commercial  code,  merchants  must  register  at  the  commer- 
cial tribunal  or  some  corresponding  bureau.  Bolivia  provides  a 
general  guild  of  traders  for  which  purpose  a  book  of  general 
register  is  kept  in  each  departmental  capital  and  a  book  of  par- 
ticular register  in  provincial  capitals,  and  unless  their  names  are 
inscribed  therein,  traders  cannot  belong  to  the  guild.  But  in  order 
to  register  traders  must  possess  4,000  bolivianos  ($1,560)  in  their 
business  or  set  aside  that  amount  for  starting  business.  Unregis- 
tered traders  may  continue  in  business  but  their  legal  proceedings 
must  come  before  the  ordinary  judges  and  tribunals  according 
to  common  law.  In  Uruguay  registration  is  not  indispensable  to 
enable  a  person  to  be  considered  a  merchant.  If  so  registered 
before  seeking  any  of  the  various  privileges  permitted  by  the 
code,  merchants  may  use  their  books  as  evidence  in  court,  may 
employ  the  right  of  applying  for  composition  with  their  creditors, 
may  exercise  the  functions  of  assignee  in  insolvencies  and  enjoj^ 
the  advantage  of  discharge  in  case  of  bankruptcy.  Registration 
entails  the  filing  of  documents  such  as  marriage  settlements, 
judgments  of  divorce  or  separation,  of  property,  authorizations 
to  minors  or  wives,  powers  of  attorney,  notarial  agreements  of 
partnership  (except  silent  or  ''  sleeping  "  partnerships). 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  97 


Mercantile  Books 


Every  merchant,  whether  registered  or  unregistered,  must 
keep  a  regular  system  of  accounts  and  bookkeeping  —  particularly 
a  day-book  and  copy  letter  book;  in  some  countries  a  ledger  or 
book  of  current  acco\int  and  a  stock  book  or  book  of  inventories 
and  balance  sheets  also  are  obligatory  (and  in  Peru  other  books 
ordered  by  special  laws),  but  all  other  books  are  optional.  Asso- 
ciations and  companies  must  keep  a  book  of  minutes.  The  obliga- 
tory books  must  be  bound,  paged,  stamped  and  initialed  on  every 
page  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  proper  commercial  tribunal 
and  all  books  must  be  kept  in  the  form  prescribed  by  law  under 
pain  of  various  penalties.  All  entries  must  be  in  the  language  and 
currency  of  the  country,  and  a  person  using  another  language  only 
is  subject  to  heavy  fine  and  must  translate  such  entries  at  his  own 
expense.  Some  countries,  as  Argentina,  stipulate  that  institutions 
and  traders  must  keep  their  books  in  both  gold  and  paper  curren- 
cies. Commercial  books  may  not  be  used  as  evidence  in  court  if 
they  contain  an  alteration  of  the  order  of  date  or  transaction  of 
the  affairs;  spaces  between  entries;  unauthenticated  interlinea- 
tions, erasures  or  amendments;  deleted  entries;  or  pages  torn  out 
or  the  binding  or  paging  altered.  Traders  using  books  containing 
any  of  these  defects  are  subject  to  a  heavy  fine,  nor  may  an 
insolvent  trader  obtain  his  discharge  if  his  books  have  not  been 
inscribed  with  the  '*  rubrica  "  or  special  mark  of  the  commercial 
tribunal.  In  Colombia  books  properly  kept  do  not  constitute  even 
prima  facie  evidence  in  favor  of  the  trader  15  months  after  the 
date  of  a  particular  entry  unless  a  demand  has  been  made  upon  the 
debtor  or  a  protest  entered  against  him,  in  cases  of  absence  or 
ignorance  of  his  whereabouts.  No  tribunal  officially  may  compel 
the  general  production  and  inspection  of  commercial  books  save 
in  actions  relating  to  succession,  community  or  joint  ownership 
of  property,  partnership  management  or  agency  and  insolvencies 
or  bankruptcies.  Most  countries  provide  that  merchants  must 
return  balance  sheets  annually  but  Argentina  requires  at  least 
once  in  three  years  and  also  that  merchants  must  preserve  their 
books  for  a  period  of  20  years,  while  Peru  requires  only  5  years ; 
Dominican  Republic  10  years.  Entries  made  by  subordinates  in 
charge  of  the  bookkeeping  in  the  books  of  their  principals  obligate 
and  bind  the  latter  the  same  as  if  they  themselves  had  made  the 
entries. 


98  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Brokers 

Any  person  authorized  to  intervene  in  commercial  negotia- 
tions and  contracts  between  traders  is  a  broker.  Most  countries 
provide  that  a  broker  must  be  a  citizen  over  25  years  of  age  (in 
Argentina  22  years,  in  Nicaragua  20;  Uruguay  21) ;  must  have  the 
right  to  trade ;  must  be  registered ;  must  have  resided  at  his 
address  at  least  one  year ;  must  have  served  in  a  commercial 
business  an  apprenticeship  of  at  least  one  year  (in  Brazil  2  years, 
Peru  3  years,  Bolivia  4  years) ;  must  certify  that  he  is  not  an 
undischarged  bankrupt;  must  never  have  been  condemned  of  any 
crime  rendering  a  person  incapable  of  holding  public  office ;  and  in 
most  countries  must  deposit,  either  in  cash  or  securities,  a  guar- 
anty for  good  conduct  in  commercial  relationships  (in  Bolivia 
3,000  bolivianos  ($1,170) ;  in  Brazil  5  contos  of  reis  ($1,622.20) ; 
in  Peru  20,(X)0  pesos  for  licensed  brokers  in  the  capital  and  6,000 
pesos  in  outside  places;  in  Chile  1,000  to  5,000  pesos  (peso,  paper 
-=^$0.18;  peso,  gold  =  $0,365),  according  to  locality;  in  Venezuela 
1,000  to  12,000  bolivares,  etc.  (bolivar  =  $0.19).  Women, 
minors,  dismissed  brokers,  persons  prohibited  to  carry  on  trade, 
persons  condemned  to  corporal  or  infamous  punishment  (in  Chile), 
aliens,  and  foreigners  who  have  not  been  naturalized  (in  Brazil) 
cannot  be  brokers.  Fees  are  fixed  by  law  and  vary  slightly  in  the 
different  countries.  In  Chile  the  liability  of  brokers,  by  reason  of 
their  official  transactions,  is  prescribed  in  two  years.  In  Brazil  a 
broker  who  acts  deceitfully  and  fraudulently  is  guilty  of  mis- 
representation, must  indemnify  those  who  lose  by  such  actions,  is 
subject  to  the  loss  of  all  his  security  deposited  as  a  guaranty,  and 
is  criminally  liable.  Brokers  must  not  directly  or  indirectly 
transact  or  effect  any  commercial  operations  on  their  own  account 
or  have  any  part  or  interest  therein ;  must  not  enter  a  partnership 
or  association  of  any  kind  whatsoever;  must  not  take  a  part  or 
share  in  ships  or  their  cargoes ;  must  not  acquire  for  themselves  or 
for  any  member  of  their  families  anything  given  for  sale  to  them 
or  to  any  other  broker;  the  usual  penalty  for  violation  being 
deprivation  of  office.  No  broker  may  undertake  to  collect  or  make 
payments  on  account  of  another  on  pain  of  heavy  fine.  Colombia 
provides  that  if  a  broker  intervene  in  any  illegal  contract;  offer 
merchandise  in  behalf  of  persons  unknown  in  the  market;  inter- 
vene in  a  contract  respecting  things  owned  by  a  person  who  has 
suspended  payment;  board  ships  in  bays  and  harbors  prior  to 
anchoring  or  go  to  meet  carters,  carriers  or  waggoners  on  the 
roads  to  solicit  the  handling  of  their  business,  he  shall  be  sus- 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  99 

pended  from  office  for  two  years  for  the  first  offense,  six  years  for 
the  second,  and  entirely  deprived  of  office  for  the  third  and  also 
held  responsible  for  damages  or  losses.  All  countries  provide  that 
bankruptcies  of  brokers  shall  be  held  to  be  fraudulent. 

Agency  and  Commission 

An  agency,  or  a  mandate,  is  the  conducting  of  business  by  one 
person  under  the  name  of  the  persons  engaging  him  for  such 
duties,  the  acts  of  the  former  binding  the  latter,  while  a  commis- 
sion or  consignment  exists  when  a  business  is  conducted  either 
under  the  name  of  the  agent  himself  or  of  his  principals.  An 
agent  may  resign  at  any  time  if  he  be  willing  to  assume  any  dam- 
ages (with  certain  exceptions)  to  his  employers  arising  from  such 
action,  but  he  may  not  transfer  the  powers  of  mandate  to  a  third 
person  unless  authorized.  Agents  can  claim  indemnification  from 
their  principals  for  losses  sustained  owing  to  defects  of  the  subject 
matter  of  the  mandate.  A  commission  agent  (factor)  contracting- 
in  his  own  name  or  the  name  of  his  firm  or  partnership  is  directly 
bound  to  the  persons  with  whom  he  contracts  without  the  latter 
having  any  right  of  action  against  the  principal,  but  the  agent  has 
the  right  to  accept  or  refuse  a  commission,  though  his  refusal  must 
be  made  within  24  hours  and  must  not  prejudice  existing  business 
transactions.  An  agent  is  not  bound  to  inform  the  person  with 
whom  he  contracts  of  the  name  of  his  principal.  If  he  refuse  a 
commission  consisting  of  goods  which  have  been  consigned  to  him 
he  must  advise  his  principal  by  next  mail,  and  must  receive  and 
preserve  the  goods  until  the  principal  has  had  time  to  answer  giv- 
ing instructions  for  their  disposal.  Traders  beginning  to  carry  out 
business  entrusted  to  them  on  commission  must  finish  it.  In 
Brazil  a  principal  is  responsible  for  all  the  acts  of  his  agent 
within  the  limits  of  a  mandate  whether  the  latter  act  in  his  own 
name  or  in  that  of  the  principal.  If  an  agent  contract  expressly 
in  the  name  of  his  principal  the  latter  alone  is  responsible,  but  if 
he  act  in  his  own  name  the  agent  is  personally  liable  even  though 
the  business  may  be  on  the  account  of  his  principal.  If  a  princi- 
pal, without  justifiable  cause  arising  from  the  faults  of  the  agent, 
shall  revoke  a  mandate  before  its  completion,  the  agent  must  be 
paid  not  less  than  half  the  commission,  whether  earned  or  not.  A 
principal  may  hold  a  factor  for  damages  sustained  if  the  latter 
exceed  instructions  or  transgress  commercial  usage,  but  failure  on 
the  part  of  the  principal  to  reply  within  24  hours  or  by  second 
post  to  the  factor's  request  for  advice  or  authority  relating  to 


100  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

some  transaction  is  a  presumption  of  approval,  and  the  factor  can- 
not be  held  for  exceeding  instructions.  Principals  may  claim  all 
benefits  and  savings  by  a  factor  in  contracts  for  another's  account; 
no  factor,  without  express  permission,  may  acquire,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  any  goods  entrusted  to  him  for  disposal,  and  if,  to 
the  detriment  of  his  principal,  he  should  consummate  any  deals  at 
prices  other  than  those  locally  current  he  is  liable  for  damages. 
A  commission  agent  proven  to  have  rendered  an  account  not  in 
accordance  with  the  entries  in  his  books  shall  be  prosecuted  as 
guilty  of  theft.  For  advances  made  and  expenses  incurred  and 
for  commission  fees,  commission  agents  have  a  preferential  credit 
on  goods  consigned  to  them  and  such  goods  cannot  be  disposed  of 
until  such  debts  are  paid. 

Contracts 

A  mercantile  contract  of  sale  is  a  contract  by  which  one  indi- 
vidual, whether  or  not  owner  or  possessor  of  the  subject  matter  of 
the  agreement,  binds  himself  to  deliver  it  or  cause  another  person 
to  acquire  it  in  ownership,  who  on  his  part  agrees  to  pay  the 
stipulated  price  and  who  purchases  it  in  order  to  resell  it  or  lease 
the  use  thereof.  A  sale  of  chattels  is  alone  considered  mercantile 
when  it  is  in  order  to  resell  them  by  wholesale  or  retail  or  to  lease 
their  use.  The  following  are  not  considered  mercantile :  (1)  Pur- 
chases of  real  (immovable)  property  and  chattels  accessory 
thereto,  with  some  exceptions;  (2)  Purchases  of  things  intended 
for  the  consumption  of  the  buyer  or  of  the  person  on  whose  order 
the  acquisition  is  made;  (3)  Sales  by  farmers  or  land  owners  of 
the  produce  of  their  harvests  and  herds ;  (4)  Sales  of  produce  and 
goods  received  by  way  of  rent,  gift,  salary,  emolument,  or  any  other 
title  whether  by  way  of  reward  or  gratuity;  (5)  The  resale  of  the 
remains  of  the  stores  which  a  person  may  have  acquired  for  his 
private  consumption. 

Contracts  made  by  letter  shall  be  considered  completed  from 
the  time  that  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  was  written  answers  it, 
accepting  the  proposals;  a  verbal  offer  of  a  transaction  must  be 
accepted  by  the  person  to  whom  it  was  made  as  soon  as  it  is  known 
by  him.  In  Uruguay  a  contract  made  by  a  representative  of  the 
person  represented  is  as  valid  as  if  made  by  the  person  himself. 
If  a  person  contracting  in  his  own  name  stipulate  for  any  advantage 
in  favor  of  a  third  party,  even  if  unauthorized  to  represent  him, 
the  third  party  may  demand  the  consummation  of  the  obligation 
if  he  accept  it  and  before  revocation  notify  the  person  liable  there- 
under.   If  by  means  of  a  contract  a  person  attempt  to  obligate  a 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  101 

third  person  whom  he  is  not  authorized  to  represent,  the  third 
person,  unless  he  ratify  the  contract,  cannot  be  held  liable ;  and  if 
he  refuse  the  other  person  may  hold  the  first  person  liable  for 
damages.  Modification  of  an  original  offer  has  the  effect  of  a  new 
offer.  If  any  of  those  entering  into  a  conditional  contract  should 
die  before  the  fulfilment  of  the  condition,  their  heirs  shall  inherit 
their  rights  and  obligations,  unless  the  condition  be  essentially 
personal  and  cannot  be  fulfilled  by  the  heirs. 

No  contract  made  by  persons  who  do  not  habitually  practise 
commerce  can  be  commercial,  even  when  it  affects  merchandise, 
bills  or  other  indorsable  securities.  Brazil  and  most  countries  pro- 
vide that  contracts  made  by  persons  incapable  of  contracting  are 
null  and  void,  as  are  also  those  the  subject  matter  of  which  is 
prohibited  by  law  or  the  object  of  which  is  manifestly  objection- 
able to  sound  morals  and  good  customs;  those  not  designating  a 
definite  consideration  from  which  the  obligation  is  derived;  those 
induced  by  deceit,  fraud  or  pretense ;  those  contracted  by  a  trader 
within  40  days  prior  to  his  declaration  of  bankruptcy.  Infants, 
lunatics  and  deaf  mutes  unable  to  make  themselves  understood  in 
writing  are  incapable  of  contracting  in  Uruguay;  as  are  minors 
under  parental  control,  married  women  and  bankrupt  merchants, 
though  the  incapacity  of  these  persons  is  not  absolute  and  their 
acts  can  hold  good  under  certain  circumstances  and  conditions, 
determined  by  law.  Contracts  referring  to  an  act  morally  or  phys- 
ically impossible  are  void,  as  are  those  founded  on  an  unlawful  or 
illicit  consideration.  Obligations  maturing  on  Sunday  or  other 
feast  days  shall  be  due  on  the  following  day  (in  Uruguay  the  day 
previous).  Colombia  does  not  compel  a  creditor  to  accept  pay- 
ment before  an  obligation  matures  but  he  may  exact  security  if  a 
debtor  be  imprisoned  for  more  than  one  month,  abscond  from  his 
home,  fraudulently  deal  with  his  property  or  find  himself  on  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy. 

Every  document  forming  a  commercial  contract  must  be  writ- 
ten in  the  language  of  the  countrj^;  and  unless  authenticated  by 
the  signatures  of  the  contracting  parties,  erasures,  alterations  or 
interlineations  will  nullify  it.  The  words  of  contracts  and  agree- 
ments must  be  understood  in  the  sense  which  general  use  gives 
them,  although  the  person  bound  thereby  claims  to  have  understood 
them  otherwise.  When  generic  terms,  which  can  be  applied  to 
different  values  or  quantities,  have  been  used  in  a  contract  to  denote 
money,  weight  or  measure,  the  obligation  shall  be  understood  to 
be  contracted  in  that  species  of  money,  weight  or  measure  which  is 
in  use  in  contracts  of  like  nature.    In  Uruguay,  mistake  of  factj 

8 


102  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

under  certain  circumstances,  is  ground  for  nullity  of  a  contract. 
Uncertain  or  indefinite  offers  contained  in  a  prospectus  or  circular 
do  not  bind  the  person  making  them.  In  purchasing  goods  not  in 
sight  and  which  cannot  be  classed  by  any  fixed  quality  known  to 
commerce,  it  is  presumed  that  the  buyer  reserves  the  right  to 
examine  them  and  freely  to  rescind  the  contract  if  the  goods  do  not 
suit  him.  If  no  immediate  protest  be  made  that  quality  and  quan- 
tity do  not  conform  to  contract,  the  buyer  will  be  understood  to 
renounce  all  further  claim  for  default  of  quantity  or  defect  of 
quality.  If  a  sale  be  made  by  sample  or  by  a  quality  known  in  com- 
mercial usage,  which  is  designated  in  the  contract,  the  buyer  must 
receive  the  contracted  goods  if  they  conform  with  the  sample  or  the 
quality  stated  in  contract;  cases  of  doubt  must  be  decided  by 
arbitrators.  If  a  merchant  entrust  an  employee  with  the  receipt 
of  merchandise  bought  or  coming  to  his  possession  by  other  title 
and  the  employee  has  received  the  same  without  objection  or  pro- 
test, it  shall  be  good  delivery,  unless  the  principal  permits  any 
reclamation,  save  in  certain  cases.  If  a  receipt  for  delivery  of 
goods  has  been  signed  without  any  declaration  of  shortage  or 
damage,  no  claim  can  be  made  for  shortage  or  damage,  provided, 
of  course,  the  goods  are  packed  so  as  not  to  prevent  examination ; 
but  if  goods  be  delivered  in  bales  or  covers  which  prevent  their 
examination  or  recognition,  the  consignee  must,  within  10  days, 
present  his  claim  for  shortage  or  damage. 

In  all  cases,  if  expressly  stipulated,  the  seller  must  deliver  the 
article  sold  within  the  designated  time  and  at  the  appointed  place ; 
failure  to  do  so  enables  the  buyer  to  rescind  the  contract  or  to 
demand  its  fulfillment,  with  damages  for  delay,  in  either  case,  save 
in  instances  of  unforeseen  accident  or  vis  major.  If  a  buyer  should 
unjustifiably  refuse  to  receive  the  articles  purchased  or  omit  to 
receive  them  within  the  stipulated  time,  the  seller  may  apply  for  a 
rescission  of  the  contract  with  compensation  for  damages  or  for 
the  payment  of  the  price  with  legal  interest  for  the  delay;  in  the 
latter  case  he  must  place  the  merchandise  at  the  disposal  of  the 
commercial  court  so  that  it  may  order  its  deposit  and  sale  by  auc- 
tion for  the  account  of  the  buyer.  If  a  buyer  return  the  thing 
bought  and  the  seller  accept  it,  or  if  it  be  redelivered  against  the 
will  of  the  latter  and  he  make  no  judicial  deposit  thereof  on 
account  of  the  owner,  with  notice  of  the  deposit  to  the  buyer,  it  is 
presumed  that  he  had  consented  to  the  rescission  of  the  contract. 
If  a  buyer  have  the  right  to  rescind  contract,  the  seller  must 
refund  any  money  paid  on  account  and  also  pay  any  expenses 
occasioned,  with  legal  interest.    In  case  of  a  dispute  over  posses- 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  103 

sion  or  ownership  of  the  thing  sold,  the  seller  at  his  own  expense 
must  defend  the  validity  of  the  sale  before  the  court,  and  if  unsuc- 
cessful must  not  only  refund  the  price  with  interest  and  pay  costs 
of  the  proceedings  but  may  be  compelled  to  pay  for  the  resulting 
loss  and  damage  and  possibly  subjected  to  criminal  prosecution. 
In  some  countries  a  person,  who  for  three  years  and  in  good  faith 
has  been  in  possession  of  a  lost  or  stolen  chattel,  acquires  owner- 
ship by  prescription,  w^hether  the  true  owner  has  been  absent  or 
present.  If  anyone  sell  a  thing  owned  by  another,  the  buyer  being 
ignorant  thereof,  the  seller  must  refund  the  price  with  damages. 

Unless  specially  provided  in  the  commercial  code,  commercial 
transactions  are  governed  by  the  civil  law.  The  following  are 
admitted  as  evidence  in  commercial  transactions:  notarial  certifi- 
cates; brokers'  notes  or  certified  extracts  from  their  books;  mer- 
chants' books;  accepted  invoices;  written  or  telegraphed  corre- 
spondence ;  private  documents  signed  by  the  contracting  parties  or 
by  duly  authorized  proxies ;  admission  of  parties  and  by  oath ;  and 
witnesses.  Presumptions  may  be  admissible.  In  Brazil,  save  in  a 
few  cases,  proof  by  witnesses  is  only  admissible  in  commercial 
courts  when  actions  relate  to  contracts  valued  at  less  than  400 
milreis  ($216).  When  actions  involve  larger  amounts,  proof  of 
witness  is  admitted  only  as  subsidiarj'^  to  other  documentary 
evidence,  which  provision  applies  in  Peru  to  contracts  exceeding 
200  soles  ($97.20)  in  value. 

Loans  and  Interest 

A  loan  is  subject  to  the  mercantile  laws  if  the  thing  loaned 
be  considered  of  a  commercial  nature  or  designed  for  commercial 
use  and  when  the  contract  made  is  between  merchants  or  persons 
of  that  character.  In  Uruguay  a  verbal  stipulation  for  interest  is 
without  effect  in  law.  Unless  the  time  and  place  of  repayment  are 
specifically  stated,  the  lender  may  demand  payment  10  days  after 
making  the  contract,  and  unless  specifically  stated  or  contrary  to 
law,  interest  begins  from  the  day  of  the  demand,  even  though  the 
demand  may  exceed  the  amount  of  the  debt  and  although  the  cred- 
itor do  not  prove  any  loss  or  damage.  In  Colombia,  Venezuela, 
Peru  and  Cuba  advances  for  an  indefinite  time  are  only  enforce- 
able 30  days  after  the  demand  for  payment.  If  a  bargain  for  inter- 
est be  made  without  stipulation  as  to  the  rate  or  the  time  from 
which  it  is  to  run,  the  parties  are  presumed  to  have  subjected  them- 
selves to  the  rate  obtained  by  the  public  banks  (or,  as  in  Colombia, 
to  the  highest  rate  payable  in  the  open  market)  and  only  for  the 


104  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

time  which  may  transpire  after  the  commencement  of  the  delay  in 
payment  of  principal;  in  other  cases  the  average  rate  is  payable. 
The  Colombian  commercial  code  permits  compound  interest  after 
a  year,  but  the  civil  code  forbids  any  compounding  of  interest; 
private  banks  and  joint  stock  companies  are  allowed  freely  to  fix 
the  rates  of  their  discounts,  interest  and  commission.  In  Uruguay 
the  legal  rate  of  interest  is  9  per  cent  per  annum;  Ecuador,  Cuba 
and  most  of  the  Central  American  countries  allow  6  per  cent  (and 
in  Ecuador  no  rate  under  agreement  may  be  higher  than  12  per 
cent) ;  in  Cuba  the  banks  charge  interest  at  the  rate  of  9  or  10 
per  cent  on  commercial  paper  of  small  denominations,  the  rate 
decreasing  as  the  amount  increases,  sometimes  being  as  low  as  6 
per  cent. 

Debts 

Imprisonment  for  debt  has  been  abolished  in  most  of  the 
Latin-American  countries  (but  in  Bolivia  not  until  19  Oct.  1905), 
save  in  cases  of  culpable  or  fraudulent  bankruptcy,  for  default  in 
payment  of  fines,  and  for  debts  arising  from  guardianship,  curator- 
ship  and  executorship.  In  Chile  if  a  debtor  surrender  to  creditors 
all  his  property  or  other  assets,  the  following  are  not  subject  to 
arrest  (garnishment) :  (1)  Two-thirds  of  the  salaries  of  the  public 
employees  which  do  not  exceed  900  pesos,  or  if  they  do  exceed  this 
sum  then  600  pesos  and  half  the  excess  above  900  pesos  shall  not  be 
subject  to  arrest;  (2)  The  beds  of  debtor  and  his  family  and  the 
clothing  necessary  to  protect  these  persons;  (3)  Books,  machinery 
or  instruments  relating  to  the  profession  of  the  debtor  or  used  by 
him  for  teaching  any  science  or  art,  up  to  the  value  of  200  pesos 
and  at  the  choice  of  the  debtor;  (4)  The  implements  of  an  artisan 
or  farmer  necessary  for  his  personal  labor;  (5)  Articles  of  food 
and  fuel  sufficient  for  one  month;  (())  Certain  immovable  property. 

Prescription 

Ordinary  prescription  in  commercial  matters,  unless  specifi- 
cally granted  a  shorter  time,  takes  effect  in  Argentina,  Venezuela, 
El  Salvador  and  most  of  the  Central  American  countries  in  10 
years ;  in  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  20  years ;  and  in  Chile,  Panama, 
Colombia  and  Ecuador  in  10  years  for  executory  and  in  20  years 
for  ordinary  actions.  Interest  on  capital  loaned  and  all  that 
should  be  paid  annually  or  for  shorter  periods  are  prescribed  in 
most  countries  in  four  years.  Actions  arising  from  mortgage  of  a 
vessel;  actions  against  traders  for  salaries,  wages  or  daily  earn- 
ings or  for  payment  to  contractors  for  work  (save  Brazil  where  the 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  105 

term  is  one  year) ;  actions  by  brokers  for  payment  of  brokerage; 
actions  for  nullity  of  the  composition  in  bankruptcies ;  and  actions 
demanding  the  fulfilment  of  any  commercial  obligations  which  can 
only  be  proved  orally  are  prescribed  in  two  years.  The  following 
are  prescribed  in  most  countries  by  the  expiration  of  one  year: 
actions  for  indemnity  for  damages  caused  by  collisions  of  vessels 
(Cuba  2) ;  actions  arising  from  supplying  provisions,  wood,  fuel, 
and  other  articles  necessary  for  the  repair  or  equipment  of  a  ves- 
sel on  a  voyage  or  labor  performed  with  the  same  objects;  actions 
arising  from  supplies  to  seamen  and  other  members  of  a  crew  by 
order  of  the  master;  actions  against  a  carrier  arising  from  a  con- 
tract of  maritime  or  river  carriage  if  in  transit;  actions  arising 
from  contracts  of  agreement  with  mariners;  actions  for  salaries 
and  wages  of  a  crew.  Actions  derived  from  a  contract  of  partner- 
ship and  from  partnership  transactions,  with  certain  exceptions, 
are  prescribed  in  Cuba  in  3  years;  Peru  4;  Uruguay  4;  and  in 
Chile,  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  El  Salvador,  Dominican  Republic,  etc., 
5.  Actions  arising  from  any  document  susceptible  of  indorsement 
or  to  bearer,  not  being  a  bank  note,  are  prescribed  in  Argentina, 
Peru,  Cuba  and  El  Salvador  in  3  years;  in  Uruguay  and  Bolivia  in 
4  years;  and  in  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Venezuela, 
Dominican  Republic,  etc.,  in  5  years.  Debts  proved  by  current 
accounts  presented  and  accepted  are  prescribed  in  El  Salvador  in 
3  years;  in  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  4  years;  and  in 
Chile,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  Peru  and  others  in  5  years. 
The  right  to  claim  payment  for  merchandise  sold  on  credit  without 
a  written  document  signed  by  creditor  is  prescribed  in  Panama, 
Colombia,  Chile  and  Argentina  in  2  years;  in  El  Salvador  in  3 
years;  in  Brazil  and  Uruguay  from  2  to  4  years  according  to 
residence  of  debtor.  Actions  arising  from  bottomry  bonds  are 
prescribed  in  Argentina  in  2  years;  in  Peru  and  Ecuador  in  3 
years;  in  Nicaragua,  Dominican  Republic,  Ecuador,  Venezuela, 
Chile,  and  Colombia  in  5  years;  and  in  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  1 
year  if  contracted  in  the  country  or  3  years  if  contracted  in  for- 
eign countries.  Actions  arising  from  a  contract  of  affreightment 
are  prescribed  in  Argentina  and  Uruguay  in  1  year  and  in  other 
countries  in  6  months.  Fees  of  persons  practicing  any  liberal  pro- 
fession, such  as  lawyers,  physicians  and  surgeons,  professors  in 
colleges  and  schools,  engineers,  land  surveyors,  etc.,  are  prescribed 
in  3  years.  Liability  of  trustees  in  bankruptcy  is  prescribed  in  2 
years  in  Chile,  reckoned  from  the  closing  of  the  bankruptcy. 
Colombia  and  Venezuela  prescribe  the  responsibility  of  brokers, 
regarding  their  official  operations,  in  2  years ;   others  3  years. 


106  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

In  Uruguay  a  mortgage  may  be  extinguished  by  prescription  in  30 
years  regardless  of  the  person  possessing  the  mortgaged  property; 
in  Cuba  in  20  years.  In  Venezuela  the  claims  of  a  factor  against 
the  principal  for  the  payment  of  his  remuneration  lapse  in  2  years 
and  in  Ecuador  in  1  year ;  but  in  both  countries  the  claims  of  the 
principal  against  the  factor  for  the  mismanagement  of  the  commis- 
sion lapse  in  1  year.  In  Uruguay  the  possessor  of  movable  prop- 
erty  for  6  years  uninterruptedly  acquires  ownership  by  prescrip- 
tion without  the  necessity  of  presenting  a  title  and  cannot  be 
opposed  for  bad  faith.  This  does  not  include  a  thief  or  his  accom- 
plices or  receivers,  who  can  never  acquire  prescriptive  title.  The 
master  of  a  ship  cannot  by  prescription  acquire  the  vessel  on  which 
he  serves  or  anything  pertaining  thereto. 

Trade  Marks 

The  legal  point  of  view  regarding  ownership  of  trade  marks 
differs  radically  in  the  Latin-American  countries  and  the  United 
States.  Under  the  common  law  system  known  as  the  declaratory 
system,  use  is  the  basis  of  property  in  a  mark  and  in  the  United 
States  registration  merely  constitutes  an  additional  means  of  pro- 
tecting that  property  right  acquired  by  use.  But  the  Latin- Ameri- 
can countries  prefer  the  attributive  system,  under  which  the  rights 
of  property  in  a  mark  spring  directly  from  the  law  and  depend 
entirely  upon  registration  of  the  mark.  Usually  no  investigation 
as  to  the  right  to  use  a  mark  is  made  prior  to  registration  but 
notice  of  an  application  for  trade  mark  rights  is  always  published 
in  the  official  gazettes.  Once  granted,  registration  of  a  mark  is 
final  against  later  applicants.  Most  Latin- American  countries  dis- 
tinguish the  manufacturer's  or  ordinary  trade  mark  {marca  de 
fdbrica)  which  is  used  to  designate  the  products  of  a  particular 
factory  or  manufacturing  concern  from  the  dealer's  mark  {marca 
comer cial)  which  is  used  to  designate  the  articles  handled  by  a 
particular  dealer  or  commercial  enterprise.  Separate  registration 
of  the  two  classes  is  required  in  some  countries,  notably  Colombia, 
Chile,  and  Venezuela.  In  a  few  countries  agricultural  products  are 
granted  a  third  class  of  marks.  In  some  countries  articles  are 
divided  into  a  number  of  classes  for  purposes  of  trade  mark 
(Argentina  enumerates  25  classes)  and  separate  registration  is 
required  for  articles  included  in  each  class.  Unless  an  applicant 
for  trade  mark  rights  appear  personally,  the  appointment  of  a 
qualified  attorney  is  usually  necessary  and  the  actual  work  of 
registration  should  be  effected  through  the  employment  of  an 
attorney  familiar  with  the  provisions  of  the  various  laws. 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  107 

The  granting  of  trade  mark  rights  confers  exclusive  owner- 
ship for  a  period  of  10  years  in  Argentina,  Chile,  Guatemala, 
Nicaragua,  Panama,  Paraguay,  Peru  and  Uruguay ;  10  to  20  years 
in  the  Dominican  Republic;  15  years  in  Brazil,  Costa  Rica  and 
Cuba ;  20  years  in  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Mexico  and  El  Salvador ;  30 
years  in  Venezuela;  and  indefinitely  in  Bolivia  and  Honduras.  The 
rights  are  renewable  for  the  same  periods  upon  payment  of  the 
necessary  fees  in  all  countries  save  Costa  Rica  and  Ecuador,  the 
renewal  period  in  the  former  being  10  years  and  in  the  latter  15 
years.  Space  limitations  preclude  the  possibility  of  including  the 
provisions  of  the  laws  of  all  countries  and  the  fees  required  for 
the  grant  and  renewal,  but  the  following  may  be  considered  typical. 
Ownership  of  a  trade  mark  passes  to  the  heirs  of  a  holder  and  the 
transfer  of  same  may  be  made  also  by  contract  or  by  deed  of  gift. 
Unless  specifically  stated  to  the  contrary  the  transfer  of  a  trade 
mark  is  included  in  the  transfer  of  a  business  by  sale  or  otherwise, 
but  before  action  can  be  taken  as  the  proprietor  of  a  transferred 
trade  mark,  such  transfer  must  be  registered  at  the  trade  mark 
office.  To  enjoy  protection,  foreign  trade  marks  must  be  registered 
in  Argentina  under  the  same  formalities  required  of  domestic 
trade  marks.  The  application  and  description  of  the  trade  mark 
must  be  made  in  the  Spanish  language  on  official  paper  bearing  a 
one  dollar  stamp.  The  fees  for  registry  are  $50  national  cur- 
rency for  each  class  for  which  a  mark  is  to  be  registered ;  and  $25 
for  the  transfer  to  another  party.  The  application  for  trade  mark, 
which  must  be  made  on  paper  of  certain  dimensions,  each  sheet  of 
which  must  be  stamped,  dated  and  signed,  must  be  accompanied 
by  an  explanation  of  the  mark  in  duplicate,  and  6  to  14  copies  of 
the  mark  in  one  color;  an  electrotype  of  certain  dimensions;  a 
declaration  as  to  the  products  or  trade  for  which  the  mark  is  to  be 
used ;  the  name,  residence  and  occupation  of  the  person  applying 
for  the  mark;  and  a  certificate  of  registration  abroad,  or,  should 
the  trade  mark  not  be  registered  in  the  country  of  origin,  a  certifi- 
cate proving  that  the  mark  has  not  been  registered  and  evidence 
that  the  applicant  has  an  establishment  in  the  home  country.  The 
application  must  also  indicate  the  size  and  color  of  the  mark  and 
the  kind  of  ink  to  be  used.  After  the  details  of  an  application  for 
trade  mark  have  been  published  officially  for  five  consecutive  days, 
a  term  of  30  days  is  allowed  for  objections. 

Infringement  of  a  trade  mark  may  be  punished  by  various  fines 
and  imprisonment  of  from  one  month  to  one  year,  nor,  in  most 
countries,  can  the  prison  penalty  be  evaded  by  the  payment  of  an 
increased  fine. 


108  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Patents 

Authors  of  new  discoveries  or  inventions  have  the  exclusive 
right  of  their  exploitation  during  the  allotted  period,  this  applying 
not  only  to  discoveries  and  inventions  made  in  the  country  con- 
cerned but  also  to  those  verified  and  patented  abroad.  Pharma- 
ceutical compounds,  financial  schemes  and  discoveries  or  inven- 
tions which  may  have  been  used  prior  to  the  application  for  patent 
protection  or  which  may  be  contrary  to  law  and  good  conduct  are 
not  eligible  for  patent  protection.  In  Bolivia  devices  which  tend  to 
change  the  proportions  of  things  already  known  or  to  produce 
articles  which  are  merely  ornamental  are  not  considered  to  consti- 
tute inventions.  The  duration  of  a  patent  varies  in  the  different 
countries,  some  countries  granting  patent  rights  for  a  definite 
period  (in  Brazil  15  years;  British  Honduras  14  years)  while 
others  grant  such  rights  for  various  periods  (Argentina  5,  10  or 
15  years;  Panama  5,  10,  15  or  20  years)  at  the  option  of  the  appli- 
cant and  according  to  the  merits  of  the  invention.  Some  countries 
make  the  maximum  period  for  foreigners  less  than  that  for  citizens 
and  the  period  may  not  exceed  the  period  of  protection  granted  in 
the  home  country  of  the  applicant.  Some  countries  provide  also 
what  is  called  ' '  provisional  patent  protection, ' '  obtainable  for  one 
year  (in  Brazil  the  term  is  three  years)  and  renewable  from  year 
to  year;  under  this  protection  no  similar  patent  will  be  conceded 
to  another  party  without  notifying  the  provisional  patent  holder 
who  has  three  months  in  which  to  make  objections  to  the  patent 
office.  In  some  countries  patents  lapse  if  not  exploited  for  two 
years  after  being  granted  (in  others  one  year,  others  three  years, 
etc.)  or,  save  in  exceptional  cases,  if  their  exploitation  be  sus- 
pended for  a  like  period. 

The  Brazilian  process  of  obtaining  patents  is  typical.  The 
applicant  must  file  in  duplicate  at  the  Department  of  Industry  a 
statement  describing  the  invention,  specifying  its  chief  character- 
istics, its  purpose  and  mode  of  use,  together  with  plans,  drawings 
and  the  necessary  samples  for  the  exact  comprehension  of  the 
invention  and  explanation  of  the  statement.  After  this  the  inventor 
shall  petition  the  minister  of  industry  to  grant  the  patent.  The 
petition  must  contain  the  name,  nationality,  profession,  domicile 
or  present  abode  of  the  petitioner,  the  nature  of  the  invention,  its 
purpose  or  application,  in  accordance  with  the  documents  accom- 
panying the  statement;  and  shall  also  contain  a  list  of  the  docu- 
ments deposited,_a  full  power  of  attorney  if  the  petition  be  not 
made  by  the  inventor  himself,  the  original  patent  if  a  patent 


COMMERCIAL  REGULATIONS  109 

granted  abroad  is  to  be  confirmed,  the  original  patent  if 
improvements  are  to  be  made  by  the  concessionaire  of  the  original 
invention,  and  a  certificate  of  the  first  patent  if  it  refer  to  a  patent 
granted  to  another  party.  After  examination  of  the  petition,  if 
approved,  the  patent  will  be  granted  by  a  decree  signed  by  the 
President.  The  patent  is  then  published  in  the  Diario  oficial  and 
the  respective  parties  personally  notified  to  demand  their  titles,  to 
pay  the  expenses  and  dues  on  same,  and  to  attend  the  opening  of 
the  envelopes  containing  the  documents  on  the  day  fixed,  which 
must  be  within  30  days.  When  judged  to  be  in  order,  the  statement 
is  published  in  the  Diario  Oficial  and  one  each  of  the  designs,  plans 
or  samples  exhibited  for  15  days  for  inspection  by  the  public  or 
persons  interested. 

Patent  infringements  are  punishable  by  various  fines  or  from 
one  to  six  months'  imprisonment  and  the  loss  of  the  articles  so 
falsified,  without  prejudice  to  any  damage  suits  which  may  be 
instituted.  The  same  penalties  are  imposed  on  accessories  to 
infringement. 

Mining  Laws 

Most  countries  have  very  liberal  nation-wide  laws  governing 
the  prospecting  for  and  working  of  mines,  but  in  a  few,  as  Brazil, 
no  general  mining  laws  have  been  promulgated,  each  state  or 
department  having  its  own  regulations.  In  Brazil,  generally 
speaking,  in  order  to  prospect,  application  for  a  license  must  be 
made  to  the  governor  of  the  state,  or  to  the  secretary  of  the 
proper  department,  giving  approximately  the  region  in  which  the 
applicant  desires  to  prospect,  and  indicating  the  mineral  or  miner- 
als which  are  sought  (in  Bolivia  special  permission  is  not 
required).  No  license  is  necessary  for  gold  washing  in  the  numer- 
ous rivers  but  for  boring  and  for  prospecting  for  reefs  this 
document  is  necessary  to  both  native  and  foreigner.  All  minerals . 
are  the  property  of  the  landowner.  If  desirous  of  exploring 
private  lands  or  those  covered  by  concessions,  the  prospector  and 
the  owner  must  make  an  arrangement  which  must  be  recognized 
by  the  government  and  the  terms  of  which  must  not  be  extortion- 
ate on  either  side.  If  there  be  a  reasonable  probability  of  the 
existence  of  mines  on  their  property,  owners  must  permit  pros- 
pectors to  investigate  or  do  so  themselves  and  report  to  the  gov- 
ernment. Persons  who  might  consider  their  rights  infringed  by 
the  new  concession  are  granted  a  certain  time  in  which  to  make  a 
claim.  The  person  granted  the  mining  concession  is  given  the 
necessary  ground  free  of  charge  but  must  begin  operations  and 


110  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

furnish  a  full  report  within  two  years.  Quarries  can  be  worked 
entirely  free  of  taxes  by  the  owner  of  the  land  on  which  they  are 
situated.  Mines  on  public  lands  are  free  from  all  taxes  save 
the  percentage  charged  by  the  government  upon  the  mineral 
extracted,  varying  from  2  to  10  per  cent  on  gold,  silver  or  precious 
stones,  1  to  5  per  cent  on  copper  and  manganese,  and  1  to  2  per 
cent  on  coal  and  iron.  There  are  laws  regarding  safety,  compila- 
tion of  reports,  taxes  payable  when  the  mine  is  not  being  worked, 
payment  of  fees  upon  registration,  etc. 

Bolivia  provides  that  any  person  having  the  legal  right  to 
enter  into  contracts  may  seek  as  many  as  30  mineral  concessions 
(pertinencias) ,  each  concession  being  limited  to  100  square  meters 
(about  327  square  feet)  in  the  direction  desired  by  the  applicant 
but  indefinitely  in  depth.  In  Chile,  governors,  administrators  and 
judges  may  not  acquire  or  own  mines  in  the  territories  under 
their  jurisdiction;  mining  claims  for  precious  metals  may  com- 
prise a  superficial  area  of  from  3  to  15  acres,  while  coal  or  nitrate 
claims  may  range  up  to  100  acres ;  and  a  pit  15  feet  deep  must  be 
dug  within  90  days  after  registry  of  the  claim,  whereas  Bolivia 
provides  that  if  a  claim  remain  unsurveyed  and  no  landmarks  be 
set  within  70  days  it  shall  be  considered  abandoned.  In  Honduras 
mining  claims  may  be  denounced  by  any  individual  up  to  1,000 
hectares  (hectare=2.47  acres).  In  Peru  the  area  of  a  pertinencia 
for  gold,  coal,  tin,  platinum,  petroleum,  etc.,  is  twice  the  size  of 
that  for  other  minerals  and  any  one  may  acquire  as  many  as 
60  claims.  Colombia  provides  that  so  long  as  taxes  are  paid  no 
annual  work  need  be  done  to  preserve  the  locator's  rights,  which 
provision  tends  to  retard  mining  development  in  that  country. 
Most  countries  provide  that  legally  acquired  mining  property  is 
irrevocable  and  perpetual  but  if  an  owner  should  not  comply  with 
laws  regulating  the  filing  of  claims,  etc.,  and  fail  to  pay  the  annual 
■tax  or  patent  fees,  any  person  may  denounce  the  abandonment  of 
an  application  and  ask  that  it  be  granted  to  him.  In  some  matters 
the  Colombian  government  reserves  special  rights,  as  in  the 
emerald  and  salt  monopolies.  Under  the  law  of  1913  oil  wells 
discovered  on  Colombian  government  lands,  whether  waste  lands 
or  otherwise,  may  not  be  transferred  by  the  adjudication  of  such 
lands  to  private  individuals  or  corporations  but  remain  the  prop- 
erty of  the  state.  Mines  on  lands  belonging  to  charitable  or  edu- 
cational institutions  cannot  be  denounced  without  the  sanction  of 
the  owners.  In  Colombia  the  payment  of  40  years'  taxes  confers 
an  indefeasible  title  in  fee. 


Railway  Transportation  in  Latin  America 

By  Otto  Wilson 
Chief  Latin  American  Division,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 

South  America 

ALTHOUGH  several  countries  lay  claim  to  having  the  oldest  / 
railway  in  South  America  it  appears  that  the  first  road  to 
be  actually  opened  for  service  was  a  line  five  miles  long, 
finished  in  British  Guiana  in  1848.     In  the  next  year  a  line  was   : 
completed  between  Caldera  and  Copiapo,  Chile,  and  in  1857  the 
first  road  began  operations  in  Argentina,  Brazil  following  a  year 
later.     Since  that  time  construction  has  been  practically  contin- 
uous, and  now  every  country  in  South  America  has  its  railway 
system.    Naturally  expansion  of  railway  transportation  has  been 
most  rapid  in  the  level  plains  of  Argentina,  where  rails  have  been 
laid  at  comparatively  little  expense,  and  it  has  made  least  prog- 
ress in  the  west  and  north,  where  mountain  construction  often 
runs  the  cost  up  to  more  than  $100,000  a  mile.     The  railway 
mileage  of  South  American  countries  (not  including  minor  private    i 
and  other  lines)  is  as  follows: 

Country  Mileage  Country  Mileage 

^  Argentina 21,325      Guiana : 

Bolivia 850  British 

)(  Brazil 16,146         Dutch 

)4  Chile    5,015         French 

i^  Colombia 698      Paraguay    

Ecuador    427      Peru 


Uruguay   . 
Venezuela 


100 

109 

231 

1,900 

K 

1,639 

X 

530 

X 

In  each  country  this  mileage  serves  national  needs  almost 
entirely,  and  tourists  will  find  that  communication  between 
countries  is  still  largely  by  coast  or  ocean  vessels. 

Travel  to  South  America  as  a  rule  follows  a  well  beaten  path. 
The  tourist  who  wishes  to  visit  the  chief  centres  usually  travels 
on  one  of  two  routes  —  down  the  east  coast  to  Buenos  Aires, 
across  the  continent  to  Valparaiso,  up  the  west  coast  to  Panama, 
and  thence  to  Colombia  and  Venezuela,  or  the  reverse  of  this 
journey,  making  the  north-coast  countries  from  Barbados  or 
Trinidad.  If  he  elects  the  former  route  his  first  stop  will  prob- 
ably be  at  Pemambuco,  where  most  ocean  liners  serving  Brazil 

[111] 


112  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

call.  Coast  steamers  will  carry  him  to  Para,  Natal,  and  points 
between,  but  the  tourist  w^hose  time  is  limited  can  continue  by 
ocean  steamer  to  Bahia  and  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  From  Rio  a 
favorite  trip  is  that  by  rail  to  Sao  Paulo,  thence  by  rail  to  Santos, 
where  the  steamer  can  again  be  caught  for  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Montevideo,  and  Buenos  Aires. 

From  Buenos  Aires  various  side  trips  can  conveniently  be 
made,  including  a  visit  to  Asuncion,  capital  of  Paraguay.  The 
only  transcontinental  line  in  South  America  affords  rail  accommo- 
dations between  Buenos  Aires  and  Valparaiso,  Chile,  w^here  the 
traveler  usually  takes  a  boat  for  the  trip  along  the  west  coast. 
If  he  wishes  to  visit  Bolivia  he  stops  at  Antofagasta,  reaching  La 
Paz  from  that  port  by  rail  in  about  45  hours.  Siroche  or  ' '  moun- 
tain sickness,"  however,  caused  by  a  too  rapid  change  from  the 
coast  to  an  altitude  of  over  12,000  feet,  may  make  a  more  gradual 
ascent  advisable.  From  La  Paz  two  other  railways  reach  the 
coast,  that  leading  to  MoUendo,  Peru,  having  heretofore  had  the 
most  passenger  traflfic. 

At  Mollendo  the  sea  voyage  is  continued  to  Callao-Lima, 
thence  to  the  northern  ports  of  Peru  and  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador, 
from  which  the  capital,  Quito,  can  be  reached  in  a  two-days'  jour- 
ney. Steamships  carry  the  traveler  from  Guayaquil  to  Panama 
and  through  the  canal  to  Colon,  where  connection  can  be  made  for 
Cartagena,  Colombia.  After  possible  trips  to  the  interior  cities 
of  Bogota  and  Medellm,  connections  are  made  at  Cartagena  or 
Puerto  Colombia  for  Venezuelan  ports,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  Puerto  Cabello  and  La  Guaira,  from  both  of  which  the 
capital,  Caracas,  can  be  reached  by  rail.  As  convenient  the  trav- 
eler can  then  either  go  to  Trinidad  or  Barbados  and  catch  a 
north-bound  boat,  or  return  to  Colon. 

It  will  be  seen  that  on  a  South  American  tour  of  this  kind  a 
great  part  of  the  travel  is  by  boat,  and  railways  are  as  a  rule  of 
only  local  convenience.  If  he  desired  to  do  so,  however,  the  trav- 
eler could  land  at  Victoria,  Brazil,  and  continue  on  the  route  men- 
tioned entirely  by  rail  to  Mollendo,  Peru. 

Most  of  the  railways  of  South  America  have  been  built  by 
European  capital,  largely  English.  The  equipment  is  therefore 
for  the  most  part  European.  Government  ow^nership  and  opera- 
tion are  most  prominent  in  Chile,  but  exist  also  in  Brazil,  Argen- 
tina, and  other  countries.  There  are  a  multitude  of  gauges,  rang- 
ing from  the  broad  5  feet  6  inches  of  various  Argentine  lines  to 
the  2  feet  6  inches  of  the  Antofagasta  (Chile)  &  Bolivia,  line  in 
Chile,   and   even  narrower  private  lines.     Accommodations  for 


RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION  113 

passengers  on  many  roads,  notably  those  of  the  larger  Argentine 
and  Brazilian  systems,  are  the  equal  of  those  in  the  United  States, 
luxurious  parlor-car,  sleeping-car,  and  dining-car  service  being 
provided.  Fares  are  variable  but  for  the  most  part  are  not 
excessive.    Kates  for  excess  baggage,  however,  are  usually  high. 

Before  reviewing  briefly  the  transportation  systems  of  the 
various  countries,  the  much-discussed  project  of  the  Pan  Ameri- 
can Kailway  should  be  mentioned.  This  project  is  the  proposed 
linking-up  of  existing  lines  to  afford  railway  service  through 
North  and  South  America,  from  New  York  all  the  way  to  Buenos 
Aires.  Existing  lines  could  be  utilized  to  the  southern  border  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  National  Railways  of  Mexico  line 
would  carry  the  train  to  the  Guatemalan  border.  Railways  now  in 
operation,  being  built,  or  projected  would  afford  passage  through 
Central  America  to  Panama,  where  construction  to  the  Colombian 
border  would  involve  the  conquering  of  the  tropical  forest.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  line  there  is  through  trackage  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  Cuzco,  Peru,  except  for  a  stretch  of  about  66  miles,  now 
under  construction  between  La  Quiaca  and  Tupiza,  Bolivia,  and 
there  are  various  mountain  lines  in  Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Peru 
which  would  form  links  in  the  completed  chain.  Much  of  the  con- 
struction yet  to  be  effected,  however,  is  in  difficult  country  and  it 
will  be  many  years  before  the  great  dream  is  a  reality. 

Argentina. —  The  great  level  plains  of  Argentina,  with  their 
wealth  of  agricultural  and  pastaral  products,  have  made  the  River 
Plate  region  the  centre  of  railway  expansion  in  South  America. 
From  Buenos  Aires  a  great  network  of  lines  stretches  out  to  the 
north,  west,  and  south,  connecting  practically  every  important  town 
or  city  of  Argentina  with  the  capital  and  bringing  the  country  to  a 
rank  of  ninth  in  point  of  railway  mileage  among  the  nations  of 
the  world.  The  following  distances  by  rail  from  Buenos  Aires  to 
other  cities  of  Argentina  will  illustrate  the  extent  of  railway 
development:  To  Bahia  Blanca,  446  miles;  Tucuman,  720  miles; 
Mendoza,  647  miles;  San  Juan,  745  miles;  Santa  Fe,  299  miles; 
Rosario,  186  miles ;  Cordoba,  433  miles ;  Salta,  996  miles ;  Santiago, 
G28  miles;  Jujuy,  1,006  miles;  San  Luis,  485  miles;  Catamarca,  771 
miles ;  Mar  del  Plata,  248  miles.  Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Euro- 
pean War  the  mileage  was  being  steadily  extended,  but  that  event 
practically  suspended  construction  through  the  curtailment  of  the 
supplies  of  foreign  capital  necessary  for  extensive  building. 

The  systems  of  Argentine  railways,  with  their  mileage 
(excluding  private  and  other  minor  lines)  are  as  follows:  Buenos 


114  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Aires  &  Pacific,  3,535  miles;  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern,  3,792 
miles;  Buenos  Aires  Western,  1,870  miles;  Central  Argentine, 
3,305  miles;  Cordoba  Central,  1,205  miles;  Entre  Rios,  831  miles; 
Buenos  Aires  Midland,  322  miles;  Argentine  North  Eastern,  752 
miles;  Province  Santa  Fe,  1,192  miles;  Rosario-Puerto  Belgrano, 
493  miles;  General  Buenos  Aires,  790  miles;  Central  Northern, 
1,790  miles ;  Argentine  del  Norte,  1,196  miles ;  Buenos  Aires  Cen- 
tral, 252  miles.  Most  of  these  systems  are  owmed  wholly  or  in  part 
by  English  shareholders  (English  capital  having  been  invested  in 
Argentine  railways  to  the  extent  of  almost  a  billion  dollars),  and 
the  securities  of  the  more  important  roads  are  quoted  regularly  on 
the  London  Stock  Exchange.  Of  the  total  mileage  the  Government 
owns  some  4,000  miles,  the  longest  roads  being  the  Central  North- 
ern Railway,  running  from  Santa  Fe  northwest  to  the  Argentine 
boundary  at  La  Quiaca,  and  the  Argentine  Northern,  running  from 
Santa  Fe  w^est  to  San  Juan,  both  roads  having  several  branches. 
The  Government  is  interested  in  building  and  operating  railroads 
chiefly  in  order  to  open  up  new  territory,  and  the  roads  in  many 
cases  are  run  at  a  loss. 

Argentine  railways  have  three  different  gauges.  The  broad 
gauge  of  5  feet  6  inches,  said  to  have  been  introduced  w^hen  the 
first  railway  builders  purchased  rolling  stock  of  this  gauge  which 
had  been  used  in  the  Crimean  War,  prevails  on  several  of  the 
larger  roads,  including  the  Buenos  Aires  &  Pacific,  the  Buenos 
Aires  &  Great  Southern,  the  Buenos  Aires  Western,  and  the 
Central  Argentine.  The  middle  gauge,  4  feet  8i'2  inches,  is  used 
by  the  Entre  Rios  Railway,  the  Argentine  North  Eastern,  and  the 
Buenos  Aires  Central.  The  Government  lines  mentioned,  the 
Transandine  Railway,  the  Cordoba  Central,  the  Buenos  Aires 
Midland,  and  the  Province  of  Santa  Fe  are  of  meter  (3.28  feet) 
gauge.  Freight  carried  on  these  roads  naturally  consists  very 
largely  of  grain,  livestock,  and  animal  products  such  as  wool  and 
hides,  but  considerable  quantities  of  wine  and  grapes  are  carried 
from  the  vineyards  of  Mendoza  and  other  western  provinces.     • 

The  passenger  service  of  these  lines  is  quite  up-to-date,  and 
all  the  comforts  appertaining  to  modern  railway  travel  are  pro- 
vided. The  line  of  the  Central  Argentine  between  Buenos  Aires 
and  Rosario  has  been  double-tracked,  and  the  running  time 
between  these  cities,  a  distance  of  186  miles,  has  been  reduced  to 
414  hours.  The  fare  is  not  excessive.  One  of  the  minor  draw- 
backs to  railway  travel  in  many  parts  of  Argentina  is  the  monot- 
ony of  the  landscape,  some  lines  running  for  hundreds  of  miles 
over  level  plains  with  practically  no  trees  or  hills  to  be  seen  in  any 


CopyiiKht,    Newman   Traveltalks   and   Brown    &   Dawson.    N.    Y. 

In  the  Snow  Cuts  of  the  Trans-Andean   Railway 


Cciliyiij-'hl.    Urowu   &   Dawson,    N.    Y. 

Train   on   the    La   Guayra   &   Caracas   Railway,   Venezuela 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks  and  iirown   £-   Dawson,    N.    Y. 


RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION  115 

direction.  The  railway  system  in  general  is  such  that  every  city 
of  consequence  in  Argentina  can  be  conveniently  reached  from 
Buenos  Aires,  and  tourists  and  commercial  travelers  find  it  a 
good  plan  to  make  the  capital  their  headquarters,  taking  side  trips 
to  other  centres  as  may  be  desirable.  The  fact  that  a  great  part 
of  the  import  and  export  business  of  the  country  flows  through 
Buenos  Aires  makes  it  umiecessary  for  foreign  salesmen  to  visit 
many  of  the  outlying  cities.  Tourists,  however,  mil  find  it  inter- 
esting to  visit  Tucuman,  where  Argentine  independence  was 
declared ;  Mendoza,  the  centre  of  the  wine  industry ;  Rosario,  sec- 
ond to  Buenos  Aires  as  a  shipping  centre ;  La  Plata,  where  there 
are  a  large  observatory  and  large  meat-packing  plants ;  and  Mar 
del  Plata,  the  great  seaside  resort. 

Uruguay. —  The  fact  that  Uruguay,  smallest  of  South  Ameri- 
can  republics7  has  some  1,600  miles  of  railway  is  an  illustration 
of  the  progressiveness  of  the  country,  as  well  as  the  facility  in 
construction  afforded  by  the  level  or  gently  rolling  character  of 
the  land.  The  chief  system  is  the  Central  Uruguay  Railway, 
which  operates  approximately  1,000  miles  of  track.  Its  main  line 
and  an  extension  connect  Montevideo  with  the  Brazilian  frontier 
and  join  the  Rio  Grande  system  at  Sant'  Anna.  Nearly  all  lines 
are  controlled  by  British  capital,  and  as  a  rule  return  a  good 
profit.  They  are  for  the  most  part  operated  under  a  Government 
guarantee.  , 

In  the  third  of  the  river  Plate  countries,  Paraguay,  there  is 
as  yet  but  a  single  line,  the  Paraguay  Central,  running  from 
Asuncion,  the  capital,  to  Villa  Encarnacion,  where  it  makes  con- 
nection with  the  Argentine  North  Eastern.  A  branch  from  Villa 
Rica  to  the  Brazilian  frontier  is  being  constructed,  to  connect 
with  the  Sao  Paulo-Rio  Grande  Railway  and  give  through  con- 
ziection  with  the  Atlantic  Coast.  At  present  Asuncion  is  reached 
in  about  50  hours  from  Buenos  Aires  over  the  road  mentioned, 
or  by  river  boat,  the  trip  upstream  taking  5  days  and  the  return 
trip  4  days.  An  extension  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  of  Argentina 
is  being  constructed  which  has  for  its  objective  a  point  in  Argen- 
tina opposite  Asuncion,  the  completed  line  to  be  entirely  in 
Argentine  territory  but  giving  Asuncion  another  outlet  to  the  sea. 

Chile. —  From  Buenos  Aires  the  broad-gauge  tracks  of  the 
Buenos  Aires  &  Pacific  lead  away  647  miles  to  Mendoza,  joining 
there  with  the  meter-gauge  Argentine  Transandine  Railwa5^  This 
continues  111  miles  to  the  Transandine  Tunnel,  2  miles  long. 
The  Chile-Argentine  boundary  line  is  reached  about  halfway 
through  the  tunnel,  and  across  the  line  the  journey  is  over  the 
9 


116  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

track  of  the  Chilean  Transaiidine  Kailway  to  Los  Andes,  47  miles. 
From  there  to  Valparaiso  (83  miles)  runs  the  line  of  the  Chilear 
National  Railway.  The  whole  distance  from  Buenos  Aires  to 
Valparaiso  is  888  miles.  This  Transandine  route  has  made 
unnecessary  the  long  voyage  around  the  Horn  when  traveling 
between  Valparaiso  and  Buenos  Aires,  the  railway  trip  now  being 
made  in  two  days.  The  line  does  not  carry  a  great  amount  of 
freight  but  has  a  good  passenger  traffic.  During  the  winter 
months  it  is  often  blocked  by  snows  and  the  service  is  consequently 
very  uncertain  from  June  to  August. 

The  character  of  the  railway  development  of  the  west  coast 
has  been  determined  by  the  peculiar  contour  of  the  land.  Along 
practically  the  whole  length  of  the  South  American  continent  the 
high  ridges  of  the  Andes  lie  only  a  comparatively  short  distance 
back  from  the  coast.  For  the  most  part,  therefore,  the  railways 
of  Chile,  Peru,  and  Ecuador  consist  of  short  lines  crossing  the 
narrow  strip  of  coast  lands  betAveen  sea  and  mountains,  here 
and  there  climbing  over  the  high  passes  into  the  interior  plateau. 

The  chief  exception  to  this  is  the  Longitudinal  Railway  of  Chile, 
running  from  Puerto  Montt  in  the  south  to  a  point  near  Iquique 
(eventually  to  be  extended  to  Arica).  Because  of  the  proximity 
of  the  mountains  to  the  aea  and  their  height,  railway  construction 
has  been  exceeding  costly  and  difficult  and  has  required  the  solu- 
tion of  more  engineering  problems  than  construction  in  any  other 
jiart  of  the  world.  The  highest  railway  in  the  world  is  to  be  found 
in  Peru,  a  branch  of  the  Central  of  Peru  Railway  reaching  to  the 
height  of  15,865  feet,  while  farther  south,  in  Bolivia,  a  branch  of 
the  Antofagasta  (Chile)  &  Bolivia  Railway  running  to  Potosi 
attains  15,814  feet.  So  far  the  rail  connection  between  Buenos 
Aires  and  Valparaiso  is  the  only  one  affording  transcontinental 
service,  but,  as  mentioned  above,  the  completion  of  66  miles  of 
track  between  La  Quiaca  and  Tupiza  will  open  another  through 
route.  Work  on  this  connection  has  been  carried  on  intermittently 
for  several  years.  A  third  route  will  be  opened  when  Bolivia's 
railway  system  is  extended  to  meet  the  track  of  the  North  Western 
of  Brazil  Railway,  practically  completed  to  the  border  town  of 
Corumba.  Another  transcontinental  line,  to  run  from  Bahfa 
Blanca,  Argentina,  to  Talcahuana,  Chile,  has  been  discussed,  but  no 
active  work  is  being  done  on  it.  There  is  already  a  road  from 
Bahia  Blanca  to  Neuquen,  in  Argentina. 

Of  the  5,000  miles  of  railway  open  in  Chile  about  3,200  miles 
are  owned  by  the  government,  Chile  being  the  only  country  in 
South  America  that  has  an  extensive  goverimient-owned  system. 


RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION  117 

These  roads  are  for  the  most  part  operated  at  a  loss.  The  private 
lines  are  mostly  ''  nitrate  "  railways,  owned  and  operated  by  the 
companies  exploiting  the  nitrate  fields  in  north  Chile. 

Bolivia. —  The  country  of  Bolivia,  entirely  cut  off  from  the 
sea,  has  three  rail  coimections  with  the  coast,  two  of  these  being 
through  Chile  and  one  through  Peru.  The  lines  through  Chile 
ran  from  Antofagasta  and  Arica  to  La  Paz,  and  that  thro.ugh 
Peru  to  Mollendo.  The  southernmost  line  is  that  of  Antofagasta 
(Chile)  &  Bolivia  Railway,  from  Antofagasta  to  Oruro,  Bolivia, 
a  distance  of  575  miles.  From  Oruro  the  Bolivia  Railway,  leased 
by  the  Antofagasta  Railway,  leads  to  Viacha,  125  miles,  and  the 
rest  of  the  distance  to  La  Paz,  19  miles,  is  covered  by  a  line  con- 
structed by  the  Antofagasta  Railway,  as  well  as  by  two  others. 
The  whole  distance  of  about  720  miles  is  covered  in  45  hours.  The 
second  line  to  the  coast  is  the  Arica--La  Paz  line  of  248  miles,  of 
which  28  miles  is  rack  road.  The  time  required  for  the  trip  to 
La  Paz  from  the  coast  is  about  25  hours  and  for  the  journey  in 
the  other  direction  15  hours,  the  first-class  fare  being  about  61^ 
cents  a  mile.  The  third  line  to  the  sea  is  through  Peru  to  Mol- 
lendo, the  total  distance  being  534  miles  and  the  running  time 
about  29  hours  to  the  coast,  part  of  the  journey  being  made  by 
steamer  on  Lake  Titicaca.  This  road  is  the  Southern  Railway  of 
Peru,  w^hich  also  operates  a  branch  from  Juliaca  to  the  ancient 
Inca  capital,  Cuzco,  210  miles,  a  favorite  objective  of  tourists. 
While  most  of  the  traffic  to  and  from  Bolivia  has  been  by  way  of 
the  first  and  third  of  these  routes,  the  second  is  considerably  the 
shortest  and  there  is,  moreover,  one  of  the  best  harbors  along  the 
Pacific  coast  at  Arica.  The  line  was  opened  in  1912  and  is 
expected  to  build  up  a  volume  of  business  between  La  Paz  and 
the  coast  that  will  equal  that  of  its  older  competitors. 

Peru. —  Besides  the  Southern  Railway,  Peru  has  one  other 
line  that  climbs  the  Andes  from  the  coast.  This  is  the  famous 
Central  Railway  of  Peru,  one  of  the  most  w^onderful  railways  in 
the  world  because  of  the  number  and  character  of  the  engineering 
difficulties  overcome.  It  was  surveyed  and  partially  completed 
by  Henry  Meiggs,  an  American  engineer,  at  an  enormous  cost. 
It  runs  from  the  port  of  Callao  to  Oroya,  138  miles,  with  an  exten- 
sion to  Huancayo,  a  further  70  miles  to  Ihe  south.  The  main  line 
passes  through  57  tunnels  and  reaches  a  height  of  15,665  feet,  a 
branch  to  Morococha  going  200  feet  higher.  This  branch,  as  noted 
above,  is  the  highest  railway  in  the  world.  At  Oroya  the  Cerro  de 
Pasco  Railway  leads  to  the  town  of  that  name,  the  site  of  an 
important   American   copper  mining  enterprise.     Besides   these 


118  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

railways  there  are  various  shorter  lines,  chiefly  connecting  the 
agricultural  valleys  of  the  coastal  regions  with  Pacific  ports. 

A  large  part  of  the  mileage  of  Peruvian  railways  is  controlled 
by  the  Peruvian  Corporation,  a  company  formed  in  1890  by  Euro- 
pean holders  of  Peruvian  securities,  the  payment  of  interest  on 
which  was  in  default.  The  agreement  between  the  Government 
and  the  Corporation  is  such  that  the  latter  dominates  the  railway 
situation  in  Peru.  The  company  is  interested  in  new  construction, 
and  has  surveyed  for  the  Government  a  line  to  run  from  Tiripata, 
on  the  Southern  Eailway,  to  the  Madre  de  Dios  River,  which  will 
open  up  a  through  rail-and-water  route  to  the  Atlantic.  Other 
trans-Andean  lines  are  projected  in  the  northern  and  central 
sections  of  Peru. 

Ecuador. —  The  only  railway  of  importance  in  Ecuador  is  the 
Guayaquil  &  Quito  line,  built,  owned  and  operated  by  Americans. 
This  line  is  another  example  of  daring  mountain  construction. 
It  has  a  total  length  of  287  miles  and  the  journey  to  Quito  takes 
two  days.  There  are  also  railways  inland  from  the  ports  of  Bahia 
de  Caracas,  Manta,  and  Bolivar,  and  lines  are  projected  from 
Quito  to  the  coast  and  from  Ambato,  on  the  Guayaquil  &  Quito 
Railway,  to  Curaray  in  the  interior,  which  will  open  up  the  rich 
tropical  sections  of  the  Amazon  Valley  in  Ecuador.  Work  on  the 
latter  line  is  proceeding  slowly. 

Colombia. —  In  the  north-coast  countries  of  Colombia  and 
Venezuela  railroad  building  has  made  little  progress,  partly 
because  of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country  and  partly 
because  of  the  fact  that  each  country  is  but  sparsely  inhabited. 
In  Colombia  the  main  arteries  of  travel  are  still  the  rivers,  par- 
ticularly the  Magdalena,  and  nearly  all  railways  lead  off  from  this 
river  or  from  the  seacoasts.  The  foreign  traveler  usually  lands 
either  at  Cartagena  (thence  reaching  the  river  by  rail  at  Calamar, 
62  miles  away),  or  at  Puerto  Colombia,  going  thence  to  Barran- 
quilla,  a  rail  distance  of  17  miles.  A  river  boat  carries  him  to 
La  Dorado,  where  the  Dorado  Extension  Railway  leads  around  a 
series  of  rapids  to  Puerto  Beltran,  the  river  voyage  being  then 
continued  to  Girardot.  The  rest  of  the  journey  to  Bogota,  the 
capital,  is  by  railways  of  two  different  gauges,  a  distance  of  109 
miles.  From  Bogota  two  short  lines  lead  out  north  and  southeast, 
besides  the  line  ninning  to  the  Magdalena  River.  The  Antioquia 
Railway,  nearly  completed,  connects  Medellin  with  the  Magdalena, 
and  a  short  line  leads  out  from  the  river  port  of  Puerto  Wilches, 
to  be  eventually  continued  to  Bucaramanga.  Isolated  lines  serv- 
ing local  needs  include  the  Cucuta  Railway  (44  miles)  in  the  east, 


RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION  119 

the  Santa  Marta  Railway  (92  miles)  in  the  north,  and  the  Cauca 
Railway  (103  miles)  in  the  west.  A  short  line  running  from  the 
Magdalena  at  Girardot  to  Espinal  completes  the  list.  The  rail- 
way construction  program  of  Colombia  includes  the  completion 
of  the  lines  from  the  Magdalena  to  Bucaramanga  and  to  Medellin, 
the  continuation  of  the  Cauca  Railway  to  Popayan,  the  connecting 
of  the  Cucuta  Railway  with  the  Magdalena,  the  building  of  a  line 
from  Medellin  to  the  Grulf  of  Darien,  and  the  construction  of  a 
line  from  Girardot  to  Cali,  thus  giving  Bogota  access  to  the  Pacific. 

Venezuela. —  The  530  miles  of  railway  in  Venezuela  are  all 
of  31/^  feet  gauge  or  less,  and  serve  the  regions  along  the  coast. 
The  chief  line  is  the  Great  Railway  of  Venezuela,  a  German  road 
of  111  miles  running  from  Caracas  to  Valencia.  It  was  a  costly 
road  to  build,  having  86  tunnels  and  212  bridges.  Both  the  ter- 
minal cities  of  this  road  are  connected  with  the  coast,  Valencia 
by  an  English-owned  railway  of  34  miles  running  to  Puerto 
Cabello  and  Caracas  by  the  La  Guaira  &  Caracas  line,  also 
English,  which  in  its  23  miles  passes  over  10  bridges  and  through 
nine  tunnels,  and  climbs  5,000  feet.  The  Bolivar  Railway  (109 
miles)  connects  the  interior  city  of  Barquisimetro  with  the  coast  at 
Tucacas,  and  is  important  as  a  carrier  of  copper  ore  from  the 
mines  at  Aroa,  about  50  miles  from  Tucacas.  This  road  is  also 
English-owned  as  is  the  Central  Railway  (46  miles)  running 
southeast  from  Caracas.  Most  of  the  other  railways,  penetrating 
short  distances  into  the  interior  from  the  coast  and  from  lake 
Maracaibo,  are  financed  by  Venezuelan  capital,  three  being 
Government-owned.  Several  projects  for  new  railways  have 
been  talked  of,  but  extensive  construction  will  have  to  await  the 
development  of  the  country. 

Guiana. —  In  British  Guiana  therQ  are  about  100  miles  of  rail- 
way, the  chief  line  being  that  from  Georgetown  to  New  Amster- 
dam, 60  miles  long.  Dutch  Guiana  has  a  single  road  of  about  109 
miles. 

Brazil. —  Brazil,  a  country  whose  great  expanses  have  as  yet 
not  even  been  fully  explored,  holds  great  promise  for  future  rail- 
way construction.  There  are  now  some  16,000  miles  of  railroad 
in  the  country,  and  lines  projected  and  under  construction  when 
the  European  War  broke  out  would  have  added  8,000  or  10,000 
miles  more.  Existing  lines,  with  one  notable  exception,  have 
naturally  been  laid  where  the  country  is  most  thickly  settled,  that 
is,  in  the  coastal  regions  and  the  immediate  hinterland,  and  the 
great  interior  plains  and  forests  are  penetrated  by  only  one  line 
that  has  connections  with  the  coast.    Construction  has  been  most 


120  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

in  evidence  in  the  more  productive  section,  comprising  the  agri- 
cultural and  mining  states  of  the  south.  Almost  one-half  of  the 
total  mileage  of  the  country  is  owned  by  the  Federal  Government, 
although  most  of  this  is  leased.  The  gauges  of  Brazilian  railways 
range  from  2  feet  to  5  feet  3  inches,  but  about  90  per  cent  of  the 
mileage  is  meter  gauge. 

The  chief  economic  value  of  these  railways  heretofore  has 
been  to  bring  the  products  of  each  general  section  to  the  coast, 
and  communication  between  northern,  southern,  and  western 
states  is  still  largely  by  ocean  or  river  steamer.  The  traveler 
visiting  the  several  coast  cities  has  little  use  for  the  railways 
until  he  reaches  Rio  de  Janeiro.  From  Rio  the  usual  journey 
(requiring  all  of  one  day),  is  by  rail  to  SjIo  Paulo,  one  of  the  most 
thriving  commercial  cities  of  South  America,  and  then  to  the  coast 
again  at  Santos,  where  steamer  connection  is  made  for  southern 
Brazil  and  the  river  Plate.  However,  the  traveler,  if  he  wishes 
to  do  so,  can  reach  both  Uruguay  and  Argentina  by  rail  from 
Hio  de  Janeiro.  Sleeping  and  dining-car  service  is  provided,  but 
the  rates  are  high. 

The  line  that  connects  the  capital  with  many  of  the  important 
cities  of  southern  Brazil  and  the  oldest  line  in  the  country  is  the 
Central  of  Brazil  Railway,  whose  broad  and  meter  gauge  tracks 
lead  to  Sao  Paulo  in  the  southwest  and  to  Bello  Horizonte  and 
other  important  centres  in  the  north.  It  is  government-owned, 
and  returns  a  large  annual  deficit.  The  country's  best-paying  line 
is  the  Sao  Paulo  Railway,  running  from  Santos  to  Jundiahy  via 
Sao  Paulo,  which  carries  a  tremendous  freight  of  coffee  annually. 
There  are  two  tracks  over  the  50  miles  between  Sao  Paulo  and 
Santos,  and  grades  of  8  per  cent  are  surmounted  by  means  of 
endless-cable  systems.  Other  important  lines  of  this  region  that 
should  be  mentioned  are  the  Mogyana,  Sorocabana,  Paulista, 
South  Minas,  West  of  Minas,  and  Brazil  Railway  systems.  The 
last  named  is  the  comprehensive  system  controlled  by  a  company 
known  as  the  Farquhar  Syndicate,  incorporated  in  Maine,  which 
carried  forward  ambitious  development  plans  that  involved  rail- 
way construction  or  control  in  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Paraguay  and 
Argentina.  This  development,  however,  was  largeh^  suspended  by 
financial  difficulties  on  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War,  and  the 
company  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver.  The  southernmost 
states  of  Brazil  are  served  by  this  line  and  by  the  Great  Southern, 
the  region  to  the  north  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  the  Leopoldina  Rail- 
way, the  region  around  Pernambuco  by  the  Great  Western,  the 
state  of  Ceara  by  the  Brazil  North  Eastern,  and  Bahfa  by  the  State 


RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION  121 

of  Bahia  Southwestern.  There  is  at  present  no  through  rail  con- 
nection between  north  and  south,  but  it  is  planned  to  have  the 
Central  of  Brazil  extended  eventually  to  Para,  thus  affording  rail- 
way communication  for  all  the  states  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
Construction  is  also  reaching  out  toward  the  western  plains,  and  a 
transcontinental  line  through  Bolivia  will  eventually  be  built. 

Far  removed  from  all  other  lines  is  the  Madeira-Mamore 
Railway,  1,800  miles  into  the  interior,  which  spans  a  series  of 
rapids  in  the  Madeira,  Mamore,  and  Beni  Rivers.  These  rapids 
are  the  only  obstruction  to  river  traffic  from  the  interior  of 
Bolivia  to  the  Atlantic,  and  the  road  of  225  miles  was  constructed 
(with  great  difficulty  and  only  after  repeated  failures)  to  afford 
an  outlet  for  the  products  of  eastern  Bolivia. 

Mexico  and  Central  America 

Mexico. —  Before  the  revolution  broke  out  in  1910  Mexico  had 
\<dtnessed  a  steady  expansion  of  its  railways,  which  formed  a  net- 
work that  afforded  an  outlet  for  the  products  of  almost  all  parts 
of  this  potentially  wealthy  country.  In  the  years  that  followed 
the  overthrow  of  Diaz  not  only  has  new  construction  been 
materially  diminished  (though  not  entirely  suspended)  but 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  track  and  rolling  stock  have  been 
destroyed.  In  normal  times  the  country  is  well  served  by  its 
railways.  It  has  about  16,000  miles  of  railway,  mostly  standard 
gauge  (4  feet  814  inches)  of  which  about  7,300  miles  are  owned 
or  controlled  (but  not  operated)  by  one  system,  the  National 
Railways  of  Mexico.  The  Government  organized  this  system  by 
combining  the  National  Railroad  of  Mexico  and  the  Mexican 
Central,  in  1908,  and  later  adding  the  Mexican  International,  the 
Vera  Cruz  &  Isthmus,  and  the  Pan  American.  The  Government 
owns  50.3  per  cent  of  the  ordinary  stock  and  thus  has  full  control. 
The  principal  line  of  the  system  runs  from  Nuevo  Laredo,  on  the 
northern  border,  through  the  states  of  Nuevo  Leon  and  San  Luis 
Potosi  on  down  to  Mexico  City,  with  several  branches  east  and 
west. 

Other  important  lines  of  Mexico  include  the  Southern  Pacific 
of  Mexico,  running  from  the  northern  border  through  the  western 
States  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  to  Tepic,  whence  it  will  be  con- 
tinued to  join  the  National  Railways  of  Mexico  at  Guadalajara;  the 
Mexico  North  Western  Railway,  one  of  the  two  lines  joining  El  Paso 
and  Chihuahua;  the  Mexican  Railway,  running  from  Vera  Cruz  to 
Mexico  City,  with  several  branches ;  the  Kansas  City,  Mexico,  and 
Orient  Railway,  which  when  completed  will  join  Kansas  City  with 


122  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

ihe  port  of  Topolobampo  on  the  Gulf  of  California;  and  the 
Tehuantepec  National  Railway,  running  from  coast  to  coast 
between  Salina  Cruz  and  Puerto  Mexico.  The  only  isolated  sys- 
tem is  the  United  Railroads  of  Yucatan,  and  a  line  is  projected 
which  will  join  this  with  the  other  railways  of  the  country. 

Mexico  has  a  carefully  worked  out  body  of  railway  law,  and 
the  Minister  of  Communications  is  assisted  by  a  standing  advisory 
Railway  Commission  of  nine  members. 

Central  America. —  In  Central  America  through  connections 
from  ocean  to  ocean  are  afforded  in  three  countries,  Panama, 
Costa  Rica  and  Guatemala  (considering  Panama  a  part  of  Cen- 
tral America).  On  these  and  other  Central  American  lines  the 
traveler  will  find  some  of  the  finest  scenery  attending  railway 
travel  anywhere  in  North  and  South  America.  Both  freight  and 
passenger  rates  are  high,  but  the  service  in  general  is  good.  The 
oldest  and  best  known  line,  the  Panama  Railway,  has  been  carry- 
ing immense  amounts  of  traffic  across  the  isthmus  since  it  was 
opened  in  1855,  and  its  earnings  have  been  very  large.  It  is  47 
miles  long,  and  the  trip  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  terminals 
is  made  in  about  ly^  hours.  From  Port  Limon,  in  Costa  Rica,  the 
'^1/^  foot  gauge  Costa  Rica  Railway  (leased  by  the  Northern  Rail- 
way of  Costa  Rica)  carries  the  tourist  through  wild  and  beautiful 
country  to  the  capital,  San  Jose,  in  some  five  or  six  hours,  a  daily 
service  being  maintained  in  both  directions.  The  fare  is  $3.90 
gold.  Over  another  line  the  traveler  may  also  reach  the  Pacific 
coast  at  Puntarenas,  69  miles  from  San  Jose,  in  about  the  same 
time.  The  freight  traffic  of  these  Costa  Rican  railways  is  very 
largely  made  up  of  bananas  and  coffee  shipped  by  the  United 
Fruit  Company.  A  system  that  promises  much  for  the  future 
development  of  Central  America  is  that  of  the  International  Rail- 
ways of  Central  America.  This  now  includes  the  lines  joined  to 
make  the  ocean-to-ocean  route  from  Puerto  Barrios,  on  the  Atlan- 
tic, to  San  Jose  on  the  Pacific,  together  with  a  branch  at  Santa 
Maria  and  a  line  running  westward  from  La  Union,  Salvador. 
When  projected  roads  are  completed  the  International  Railways 
will  have  continuous  track  from  the  Mexican  border  to  Panama, 
which  will  complete  the  North  American  part  of  the  Pan  American 
Railway. 

The  railway  mileage  of  the  countries  of  Central  America  is 
as  follows :  Panama,  202  miles ;  Costa  Rica,  450  miles ;  Nicaragua, 
200  miles;  Salvador,  184  miles;  Honduras,  300  miles;  Guatemala, 
500  miles.* 


*These   figures,   which  are   approximate   only,    are   taken   from    Railway    Expansion   in    Latin   America    by 
Frederic  M.  Halaey. 


Ocean  and  River  Transportation 


By  Otto  Wilson 


South  America 


THE  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  foreign  trade  of  South 
America  has  been  with  Europe  has  caused  a  great  develop- 
ment of  ocean  transportation  service  between  the  two 
continents.  Up  until  a  few  years  before  the  European  war,  in 
fact,  the  only  regular  communication  of  any  importance  between 
South  America  and  the  outside  world  was  over  the  lines  of  ships 
that  ran  to  European  ports.  It  was  customary  for  passengers 
bound  for  South  America  from  the  United  States  to  go  by  way 
of  Liverpool  or  Hamburg,  and  a  great  deal  of  freight  was  also 
routed  via  these  ports.  While  this  has  decidedly  changed,  and 
the  United  States  enjoys  reasonably  good  freight  service  with 
South  America,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  in  normal  times  trans- 
portation facilities  to  and  from  Europe  are  immensely  better  than 
to  and  from  the  United  States.  This  is  due  in  large  part  to  the 
nature  of  the  resources  and  commerce  of  Europe,  South  America, 
and  the  United  States.  South  America  is  distinctly  a  continent  of 
raw  materials,  while  Europe  is  a  producer  of  manufactured 
articles  and  has  been,  moreover,  an  investor  of  immense  amounts 
of  capital.  A  heavy  volume  of  oversea  traffic  and  a  consequent 
growth  of  shipping  was  therefore  very  logical.  The  United 
States,  on  the  other  hand,  has  until  recent  years  supplied  itself 
with  most  of  its  foodstuffs  and  other  raw  materials,  and  has  also 
not  actively  sought  foreign  markets  for  its  factory  products. 
Direct  transportation  facilities  to  South  America,  therefore,  have 
been  in  demand  only  in  a  comparatively  few  years,  and  the  freight 
and  passenger  traffic,  even  after  direct  service  was  well  estab- 
lished, has  been  carried  almost  wholly  in  foreign  bottoms.  Before 
the  begiiming  of  the  European  war  a  triangular  trade  route  had 
been  evolved  by  which  vessels  carried  manufactured  goods  from 
Europe  to  South  America,  coffee,  hides,  and  a  few  other  staples 
from  South  America  to  the  United  States,  and  various  American 
exports  to  Europe.  The  radical  changes  resulting  from  the  war, 
together  with  the  steadily  increasing  interest  of  the  United  States 
in  South  American  trade,  will  undoubtedly  cause  the  establish- 
ment of  more  ample  direct  facilities  between  North  and  South 
America,  which  in  time  will  rival  the  facilities  heretofore  enjoyed 
by  European  countries. 

[123] 


124  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

After  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe  in  1914  shipping 
service  to  South  America  was  of  course  anything  but  normal.  The 
price  of  charters  advanced  as  much  as  1000  per  cent,  and  ships 
w^ere  often  not  to  be  had  at  any  price  that  would  justify  the  dis- 
patch of  cargo.  Any  description  of  shipping  conditions  during 
the  w^ar  would  give  little  indication  of  the  ordinary  state  of 
ocean  transportation.  The  following  account  will  therefore  be 
confined  to  a  review  of  the  service  offered  immediately  before  the 
beginning  of  the  w^ar,  although  most  of  the  lines  mentioned 
have  maintained  a  more  or  less  interrupted  service  during  its 
continuance. 

European  shipping,  carrying  mostly  foodstuffs,  hides  and 
skins,  and  similar  commodities  to  Europe,  has  been  much  more 
in  evidence  in  the  ports  of  Brazil  and  the  river  Plate  than  on  the 
west  and  north  coasts,  and  scores  of  vessels,  some  of  them  regis- 
tering as  high  as  20,000  tons,  have  come  "and  gone  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  The  port  of  Buenos  Aires  saw  its  business  grow  so 
rapidly  that  elaborate  construction  of  docks  was  hardly  sufficient 
by  the  time  it  was  completed  to  take  care  of  the  growing  traffic. 
In  1913  a  total  of  700  passenger-carrying  vessels  entered  the  port 
from  overseas,  bringing  316,000  passengers.  Many  of  the  large 
liners  that  reached  Buenos  Aires  put  in  also  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Montevideo,  and  these  also  were  busy  ports.  Liners  flying  the 
flags  of  European  countries,  together  with  the  ships  of  one 
Brazilian  line,  afforded  most  of  the  regular  communication 
between  the  east  coast  and  New  York,  and  the  American  flag, 
carried  only  by  an  occasional  sailing  vessel  or  tank  steamer  or 
the  monthly  vessels  of  one  American  line  to  Brazil,  was  counted  a 
rarity  along  the  east  coast. 

England  has  enjoyed  the  bulk  of  South  American  trade  and 
English  lines  have  been  more  numerous  than  any  other.  The 
Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  was  perhaps  the  most  promi- 
nent of  these.  It  maintained  a  weekly  service,  its  modern  steam- 
ers of  15,000  tons  and  more  making  the  voyage  from  Liverpool 
to  Buenos  Aires  in  18  days  regularly,  and  on  occasion  covering 
the  distance  from  Cadiz,  Spain,  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  11  days.  The 
Lamport  &  Holt  Line  had  passenger  and  freight  steamers  running 
to  the  river  Plate  both  from  New  Y^'ork  and  from  English  ports, 
and  steamers  of  the  Booth  Line  plied  regularly  between  England 
and  north  Brazil  and  Amazon  ports,  and  between  New  York  and 
these  ports.  Other  lines  offering  service  between  the  east  coast 
of  South  America  and  England  were  the  Harrison  Line,  the 
Houston  Line,  the  London  &  Northern  Steamship  Company,  Ltd., 


OCEAN  AND  RIVER  TRANSPORTATION  125 

the  Blue  Star  Line,  the  British  &  Argentine  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  Ltd.,  the  Nautilus  Steam  Shipping  Company,  Ltd.,  the 
Nelson  Line,  the  Prince  Line,  and  a  line  operated  by  the  New 
Zealand  Shipping  Company,  Ltd.  and  Shaw,  Savill  &  Albim  Com- 
pany, Ltd.  All  these  sent  their  ships  to  the  river  Plate,  and  the 
Royal  Mail,  in  addition,  had  regular  boats  to  Venezuela  and  to 
Panama,  offering  service,  through  transshipment,  to  the  west  coast. 
Direct  service  to  the  west  coast  was  maintained  by  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Company,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Royal  Mail.  The 
fastest  of  the  river  Plate  steamers  made  Lisbon  in  about  14  days 
and  Southampton  in  17  days  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  the  first- 
class  fare  ranged  from  $110  to  $160. 

Next  to  the  English  the  ships  of  the  Italian  lines  were  most 
numerous  in  traffic  to  the  east  coast.  This  was  due  to  the  large 
movement  of  Italian  immigrants  into  Argentina  and  Brazil,  many 
of  them  going  over  for  the  harvests  and  returning  to  Italy  to 
spend  the  rest  of  the  year  at  home.  Those  who  settled  perma- 
nently brought  their  tastes  with  them  and  the  demand  for  Italian 
articles  built  up  a  trade  of  considerable  proportions.  The  fol- 
lowing lines  maintained  a  service  consisting  mostly  of  monthly 
sailings  each  way  between  Italian  ports,  usually  Genoa  and 
Naples,  and  the  river  Plate :  Italia  Line,  La  Veloce,  Italian  Lloyd, 
Lloyd  del  Pacifioo,  Lloyd  Sabaudo,  Navigazione  Generale  Italiana, 
Ligure  Braziliana,  and  Sicula-Americana.  The  German  flag  was 
carried  by  the  large  vessels  of  the  Hamburg-South  American  and 
the  North  German  Lloyd  to  Brazilian  and  Argentine  ports,  and  by 
the  Roland  line  to  west-coast  ports.  The  first-named  line  main- 
tained a  weekly  service  to  European  ports,  including  Lisbon,  Vigo, 
Southampton,  Boulogne,  and  Hamburg,  calling  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  on 
the  way  and  covering  the  distance  between  the  river  Plate  and  Lis- 
bon in  about  16  days.  The  first-class  passenger  fare  to  Europe  was 
about  $160.  Regular  liners  were  also  to  be  seen  in  the  river  Plate 
in  weekly,  fortnightly,  or  monthly  service  from  France,  Denmark, 
Holland,  Spain,  Belgium,  and  Sweden,  and  even  the  interior  coun- 
tries of  Russia  and  Austria-Hungary  found  it  desirable  to 
maintain  a  regular  service  through  their  own  national  lines. 
Besides  the  regular  boats  there  were  a  large  number  of  tramp 
steamers  and  sailers  and  specially  chartered  boats  plying  between 
Europe  and  the  river  Plate,  for  the  most  part  carrying  grain  and 
livestock  products  from  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario,  San  Lorenzo 
(near  Rosario),  and  Bahia  Blanca,  and  bringing  back  coal  and 
miscellaneous  cargo. 

Between  the  United  States  and  the  river  Plate  six  steamship 


126  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

lines,  all  British,  offered  freight  service  and  one  or  two  of  these 
also  carried  passengers.  These  were  the  Lamport  &  Holt  (the 
only  important  passenger-carrying  line),  Barber,  Norton,  Hous- 
ton, Prince,  and  American-Rio  Plata  lines.  They  maintained  a 
fortnightly  or  monthly  service  from  New  York,  stopping  at 
Brazilian  ports  in  one  or  both  directions.  The  United  States  and 
Brazil  Line,  flying  the  American  flag,  was  established  primarily 
to  carry  the  products  of  the  United  States  Steel  Products  Com- 
pany to  Brazil  and  bring  back  manganese  for  steel  manufacture, 
but  it  also  offered  general  cargo  service.  The  Booth  Line  had 
sailings  from  New^  York  to  Para,  Manaos,  and  Iquitos,  and  also  on 
occasion  to  ports  on  the  north  coast  of  Brazil,  and  the  Brazilian 
line,  the  Lloyd  Brazileiro,  operated  between  New  York  and  all  the 
important  Brazilian  ports. 

The  west  coast  enjoyed  adequate  ocean  transportation  facili- 
ties, both  to  oversea  countries  and  between  the  various  coast 
ports.  The  regular  European  lines  included  the  Kosmos  and 
Roland  Lines,  flying  the  German  flag,  the  three  English  com- 
panies, the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  Gulf  Line,  and 
Lamport  &  Holt,  and  the  Johnson  Line,  maintaining  service  to 
Denmark  and  Norway.  To  the  United  States  ships  of  three  lines 
sailed  regularly  from  west-coast  ports  —  the  Merchants,  West 
Coast,  and  New  York  &  South  America  lines,  each  with  sailings 
varying  from  one  to  two  months  apart.  These  lines  made  the  trip 
around  the  Horn  until  the  opening  of  the  Canal,  but  now  go  by 
way  of  Panama.  Between  Japan  and  the  Pacific  coast  the  large 
ships  of  one  line,  the  Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha,  provided  regular  and 
adequate  service.  In  the  coasting  trade  between  the  ports  of 
Chile,  Peru  and  Ecuador  three  companies  maintained  regular 
schedules,  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  the  Compania 
Sud  Americana  de  Vapores  (Chilean),  and  the  Compania  Peruana 
de  Vapores  y  Dique  del  Callao  (Peruvian  Steamship  and  Drydock 
Company  of  Callao).  Ships  of  the  Kosmos  Line  and  others  sail- 
ing to  transoceanic  ports  also  made  stops  at  the  important  ports 
of  the  west  coast  and  carried  more  or  less  coasting  traffic.  Besides 
these  regular  sailings  there  were  a  large  number  of  tramp  steam- 
ers and  sailing  vessels  taking  nitrate  from  Chile  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States  or  bringing  coal  from  Australia  and  Wales. 

The  flags  of  more  than  half-a-dozen  countries  were  carried  on 
the  ships  of  the  regular  lines  that  served  the  ports  of  the  north 
coast.  Spain  was  represented  by  the  Cia.  Transatlantica  de  Bar- 
celona, Italy  by  La  Veloce,  France  by  the  Cie.  Generale  Trans- 
atlantique,  Holland  by  the  Royal  Dutch  West  India  Mail,  Ger- 


«■** 


Shipping   In   Fort   of  Callao,   Peru 


The    Harbor,   Vera   Cruz,    Mexico 


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A  Portion   of  the   Harbor  of  Montevideo,   Uruguay 


OCEAN  AND  KIVER  TRANSPORTATION  127 

many  by  tlie  Hamburg  American,  England  by  the  Harrison  and 
Leyland  Lines,  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,  and 
the  United  Fruit  Company  (British  vessels  sailing  from  United 
States  ports),  and  the  United  States  by  the  **  Red  D  "  Line.  The 
ships  of  most  of  these  lines  touched  at  ports  of  both  Venezuela 
and  Colombia,  usually,  however,  going  in  one  direction,  New 
Orleans  or  New  York  being  visited  either  before  or  after  the 
Caribbean  ports  on  the  round  trip  from  Europe.  The  United 
Fruit  Co.  had  sailings  only  to  Colombia,  and  the  Red  D  Line  and 
the  Royal  Dutch  West  India  Mail  visited  only  Venezuela. 

In  Venezuela,  La  Guaira  and  Puerto  Cabello  were  the  chief 
ports  of  call,  the  cargo  to  and  from  Maracaibo,  the  important 
coffee  district,  being  transshipped  at  Curacao,  and  a  good  part  of 
the  trade  of  Ciudad  Bolivar  and  the  Orinoco  being  handled  through 
Trinidad.  In  Colombia  either  Cartagena  or  Puerto  Colombia,  the 
port  for  Barranquilla,  was  visited  by  the  liners  serving  the  coun- 
try, and  in  addition  the  port  of  Santa  Marta  became  prominent 
because  of  heavy  shipments  of  bananas.  Barranquilla,  the  most 
important  conunercial  city  of  the  Colombian  Republic,  is  shut  off 
from  the  ocean  by  a  great  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena, 
which  permits  the  entry  of  boats  of  lighter  draft  only.  Various 
projects  have  been  discussed  and  contracts  have  even  been  let  for 
dredging  and  maintaining  a  channel  through  this  bar,  but  this  has 
not  been  accomplished  so  far  and  cargo  must  come  and  go  through 
Puerto  Colombia. 

The  various  lines  carrying  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
with  South  America  may  be  said  to  have  furnished  a  fairly  ade- 
quate service,  and  in  the  main  their  ships  were  ready  to  carry  all 
the  cargo  that  offered.  There  has  been  considerable  agitation  in 
recent  years  for  the  establishment  of  American  steamship  lines  to 
carry  freight  and  passenger  traffic  between  the  United  Stc^tes  and 
Latin  America,  but  this  has  arisen  from  a  desire  for  many  advan- 
tages derived  from  a  national  service  rather  th>.n  from  a  con- 
spicuous inadequacy  of  cargo  space.  Nevertheless  there  is  little 
question  that  American-owned  vessels  would  do  much  to  assist  in 
the  upbuilding  of  United  States  trade  with  Latin  America. 
American  lines  could  expand  their  service  with  the  increasing 
demands  from  American  shippers,  and  could  adopt  policies  that 
would  directly  encourage  a  steady  trade  increase.  A  faster 
schedule  with  more  frequent  sailings  of  passenger  vessels  to  Brazil 
and  the  river  Plate  would  help  to  bring  shipping  communications 
from  New  York  to  a  par  with  those  from  Liverpool,  Hamburg,  and 
Genoa.   A  constant  community  of  interest  between  American  indus- 


128  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

tries  and  the  companies  which  transported  their  products  to  Latin 
America  would  work  for  as  great  an  expansion  of  both  trade  and 
shipping  as  could  reasonably  be  expected  under  normal  conditions 
of  competition.  It  is  probable  that  with  the  growth  of  interest  in 
foreign  trade  in  the  United  States  the  establishment  of  American- 
owned  lines  to  all  parts  of  Latin  America  will  be  a  question  of  only 
a  short  time. 

The  time  now  required  for  the  voyage  from  New  York  to 
Buenos  Aires  is  24  or  25  days,  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  17  days,  to  Colon 
7  days,  to  Cartagena  8  or  9  days,  to  La  Guaira  8  to  10  days,  to 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  12  to  14  days,  to  Callao,  Peru,  about  15  days, 
and  to  Valparaiso,  Chile,  about  22  days.  The  West  Coast  and  the 
Merchants  lines  offer  through  service  to  the  west  coast,  and  the 
United  Fruit  Company  and  the  Panama  Railroad  and  Steamship 
Line  connect  with  the  boats  of  the  Peruvian  and  Chilean  lines  and 
the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company.  Vessels  plying  to  east^ 
coast  ports  from  New  York  make  no  stops  in  the  West  Indies,  as  a 
rule,  except  at  Barbados,  and  occasionally  Trinidad,  and  travelers- 
in  Venezuela  or  Colombia  who  wish  to  visit  Brazil  and  Argentina 
often  find  it  more  desirable  to  return  to  New  York  than  to  wait 
for  connections.  Pernambuco  is  the  first  port  of  call  for  the  regu- 
lar liners  on  the  way  down  the  east  coast,  except  those  of  the  Lloyd 
Brazileiro,  and  Para  and  neighboring  ports  are  reached  from 
Pernambuco  by  coasting  vessels. 

River  Transportation. —  Transportation  by  river  in  South 
America  has  had  the  importance  which  it  always  has  in  a  new  and 
unexplored  continent,  and  it  will  continue  to  be  perhaps  the  chief 
factor  in  the  development  of  the  interior  regions,  particularly  the 
Amazon  Valley,  for  an  indefinite  time  to  come.  Where  railways 
are  built  they  form  of  course  the  principal  means  of  carrying 
traffic,  and  a  steady  expansion  in  railway  construction  is  to  be 
expected.  But  such  construction  is  attended  with  great  difficul- 
ties in  the  vast  tropical  regions  of  the  northern  and  central  sec- 
tions as  well  as  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  west  coast,  and 
the  cost  is  very  heavy.  The  rivers  will  therefore  remain 
the  recognized  outlets  for  these  tropical  regions  until  the  growth 
of  population  makes  it  feasible  and  desirable  to  provide  what  is 
now  dense  forest  land  with  networks  of  railways. 

There  are  four  great  river  systems  in  South  America  on  which 
vessels  ranging  in  size  from  the  small  canoe  of  the  Indian  to  the 
great  ocean  liners  carry  manufactured  goods  to  the  interior  and 
bring  out  rubber,  hides,  and  a  dozen  other  tropical  products. 
These  are  the  systems  of  the  Amazon,  the  river  Plate,  the  Ori- 


OCEAN  AND  RIVER  TRANSPORTATION  129 

noco,  and  the  Magdaleiia.  So  extensive  are  these  systems  that 
with  a  comparatively  few  miles  portage  one  can  go  by  boat  except 
for  rapids  from  Buenos  Aires  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 
The  great  Amazon,  of  course,  leads  in  the  extent  of  navigable 
waterways,  and  ocean  liners  go  regularly  as  far  as  Manaos  and 
even  Iquitos,  almost  to  the  boundary  of  Ecuador.  The  Parana  and 
its  tributaries,  the  Paraguay  and  the  Pilcomayo,  stretch  far  into 
the  heart  of  the  continent  and  afford  an  outlet  for  the  interior 
plains  of  Boli\Ha,  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Argentina.  In  the  north 
the  Orinoco  is  as  yet  little  utilized  because  the  country  it  serves  is 
but  thinly  settled,  but  the  grassy  plains  through  which  it  flows  will 
support  millions  more  cattle  than  they  do,  and  until  railways  are 
built  to  the  coast  their  only  outlet  will  be  by  way  of  the  river.  In 
Colombia  the  Magdalena  forms  the  only  highway  by  which  freight 
and  passengers  move  from  tl^e  interior  of  the  country  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  vice  versa. 

Navigation  on  the  Amazon,  in  many  respects  the  most  remark- 
able river  highway  in  the  world,  is  carried  on  by  ocean  liners,  par- 
ticularly the  boats  of  the  Booth  Line  and  the  Lloyd  Brazileiro,  by 
a  number  of  river  companies,  and  by  a  host  of  larger  or  smaller 
vessels  not  grouped  into  companies.  The  principal  river  com- 
pany is  the  Companhia  Navega^ao  do  Amazonas,  a  Brazilian  com- 
pany, which  owns  some  50  or  60  vessels.  The  principal  port  is 
that  of  Manaos,  about  1000  miles  from  Para,  on  the  Rio  Negro 
near  the  place  where  it  empties  into  the  Amazon.  On  the  Madeira 
there  is  continuous  navigation  to  the  beginning  of  the  rapids  at 
Santo  Antonio,  and  beyond  these  series  of  rapids,  which  are  spanned 
by  the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway,  boats  of  light  draft  can  ran 
almost  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  On  the  Amazon  itself  the 
line  of  navigable  water  for  large-draft  boats  passes  the  frontier 
of  Peru  and  continues  on  to  Iquitos,  and  much  farther  for  those 
of  smaller  size.  Another  highly  important  river  in  Brazilian 
transportation  is  the  Sao  Francisco,  which  rises  in  the  state  of 
Minas  Geraes  and  flows  north  for  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
before  turning  east  and  south  to  the  Atlantic.  Rapids  and  falls 
prohibit  through  navigation,  but  there  is  a  stretch  of  about  800 
miles  between  Pirapora  and  Sobradinho  over  which  boats  of  con- 
siderable size  can  operate. 

The  Uruguay  River  does  not  offer  much  in  the  way  of  trans- 
portation facilities,  as  rapids  at  Salto  stop  the  boats  going  up  from 
Buenos  Aires.  The  Paraguay,  however,  is  open  as  far  as  the 
draft  of  vessels  will  permit  them  to  go,  and  steamers  of  the  Lloyd 
10 


130  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Brazileiro  call  regularly  at  Corumba  on  the  Bolivia-Brazil  frontier. 
These  boats  and  also  those  of  the  Mihanovitch  Line  (Argentine 
Navigation  Co.,  Ltd.)  offer  a  river  service  to  Asuncion,  Paraguay, 
the  trip  up  the  river  from  Buenos  Aires  taking  about  five  days  and 
that  down-river  about  four.  This  company,  which  has  a  fleet  of 
some  300  vessels,  does  an  extensive  coasting  business  to  Argentine 
ports,  and  maintains  a  daily  express  service  between  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Aires. 

On  the  Orinoco,  as  noted,  traffic  is  light  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  plains  through  which  the  river  flows  are  as  yet  but  sparsely 
inhabited.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  level  of  the 
river  in  the  rainy  and  the  dr^^  seasons  and  when  the  floods  come  it 
overflows  its  banks  and  its  width  increases  to  several  miles.  The 
principal  city,  Ciudad  Bolivar,  is  reached  by  vessels  engaged  in 
ocean  trade,  and  the  river  is  navigable  for  large  boats  during  high 
water  as  far  as  San  Antonio.  Li  western  Venezuela  the  large 
expanse  of  Ijake  Maracaibo  affords  a  highway  over  which  the 
important  coffee  production  of  the  interior  reaches  the  outside 
world,  but  a  bar  at  the  entrance  keeps  out  all  but  light-draft  boats. 

The  Magdalena  River,  in  Colombia,  may  be  said  to  be  the  life- 
line of  the  country's  commerce.  Practically  all  imports  destined 
for  the  interior  are  carried  over  it.  Although  it  is  silted  up  at  the 
mouth  so  that  ocean  liners  can  not  pass  through,  cargo  is  dis- 
charged at  Cartagena  and  Puerto  Colombia  and  is  taken  thence  by 
rail  to  the  river  ports  of  Calamar  and  Barranquilla.  It  is  then 
loaded  on  river  boats  (which  also  GStrry  passengers)  and  carried 
up  the  Magdalena  to  the  various  river  ports,  from  which  it  is 
taken  inland  by  muleback  or  rail.  If  destined  for  the  capital, 
Bogota,  it  must  be  transferred  to  railway  trains  at  Honda  or  La 
Dorado,  and  then  reloaded  on  river  boats  at  Beltran,  after  having 
encompassed  a  series  of  rapids  in  the  river.  It  then  goes  by  river 
to  Girardot,  93  miles,  and  finally  arrives  at  Bogota  after  another 
journey  by  rail,  during  which  it  must  be  transshipped  from  a 
medium-gauge  to  a  narrow-gauge  railway.  From  the  time  it 
arrives  in  port,  therefore,  until  it  reaches  Bogota  the  cargo  is 
transshipped  six  times.  The  whole  trip  up-river  to  Bogota  takes 
8  to  10  days,  but  the  doMTi  trip  can  be  made  in  less  time  during 
periods  of  high  water.  The  Cauca  River,  the  principal  tributary 
of  the  Magdalena,  is  navigable  over  part  of  its  length,  but  rapids 
and  falls  prevent  the  river  boats  from  running  through  to  the 
Magdalena.  Railway  construction  may  in  time  provide  a  quicker 
and  more  convenient  outlet  for  the  country's  products,  but  this  is 
not  likely  to  be  accomplished  for  many  years. 


OCEAN  AND  RIVER  TRANSPORTATION  131 

Mexico  and  Central  America 

Central  American  has  owned  much  of  its  ocean-transportation 
service  to  the  development  of  its  banana  industry,  as  this  has 
brought  about  the  establishment  of  the  steamship  lines  of  the 
United  Fruit  Co.  The  vessels  of  this  company  have  provided  the 
east  coast  of  Central  America  with  a  service  to  United  States 
ports  more  frequent  and  regular  than  is  enjoyed  by  any  other 
section  of  Latin  America.  Large  ships  carrying  as  a  rule  both 
passengers  and  freight  sail  regularly  between  the  United  States 
and  Central  America,  as  well  as  Colombia  and  Cuba,  giving  direct 
connections  between  these  countries  and  five  United  States  ports. 
From  New  York  there  are  two  sailings  each  Aveek  for  Panama 
(one  of  these  boats  also  making  Port  Limon,  Costa  Rica),  and  one 
sailing  every  two  weeks  for  British  Honduras,  Gruatemala  and 
Spanish  Honduras.  From  Boston  there  is  a  weekly  boat  to  Port 
Limon,  stopping  at  Havana,  Cuba,  on  the  way.  From  New 
Orleans  there  is  a  boat  each  w^eek  to  British  and  Spanish  Hon- 
duras and  Guatemala  and  another  to  Panama  and  Costa  Rica, 
while  a  third  sails  for  Panama  by  way  of  Havana.  Service  is 
also  offered  from  Galveston  and  Mobile,  though  no  passengers  are 
carried,  as  they  are  on  all  the  other  routes.  These  boats,  carrying 
millions  of  bunches  of  bananas  from  Central  American  ports 
every  year,  as  well  as  cacao  and  other  produce,  afford  an 
adequate  and  valued  service  of  immense  im|)ortance  to  the 
prosperity  of  Central  American  countries,  all  of  which  are 
reached  directly  except  Salvador  and  Nicaragua. 

Besides  the  United  Fruit  Company  lines  serving  the  east 
coast  from  the  United  States  are  the  Bluefields  Fruit  &  Steamship 
Company,  operating  between  Bluefields  and  New  Orleans,  afford- 
ing the  only  regular  steamship  communication  of  eastern  Nica- 
ragua with  the  outside  world ;  the  Orr-Laubenheimer  Line,  the  ves- 
sels of  which  operate  between  Mobile  and  ports  of  British  Hon- 
duras and  Guatemala;  the  Hubbard-Zemurray  Line  running  fruit 
steamers  from  Mobile  to  Puerto  Cortes,  Ceiba,  and  Tela,  Hon- 
duras; and  the  Independent  Steamship  Line,  with  sailings  twice  a 
week  for  Ceiba,  Honduras. 

Before  the  war  the  Hamburg  American  Line  (Atlas  Service) 
had  weekly  sailings  between  New  York  and  Port  Limon,  and  also 
a  semi-monthly  service  from  Port  Limon  to  Hamburg.  The  Elders 
&  Fyffes  Line  formerly  carried  bananas  from  Costa  Rica,  to 
Bristol,  England,  but  the  vessels  were  taken  over  by  the  United 
Fruit  Company,  which  continued  the  sailings  via  Colon  and 
Jamaica.    The  French  Cie.  Generale  Transatlantique  maintained 


132  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

a  semi-monthly  service  between  Colon  and  Port  Limon  and  Havre 
before  the  war,  but  sailings  under  war  conditions  have  been 
uncertain.  Besides  this  line  connections  between  Panama  and 
Europe  are  normally  afforded  by  the  Leyland  &  Harrison  Line  and 
the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  to  England,  La  Veloce 
(Italian)  to  Genoa,  and  the  Compania  Transatlantica  de  Barcelona 
to  Spanish  ports. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  Central  America  is  served  by  five  regu- 
larly operating  lines,  the  Pacific  Mail,  the  line  of  W.  R.  Grace  & 
Co.,  the  Salvador  Railway  &  Steamship  Co.,  the  Jebson  Line,  and 
the  California  South  Sea  Navigation  Company.  The  first-named 
line  operates  between  Balboa  and  San  Francisco,  touching  at  inter- 
mediate ports  of  importance,  the  second  between  Seattle  and 
Balboa  and  the  third  between  Salina  Cruz,  Mexico,  the  terminus 
of  the  Tehuantepec  Railway,  and  Balboa.  The  Jebson  Line  and 
the  California  South  Sea  Navigation  Company  operate  out  of  San 
Francisco,  the  former  with  steamers  every  three  weeks  and  the 
latter  every  10  days  for  ports  to  the  south.  Before  the  war  the 
vessels  of  the  Kosmos  and  Hamburg  American  lines  called  at  Cen- 
tral American  ports  on  their  way  to  Europe.  All  the  above  lines 
serve  Mexican  w^est  coast  ports  as  well  as  those  of  Central 
America,  and  in  addition  the  Pacific  Coast  Steamship  Company 
has  sailings  from  San  Francisco  to  Mexican  ports. 

To  Mexican  east-coast  ports  four  or  five  lines  offer  direct 
regular  service  from  New  York,  and  others  take  cargo  for  trans- 
shipment. The  New  York  &  Cuba  Mail  has  a  weekly  service  to 
Vera  Cruz,  Progreso,  and  Puerto  Mexico,  and  the  American  & 
Cuban  Steamship  Line  and  the  Atlantic  Fruit  Company  serve  Vera 
Cruz,  Tampico,  and  Frontera  with  frequent  sailings.  From  New 
Orleans  and  Mobile  three  or  four  lines  have  weekly  sailings  to  the 
chief  east-coast  ports  of  Mexico,  and  there  are  also  a  large  num- 
ber of  tramp  steamers  plying  between  Mexican  and  United  States 
Gulf  ports.  Several  oil  companies  also  operate  tank  steamers  out 
of  Tampico  to  United  States  and  European  ports.  In  normal  times 
Dutch,  British,  German,  and  other  steamers  afford  a  frequent 
service  to  Europe. 

Lake  and  river  transportation  has  not  been  extensively 
developed  in  Mexico  or  Central  America,  as  there  are  no  interior 
waterways  of  great  importance.  In  Guatemala  a  certain  amount 
of  traffic  is  carried  on  over  Lake  Izabal,  and  in  Nicaragua  Lake 
Nicaragua,  Lake  Managua,  and  the  San  Juan  River  form  a 
water  highway  that  is  considerably  used.  In  Mexico  the  Panuco 
River,  leading  back  from  Tampico,  is  navigable  for  many  miles. 


Interior  Transportation 


By  Otto  Wilson 


A  CASUAL  study  of  the  map  will  disclose  that  South 
America,  although  discovered  by  white  men  over  400 
years  ago,  is  as  yet  in  large  part  only  fringed  with  settle- 
ments, and  the  heart  of  the  continent  remains  as  it  was  before 
Columbus  sailed.  All  along  the  coasts  are  scores  of  towns  and 
cities,  mostly  communicating  with  each  other  and  the  outside 
world  by  water,  which  serve  as  inlet  and  outlet  for  the  commerce 
of  a  comparatively  narrow  hinterland.  In  some  cases  the  towTis 
and  villages  of  this  hinterland  are  reached  by  railways,  in  others 
by  river  boats ;  but  very  often  the  only  communicating  road  from 
the  coast  is  a  rough  trail,  where  even  wheeled  vehicles  will  find 
no  thoroughfare.  Even  where  rail  or  river  transportation  is  well 
developed  the  terminal  towns  serve  as  distributing  centres  for 
settlements  still  farther  in  the  interior,  which  must  be  reached  by 
primitive  means.  These  interior  towns  are  not  heavy  consumers 
of  manufactured  goods  from  abroad,  or  at  least  the  variety  of 
such  goods  in  demand  is  not  wide.  But  such  lines  as  cotton  goods, 
boots  and  shoes,  farm  implements,  house  furnishings,  and  hard- 
ware of  various  kinds,  particularly  cutlery,  move  constantly  to  the 
interior  when  they  can  be  obtained  from  abroad.  It  is  also 
a  mistake  to  consider  that  these  outlying  villages  offer  no  special 
market  for  luxuries  or  for  articles  usually  associated  with  urban 
life.  An  American  company  has  placed  sewing  machines  in  the 
houses  of  poor  Indian  laborers,  and  one  instance  is  known  where 
an  American  soda  fountain  was  imported,  although  the  drums  of 
carbonated  water  to  be  used  in  it  had  to  be  carried  regularly  100 
miles  or  so  by  muleback. 

So  far  as  the  individual  manufacturer  is  concerned  the  prob- 
lems of  interior  transportation  are  largely  matters  of  academic 
interest  only,  except  in  so  far  as  packing  and  marking  shipments 
are  involved.  As  a  rule  the  American  manufacturer  exports  his 
wares  to  South  America  in  the  same  way  as  the  German,  British, 
or  other  European  manufacturer,  that  is  through  an  export  com- 
mission house,  which  attends  to  transportation  details.  Even 
where  he  ships  direct  his  goods  in  most  cases  go  to  a  native  import- 
ing house  in  some  large  port,  and  this  house,  long  established  in  the 

[133] 


134  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

field,  has  its  own  connections  with  merchants  of  the  interior.  It 
will  nevertheless  be  worth  his  while  to  make  such  study  as  he  can 
of  the  ultimate  consumer  in  South  America,  and,  if  opportunity 
offers,  to  trace  his  goods  by  personal  visit  to  their  final  destina- 
tion in  mountain  or  forest  home.  The  necessity  for  complying 
closely  with  requirements  as  to  trifling  details  in  color  or  con- 
struction, for  packing  in  containers  of  a  certain  weight  and  quality, 
and  for  being  liberal  in  granting  credit  terms  to  importers  will 
undoubtedly  be  more  clear  to  him  after  such  visit. 

The  distributing  centres  for  foreign  goods  in  South  America 
are  in  most  cases  coast  cities  at  which  the  ocean  liners  discharge 
the  cargo  destined  for  the  general  region  which  they  serve.  Along 
the  coast  of  Brazil  there  are  six  or  eight  of  these  centres,  including 
Para,  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Santos,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  Kio  Grande  do  Sul,  Porto  Alegre,  Florianopolis,  Vic- 
toria, Maceio,  Fortaleza,  Paranagua,  and  others,  while  Manaos, 
over  900  miles  up  the  Amazon,  is  for  all  practical  purposes  to  be 
considered  an  ocean  port.  From  these  cities  goods  are  dis- 
tributed by  coast  vessels  ranging  in  size  from  those  of  several 
hundred  tons  to  the  small  sailing  vessels  or  motor  boats,  which 
make  the  numerous  small  ports  in  between  the  larger  centres,  and 
from  these  the  goods  work  their  way  back  into  the  inland  villages. 
In  Uruguay  all  lines  radiate  from  Montevideo  and  in  Argentina 
Buenos  Aires  is  the  great  open  door  to  the  whole  interior.  Goods 
destined  for  Patagonia  may  be  routed  by  way  of  Bahia  Blanca  or 
Punta  Arenas,  but  the  greater  part  of  imports  for  this  section  also 
wdll  probably  be  found  to  pass  through  Buenos  Aires.  Along  the 
Chilean  coast  are  many  nitrate  towns  and  cities,  each  of  which 
lives  an  independent  existence,  obtaining  all  its  supplies  from 
visiting  ships.  Besides  three  railway  lines  running  to  the  Pacific, 
Bolivia  is  reached  by  two  or  three  routes  running  up  from  the 
river  Plate.  This  is  the  historic  road  over  which  a  great  amount  of 
traffic  passed  in  the  Spanish  colonial  days,  and  it  is  still  a  con- 
venient pathway  for  supplies  going  to  eastern  Bolivia.  The  route 
lies  through  either  Buenos  Aires  or  Rosario,  then  by  rail  to  the 
border  at  La  Quiaca,  then  by  cart  or  animal  to  Tupiza,  57  miles,  or 
to  Tarija,  82  miles,  and  then  by  such  conveyance  as  offers  to  the 
final  destination.  Goods  often  reach  the  cities  of  Sucre  or  Potosi 
in  this  manner.  Throughout  all  the  region  known  as  the  "  mon- 
tana  "  district,  embracing  eastern  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador  and 
western  Brazil,  the  method  of  moving  produce  is  the  same  —  that 
is,  by  rail,  ocean  steamer,  or  river  boat  as  far  as  these  convey- 
ances can  take  it,  then  by  muleback,  llama  back,  or  man  power  to 


INTERIOR   TRANSPORTATION  135 

the  village  in  the  mountain  or  forest.  This  is  true  also  of  Colom- 
bia and  Venezuela  and  the  Guianas,  to  the  north,  where  the  general 
absence  of  rail  transportation  makes  the  mule  a  necessity  in 
communicating  with  most  districts  off  the  coast. 

In  all  South  America  there  are  hardly  any  extensive  highways 
built  and  maintained  with  substantial  paving  materials,  such  as 
are  common  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Wheeled  vehicles 
are  mostly  carts,  which  are  used  in  many  places  to  bring  the 
country  produce  to  market  and  to  do  heavy  hauling  in  the  towns 
and  cities.  This  lack  of  roads  is  due  in  part  to  the  expense  of  con- 
structing them,  in  part  to  the  general  disposition  of  South  Ameri- 
cans to  allow  foreign  enterprise  to  develop  their  resources.  There 
is,  however,  a  very  widespread  interest  in  the  subject  of  good 
roads,  and  several  Governments  have  included  substantial  sums 
in  their  budgets  to  be  devoted  to  building  them.  It  is  likely  that 
the  continent  is  on  the  eve  of  an  era  of  extensive  highway  con- 
struction, one  of  the  things  now  most  needed  to  open  up  the 
resources  of  the  various  potentially  wealthy  countries.  The  com- 
ing of  the  automobile  is  to  be  credited  with  much  of  the  interest 
now  being  displayed  in  good  roads. 

It  is  in  determining  the  question  of  how  best  to  pack  his  goods 
for  shipment  to  possible  interior  points  that  the  manufacturer 
comes  closest  in  touch  with  transportation  conditions  there.  The 
packing  room  of  the  factory,  if  it  conscientiously  tries  to  observe 
all  the  instructions  given  in  general  trade  reports  from  South 
America,  will  have  its  work  cut  out  for  it.  Goods  must  be  packed 
in  strong  containers,  well  stripped  with  iron  or  wood  bands,  but 
these  must  not  be  too  heavy  because  of  the  levying  of  import  duties 
on  the  weight  of  container  as  well  as  contents.  In  some  cases 
goods  should  be  placed  in  interior  wrappings,  in  others  not.  Tin, 
tarred  paper,  tarred  burlap,  oilcloth,  or  some  other  covering 
should  be  used  to  protect  goods  from  salt  water.  Besides  all  this, 
goods  going  into  the  interior  should  be  packed  in  boxes  or  bales 
of  not  more  than  100  pounds,  or  at  most  125  pounds,  so  that  they 
can  conveniently  be  carried  on  mule  or  llama  back,  and  the  wood 
used  should  be  of  good  grade,  usually  one  of  the  harder  woods  such 
as  beech  or  oak  rather  than  pine,  as  in  many  cases  the  shipment  is 
valued  for  the  container  as  w^ell  as  the  imported  article  itself. 
There  is  only  one  safe  method  to  follow  with  regard  to  packing, 
and  that  is  to  follow  closely  any  instructions  that  may  be  given  by 
the  buyer,  who  usually  has  particular  reasons  for  insisting  on  cer- 
tain details.  If  such  instructions  are  not  volunteered  the  careful 
manufacturer  will  ask  for  them,  and  will  work  out  his  own  style 


136  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  packing  in  accordance  with  his  experiences  in  experimental 
shipments.  His  carefulness  and  anxiety  to  put  up  his  goods  in  the 
right  way  will  be  much  appreciated  by  Latin  American  customers 
who  have  had  much  experience  of  an  opposite  nature. 

Of  the  beasts  of  burden  used  to  transport  freight  into  the 
mountainous  districts  of  the  Andean  highlands  the  llama  is  most 
distinctive  but  the  mule  is  most  useful.  The  llama  is  not  a  strong- 
animal,  and  can  carry  only  about  100  pounds.  It  is  yery  tractable 
and  finds  its  own  forage  by  the  wayside.  It  knows  its  load,  how- 
ever, and  will  usually  refuse  to  go  on  if  a  few  pounds  extra  weight 
are  added  to  its  burden.  The  mule  carries  as  much  as  250  pounds 
at  a  load,  but  as  the  pack  is  arranged  so  as  to  distribute  the  load 
evenly  on  each  side  it  adds  greatly  to  the  convenience  of  the 
importer  to  have  the  goods  in  cases  of  120  or  125  pounds  each. 
Packages  should  not  be  over  3  feet  long,  or  14  inches  in  other 
dimensions.  Indians  carry  heavy  loads  on  their  backs  and  go 
long  distances  with  little  to  eat,  although  a  pouch  of  coca  leaves  on 
which  to  chew  is  considered  practically  a  necessity. 

Conditions  in  Central  America  are  practically  the  same  as  in 
South  America  so  far  as  interior  transportation  goes,  although  in 
one  case  at  least  an  excellent  automobile  road  has  been  built.  This 
is  the  highway  called  "  Carretera  del  Sur,"  90  miles  long,  leading 
from  the  Pacific  coast  of  Honduras  to  Tegucigalpa.  There  is  much 
interest  in  road  building  in  Honduras,  but  comparatively  little 
construction  of  a  permanent  character  has  been  effected.  In 
Mexico  road  building  and  railroad  construction  have  made  much 
more  advance,  but  mule  trains  are  used  throughout  the  country, 
particularly  for  carrying  supplies  into  mining  camps  and  bring- 
ing out  ore. 


Immigration  to  Latin  America 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


A  VITALLY  important  matter  to  nearly  all  of  the  Latin 
American  countries  —  though  not  in  the  same  degree  essen- 
tial to  all  —  is  tile  supply  of  energetic  and  adaptable  immi- 
grants, whose  exertions  will  increase  material  prosperity  wherever 
it  has  been  established  or  hasten  its  coming  in  other  regions  — 
those  of  undeveloped  natural  resources.  In  this  connection,  the 
following  statements  may  serve  to  supply  our  readers  with  the 
salient  facts  in  relation  to  the  various  republics. 

In  the  course  of  half  a  century  Argentina  Jias  received  as 
settlers  more  than  2,000,000  Italians,  about  1,500,000  Spaniards, 
over  200,000  French  people,  70,000  Austro-Hungarians,  over  50,000 
Germans  and  about  the  same  number  of  Britons,  30,000  Swiss, 
21,000  Belgians,  and  many  Russians,  Syrians,  and  Portuguese. 
The  North  American  immigrants  immbered  between  6,000  and 
7,000.  In  1915  the  total  immigration  to  this  republic  (including 
25,163  Spaniards,  11,279  Italians,  1,181  French,  835  Portuguese, 
735  British)  was  given  as  86,166.  This  w^as  far  below  the  average, 
which  in  recent  years  has  approximated  300,000.  The  constitu- 
tional provision  that  all  children  born  in  the  republic  are  citizens 
of  Argentina  applies  equally  to  the  children  of  foreigners. 

Bolivia,  having  no  seaport,  naturally  receives  few  immigrants, 
and  its  entire  foreign  population  numbers  only  7,500  or  8,000, 
including  about  2,000  Peruvians.  The  government,  however,  offers 
substantial  inducements  to  settlers.  By  the  law  of  13  Oct.  1905,  some 
of  the  vacant  lands  are  reserved  for  adjudication  to  immigrants, 
and  it  is  provided  that  any  alien  not  over  60  years  of  age,  upon 
proof  of  good  moral  character,  will  be  granted  the  following 
privileges :  The  right  to  come  into  the  country  and  with  his  fam- 
ily to  be  transported  to  his  destination;  free  transportation  of 
baggage;  the  right  to  occupy  public  lands  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses or  any  useful  industry.  Each  immigrant  can  obtain  120 
acres  for  $5.00  and  each  child  under  14  years  of  age  60  additional 
acres.  At  this  nominal  price  the  immigrant  secures  land  chosen 
by  himself  within  the  reservations  above  mentioned. 

As  for  Brazil^  the  records  of  nearly  a  century  show  the  total 
number  of  immigrants  to  have  been  more  than  3,500,000.  "  The 
first  attempt  at  colonization,  other  than  by  Portuguese  was  [made] 

[137] 


138  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

by  John  VI,  in  1818^19.  He  started  two  German  villages  m 
Bahia,  and  a  Swiss  one  at  Novo  Friburgo."  (Consult  Oakenfull, 
J.  C,  Brazil,  Frome  1913).  By  nationalities,  the  figures  from 
1820  to  1912,  inclusive,  are  the  following:  Italian  immigrants 
1,327,808;  Portuguese  883,351;  Spanish  412,438;  German  116,151; 
Russian  92,413;  Austrian  75,774;  Turkish  and  Arabian  39,286; 
French  25,748;  British  16,395;  Swiss  9,086;  Japanese  4,746; 
Swedish  3,780;  Belgian  3,670;  of  other  nationalities  203,396;  total 
3,214,042.  In  1914  Brazil  received  82,572  immigrants,  including 
27,933  Portuguese,  18,945  Spaniards,  15,542  Italians,  3,675  Japa- 
nese, 3,456  Syrians,  2,958  Russians  (chiefly  Poles),  971  Austro- 
Hungarians,  696  French  and  462  British.  The  subsidized  immi- 
grants were  17,709  in  number.  The  high-water  mark  was  reached 
in  1891,  when  the  total  number  of  immigrants  was  275,808,  includ- 
ing more  than  116,000  Italians.  ''  This  influx,"  writes  Oakenfull, 
''  was  doubtless  due  in  part  to  the  crisis  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic (1890-92),"  which  temporarily  diverted  currents  of  immigra- 
tion from  Buenos  Aires  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  **  Since  1895  the 
figures  have  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  measures  for  encour- 
aging the  flow  of  colonists  into  the  country."  The  several  states 
of  Brazil  had  recourse  to  liberal  subventions  or  subsidies,  which 
have  varied  from  time  to  time  and  cannot  be  given  in  detail  here; 
but  we  may  add  that  Sao  Paulo  led  the  way  in  the  endeavor ;  that 
Minas  Geraes  passed  immigration  laws  in  1896,  1899  and  1905; 
that  in  Parana,  Bahia,  Matto  Grosso,  etc.,  similar  legislation  was 
devised,  and  competitive  propaganda  in  Europe  gave  rise  to  con- 
ditions everywhere  regarded  as  unsatisfactory;  and  finally  that, 
on  19  April  1907,  the  Federal  Government  wisely  interposed  its 
national  decree  relating  to  immigration  and  colonization  —  a  stabil- 
izing measure.  (See  Brazilian  Government,  p.  260,  for  the 
underlying  governmental  principle  involved). 

Immigration  into  Chile  is  on  a  small  scale,  although  it  is 
favored,  and  to  a  certain  extent  stimulated,  by  the  government, 
chiefly  through  the  formation  of  agricultural  settlements  or  colo- 
nies. During  the  decade  1905-1914,  inclusive,  the  total  number  of 
immigrants  was  25,544. 

Colombia's  north  coast  is  gaining  immigrants  through  the 
development  of  the  banana  industry  (see  article  Fruit),  but  an 
anomalous  situation  is  observed  in  the  republic  as  a  whole.  '  *  There 
is  much  public  land,  fertile,  favorably  and  healthily  situated,  and 
easily  cleared  for  grazing  or  cultivation,  that,  is  to  be  had  for  the 
taking.  The  laws  as  to  haldios  [government  domains]  are  liberal; 
a  colonist,  by  cultivating  and  fencing,  acquires  title  to  the  tract 


IMMIGRATION  139 

improved  and  to  an  adjacent  area  of  equal  dimensions;  and  title 
can  also  be  obtained  by  petition,  surveying,  and  the  payment  of 
small  fees.  But  the  tide  of  immigration  that  Colombia  so  much 
needs  has  flowed  to  the  other  countries,"  partly  because  the  gov- 
ernments of  other  Latin  American  countries  have  offered  superior 
pecuniary  inducements, ''  whereas  Colombia  is  still  half-hearted  in 
her  desire  to  attract  foreign  immigrants.  Citizens  there  are  who 
do  not  hesitate  publicly  and  emphatically  to  declare  that  Colom- 
bians are  better  off  without  foreign  settlers,  even  of  their  own 
religion."  (Consult  Eder,  P.  J.,  Colombia,  London,  1913).  And 
the  same  writer,  himself  a  native  of  Colombia,  says  that  "  with 
foreign  capital  and  foreign  immigration,  material  prosperity  will 
come  speedily;  without  them,  or  either  of  them,  the  day  of  salva- 
tion will  be  delayed." 

Costa  Rica's  banana  plantations  furnish  occupation  for  about 
25,000  (colored)  British  West  Indians  and  a  number  of  white  for- 
eigners, mainly  from  the  United  States.  European  immigrants 
from  Spain,  etc.,  are  relatively  few;  and  similar  disproportions 
are  noted  in  regard  to  Nicaragua  and  Honduras. 

Cuba  received  69,135  immigrants  (53,889  men  and  15,246 
women)  in  1914.  Emigrants  from  Cuba  in  the  same  year  num- 
bered 67,814. 

The  Dominican  Republic's  foreign  element  comprises  mainly 
the  Turkish  and  Syrian  tradesmen  in  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo. 
Both  immigration  and  emigration  are  negligible.  In  the  Republic 
of  Haiti,  which  occupies  the  western  part  of  the  same  island,  there 
are  about  5,000  foreigners,  of  whom  approximately  10  per  cent  are 
white. 

Commenting  upon  Ecuador,  a  British  Foreign  Office  Report 
states  that ' '  the  development  of  the  actual  branches  of  cultivation 
affords  full  employment  for  all  available  labor,  and  the  absolute 
requirement  for  the  further  progress  of  the  country  is  the  encour- 
agement of  immigration."  The  report  mentions  (somewhat  too 
unsparingly  to  harmonize  with  the  facts  well  known  to-day)  such 
deterrent  circumstances  as  "  the  insanitary  conditions  of  Guayaquil 
and  some  of  the  agricultural  districts."  There  is  no  good  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  w^ork  of  sanitation  that  has  been  undertaken  will 
be  as  successful  in  these  regions  as  it  has  been  elsewhere  (see 
Latin  America  —  Climatic  Values  of  Altitude,  p.  9,  and  Feutt). 
The  salient  fact  in  regard  to  this  South  American  country  is  that 
immigration,  hitherto  very  slight,  now  waits  upon  the  demonstra- 
tion of  the  success  of  the  sanitary  measures. 


140  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Guatemala  has,  since  1906,  shared  with  Honduras,  Nicaragua, 
Costa  Rica,  Panama,  and  Colombia  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
resident  foreigners  occasioned  by  the  development  of  the  fruit 
industry.  Such  increase  amounts  as  yet  only  to  about  7,000  in 
Guatemala,  and  the  government  of  that  country  is  trying  earnestly 
to  attract  white  immigrants  by  entering  into  contracts  with  desir- 
able persons  and  providing  free  transportation  from  foreign  ports 
to  designated  areas  in  the  public  domain.  Further  inducements 
now  offered  are :  Free  entry  of,  as  well  as  free  transportation  for 
stock,  tools,  implements,  seed,  and  household  effects;  to  each 
immigrant  free  use  of  not  less  than  two  and  not  more  than  six 
hectares  (4.94  and  14.83  acres,  respectively)  of  land;  and  if  within 
two  years  he  cultivates  one- third  of  the  grant  he  will  be  given  title 
to  the  homestead.  "  Persons  of  bad  character,  those  convicted  of 
crime,  or  those  over  60  years  of  age  whose  families  do  not  already 
reside  in  the  republic  will  not  be  accepted."  Immigrants  may 
preserve  their  own  nationality  or  may  become  citizens  of  Guatemala, 
but  in  either  event  they  are  restrained  from  recourse  to  diplomatic 
channels  for  the  interpretation  or  enforcement  of  their  contracts. 
**A11  immigrants  are  exempt  from  military  and  municipal  service. 
Companies  or  individuals  desiring  to  import  immigrants  must  have 
the  approval  of  the  Minister  of  Promotion,  and  such  contracts 
must  not  be  for  a  larger  term  than  four  years ;  nor  can  any  con- 
tract call  for  more  than  eight  hours'  work  a  day  from  an  immi- 
grant. Immigrants  coming  to  the  country  on  their  own  initiative 
are  subject  only  to  the  laws  relating  to  foreigners  generally;  the 
benefits  of  the  immigration  laws  are  not  applicable  to  them. 
Those  desiring  to  come  under  the  law  can  make  application  to  the 
nearest  Guatemalan  consul."  (Consult  Central  America  as  an 
Export  Field,  Washington,  Dept.  of  Commerce,  1916). 

Mexican  statistics  since  1910  supply  very  little  information 
that  we  can  utilize  in  this  study.  In  the  year  mentioned  the  census 
of  resident  foreigners  showed :  29,541  from  Spain ;  28,639  from  the 
United  States;  21,334  from  Guatemala;  13,203  from  China;  5,264 
from  various  parts  of  the  British  Empire;  4,604  from  France; 
3,827  from  Germany;  3,478  from  Cuba;  2,907  from  Turkey;  2,595 
from  Italy;  2,276  from  Japan;  1,546  from  countries  classified  as 
Arabian ;  5,433  from  all  other  countries.  The  total  foreign  popu- 
lation was  given  as  116,527. 

In  the  Republic  of  Panama  there  are  between  23,000  and 
24,000  British  subjects  —  not  including  those  in  the  Canal  Zone  — 
chiefly  from  the  West  Indies;  Chinese  subjects  number  approxi- 
mately 3,500 ;  and  from  time  to  time  a  few  immigrants  or  tempo- 


.  IMMIGRATION  141 

rary  residents  arrive  from  the  United  States  and  the  continental 
European  countries.  The  main  currents  of  immigration,  in  all  the 
region  of  the  Isthmus,  are  directed  to  the  Canal  Zone.  (See  the 
articles  devoted  to  the  Republic  of  Panama  and  the  Panama 
Canal). 

Paraguay  has  for  many  years  endeavored  to  secure  foreign 
labor  by  framing  laws  designed  to  attract  immigrants.  Agricul- 
tural colonies  were  established,  and  the  government  offered  20 
hectares  of  land  at  an  almost  nominal  price  to  each  immigrant  with 
a  family;  agreeing  also  to  furnish  transportation  from  any  point 
on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  to  admit  duty  free  the  articles  appropriate 
to  each  immigrant's  occupation,  to  supply  the  newcomers  with 
food  and  lodging  temporarily,  etc.  A  large  part  of  the  public 
domain  has  now  been  transferred  to  private  ownership.  The 
immigrants  who  received  assistance  from  the  government  in  1909 
numbered  830 ;  there  were  389  beneficiaries  in  1911 ;  704  in  1912 ; 
1,512  in  1913 ;  and  1,616  in  1914.  Their  colonies  are  most  numerous 
along  the  new  line  of  the  Paraguay  Central  Railway.  In  1914  the 
number  of  foreigners  in  the  republic  was  30,000  or  more,  including 
10,000  to  15,000  from  Argentina  and  about  the  same  number  from 
Italy;  3,000  from  Germany;  1,400  from  Brazil;  1,100  from  Spain; 
somewhat  less  than  1,000  from  France;  600  from  Uruguay,  and 
400  from  Great  Britain. 

For  Peru's  coastal  valleys  a  supply  (still  insufficient)  of 
immigrant  laborers  has  been  secured.  These  are  Chinese,  Japa- 
nese and  negroes.  In  the  larger  cities  and  at  mining  centres  in  the 
high  sierra  one  finds  business  men,  miners,  engineers,  etc.,  from 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Spain,  and  Germany ;  but  in  view 
of  the  size  and  great  natural  wealth  of  the  country  it  must  be  said 
that  immigration  is  very  slight.  A  recent  writer  calls  attention  to 
' '  the  higher  parts  of  the  montaiia  as  it  rises  toward  the  Andes, ' ' 
and  suggests:  *'  Here  a  field  for  immigration  may  be  found;  but 
the  means  of  transit  and  transport  must  first  be  developed,  and 
much  capital  must  be  sunk  and  pioneer  work  accomplished." 
(Consult  Vivian,  E.  C,  Peru,  London  1914). 

Salvador,  with  a  density  of  population  far  exceeding  that  of 
any  other  nation  of  the  New  World,  requires  only  skilled  labor 
and  capital. 

Immigration  into  Uruguay  is  stimulated  by  the  government  of 
that  republic  **  which  is  advertising  the  country's  advantages  and 
passing  liberal  laws  in  favor  of  the  new  comer.  Urugniay  was 
one  of  the  first  nations  in  South  America  to  couple  with  new  rail- 
way projects  the  principle  of  assisted  immigration  along  the  rail- 


142  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

way  line,  and  the  results  are  beginning  to  show.  In  one  construction 
project  accommodation  wdll  be  given  to  colonists,  who  will  be 
furnished  with  land,  houses,  stock,  and  farming  implements  for 
their  work."  (Consult  Pan  American  Union,  Uruguay:  General 
Descriptive  Data,  Washington  1916).  In  1914  the  Spanish  immi- 
grants landing  in  Montevideo  numbered  12,576;  Italian  11,758; 
French  1,258;  English  1,026;  Brazilian  919;  German  884.  The 
foreign  elements  in  the  republic  are,  in  the  order  of  their  numeri- 
cal strength:  Italian,  Spanish,  Brazilian,  Argentine,  French, 
Swiss,  British,  and  German. 

Venezuela  in  1912  received  9,672  immigrants,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  number  of  emigrants  was  7,991.  In  1913  the  figures 
were:  Immigrants  11,617  and  emigrants  10,708.  In  1914  immi- 
grants numbered  10,610  and  emigrants  9,742. 


Latin  America:     Greatest   Undeveloped 
Producing  Region  in  the  World 

By  O.  p.  Austin 
Statistician  of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York  and  Secretary  of  the  National  Geographic  Society 

LATIN  AMERICA  is  the  most  promising  of  the  undeveloped 
sections  of  the  world.  The  North  Temperate  Zone  has  been 
peopled  and  developed.  Europe  with  3,875,000  square 
miles  has  465,000,000  people,  or  120  per  square  mile.  Asia  with 
17,000,000  square  miles  has  870,000,000  people,  or  50  per  square 
miles.  North  America  wdth  8,600,000  square  miles  has  140,000,000 
or  16  per  square  mile.  Africa  with  11,600,000  square  miles  has 
150,000,000  or  12  persons  per  square  mile,  South  America  with 
7,600,000  square  miles  of  area  has  but  56,000,000  people,  or  7  per- 
sons per  square  mile.  Add  to  South  America,  Mexico,  Central 
America,  Cuba  and  the  Island  of  Haiti,  and  we  find  that  Latin 
America  has  8,660,000  square  miles,  82,000,000  people,  and  8  per- 
sons per  square  mile.  North  America  has  315,000  miles  of  railway, 
Europe  227,000,  Asia  62,000,  South  America  but  49,000,  and  Latin 
America  as  a  whole,  70,000.  Europe  has  a  commerce  of  $25,000,- 
000,000  per  annum  in  normal  years ;  North  America  $6,250,000,000 ; 
Asia,  $3,750,000,000,  and  South  America  $2,250,000,000  in  her  best 
year,  1913,  and  all  Latin  America  $2,900,000,000. 

The  Production  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone 

The  North  Temperate  Zone  has  been  pretty  well  developed  as 
to  its  producing  powers.  Europe,  with  its  120  persons  per  square 
mile  and  61  miles  of  railway  per  10,000  square  miles  of  area,  is 
no  longer  capable  of  increasing  its  production  of  foodstuffs  or 
manufacturing  material,  and  must  call  upon  other  parts  of  the 
world  for  large  quantities  of  these  requirements.  Asia  with  her 
dense  population  in  the  habitable  parts  and  large  desert  areas  can 
not  be  expected  to  supply,  any  considerable  quantity  of  foodstuffs 
or  manufacturing  material,  and  she  draws  much  of  food  and  most 
of  her  manufactures  from  other  continents.  North  America  has 
now  comparatively  little  of  foodstuffs  for  distribution  to  other 
parts  of  the  world,  save  in  exceptional  times  such  as  that  of  the 
present  war  period,  and  her  only  manufacturing  material  now 

ri43] 


144  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

available  to  the  outside  world  is  cotton,  and  lumber,  and  of  the 
latter  her  supply  is  being  too  rapidly  reduced.  She  has  vast 
quantities  of  copper  and  other  minerals  for  manufacturing,  but  is 
inclined  to  turn  them  into  the  manufactured  form  before  sending 
them  abroad,  and  her  275,000  miles  of  railway  and  inexhaustible 
coal  supplies  encourage  this  disposition  to  enlarge  her  manufac- 
turing, and  so  utilize  at  home  most  of  her  manufacturing  mate- 
rials and  foodstuffs.  Manufactures  which  in  1890  formed  but  21 
per  cent  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States  were,  even  before  the 
war,  practically  one-half  of  the  exports,  while  foodstuffs  which  at 
one  time  amounted  to  more  than  one-half  of  the  exports  were 
in  the  year  before  the  war  but  20  per  cent  of  the  total. 

As  a  result  of  these  conditions  the  world  has  had  to  turn  to 
the  undeveloped  continents  for  foodstuffs  and  manufacturing 
materials.  Europe  and  Asia  could  not  be  expected  to  supply  them 
and  did  not,  and  even  North  America  is  turning  to  the  South 
Temperate  Zone  and  the  Tropics  for  large  quantities  of  food  and 
manufacturing  material.  In  the  year  1916  the  United  States  alone 
imported  more  than  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical products,  and  also  brought  large  quantities  of  Temperate 
Zone  products  from  the  countries  south  of  the  Equator  and  most 
of  it  from  Latin  America.  Wool,  hides,  fruits,  minerals,  and 
even  meats  and  breadstuffs  were  being  brought  from  south  of  the 
Equator  for  use  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  for  all  of 
these  Europe  was  at  the  same  time  calling  loudly  upon  all  the 
South  Temperate  Zone,  until  the  abnormal  transportation  condi- 
tions of  the  war  suspended,  temporarily,  the  movements  of  these 
materials  to  that  continent  and  turned  increasing  quantities  of 
them  to  the  United  States. 

The  three  great  requirements  of  man  are  food,  clothing  and 
manufactures.  Most  of  the. food  now  used  is  the  product  of  the 
Temperate  Zones.  Man's  chief  food  is  bread,  meat  and  vegetables. 
The  bread  is  made  from  wheat,  and  the  Temperate  Zone  is  the 
chief  producer  of  the  world's  wheat.  It  seems  to  be  impossible  to 
persuade  mankind  to  use  any  considerable  quantity  of  corn  for 
food,  until  it  is  turned  into  meats,  and  while  corn  and  cattle  can 
be  produced  fairly  well  in  the  tropics  it  is  a  fact  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  world's  corn  and  meat  are  produced  in  the  Temperate 
Zones.  Cotton  can  be  produced  in  the  Tropics,  but  most  of  it  goes 
to  the  Temperate  Zone  to  be  manufactured,  and  that  is  also  true 
of  the  fibres  and  hides  and  rubber  produced  in  the  Tropics.  As 
for  manufactures,  the  third  requirement  of  man,  they  are  practi- 
cally all  produced  in  the  Temperate  Zones. 


UNDEVELOPED  LATIN  AMERICA  145 

It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  up  to  this  time  the  Temperate 
Zones  have  been  the  chief  producers  of  the  requirements  of  man, 
except  in  coffee,  cocoa,  tea,  silk,  rubber,  fibres  and  tin,  and  all  of 
these  manufacturing  materials  when  produced  in  the  Tropics  go 
to  the  Temperate  Zone  to  be  turned  into  the  manufactured  form, 
while  most  of  the  tropical  foodstuffs  are  also  consumed  in  the 
Temperate  Zone.  The  great  belt  of  tropical  area  lying  between  the 
30th  parallel  of  North  Latitude,  which  runs  through  New  Orleans 
and  the  30th  parallel  of  South  Latitude  which  runs  through  South- 
ern Brazil  and  touches  the  southern  tip  of  Africa,  has  half  the 
world's  land  area  exclusive  of  the  Arctic  regions  and  nearly  one- 
half  the  world's  population,  yet  it  supplies  but  one-sixth  of  the 
world's  commerce.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Tropics  will  in  time  be  developed  and  compelled  to  supply  their 
proper  share  of  the  world's  requirements,  but  this  is  a  matter  for 
the  future. 

So,  it  goes  without  saying  that  man  when  he  thinks  of  a 
further  development  of  the  producing  power  of  the  world  thinks 
of  the  South  Temperate  Zone  and  the  tropical  regions  adjacent  to 
it.  Europe,  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  can  not  be  expected  to 
increase  her  production  of  foodstuffs  or  manufacturing  material, 
nor  can  Asia  until  it  gets  much  better  transportation  facilities. 
As  to  the  temperate  area  of  North  America,  our  own  country  has 
shown  that  the  day  of  furnishing  the  outside  world  with  food  is  a 
matter  of  the  past  except  under  the  abnormal  conditions  which  this 
war  has  brought  about.  We  shall  probably  intensify  the  produc- 
tion of  our  own  soil  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  meet  the  growing 
demands  of  our  increasing  population,  for  our  present  production 
per  acre  is  but  about  one-half  that  of  Europe,  but  this  increase  will 
come  slowly  and  only  in  response  to  the  local  demand  of  our  own 
people.  We  shall  have  in  future  little  of  foodstuffs  to  spare  for 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

So,  with  the  North  Temperate  Zone  no  longer  capable  of  sup- 
plying foodstuffs  for  exportation  and  Europe  absolutely  requiring 
much  more  food  than  she  can  herself  produce,  the  world  must  look 
to  the  South  Temperate  Zone  and  the  Tropics. 

As  to  the  Tropics,  their  possibilities  of  production  of  food- 
stuffs are  very  gTeat  so  far  as  relates  to  the  powers  which  nature 
has  given  them,  but  up  to  this  time  man  has  not  done  his  share. 
No  country,  or  continent,  or  climatic  area  can  "  do  business  "  in 
these  modern  days  unless  it  can  transport  its  products  from  the 
place  of  production  to  the  common  carrier.    Man  can  now  send  his 

11 


146  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

steamships  to  the  edges  of  all  the  continents  and  islands,  and  along 
the  water  routes  of  the  interior,  but  only  an  extremely  small  per- 
centage of  the  area  is  sufficiently  near  to  the  water,  whether  ocean 
or  river,  to  make  a  success  of  agricultural  production  in  these 
days  when  products  must  be  marketed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
globe  from  that  on  which  they  were  produced.  Less  than  one  per 
cent  of  the  area  of  any  of  the  continents  or  great  islands  is  suffi- 
ciently near  to  the  water's  edge  to  permit  the  transportation  of 
their  products  to  the  steamer  without  land  transportation.  In  the 
Temperate  Zone  this  can  be  done  by  the  combined  aid  of  the  horse 
and  the  railway.  The  horse  can  move  the  product  a  limited  dis- 
tance, and  man  can  build  the  railway  to  such  points  as  can  be 
reached  by  the  horse.  But  in  the  Tropics  this  is  not  so.  Climatic 
conditions  do  not  permit  the  horse,  however  faithful,  to  do  in  the 
tropics  the  things  which  he  can  and  does  do  in  the  temperate 
climate.  And  if  there  is  no  means  of  moving  the  product  to  the 
common  carrier  there  is  no  incentive  to  construct  the  common 
carrier.  The  tropical  world  has  little  of  capital  for  railway  con- 
struction and  Temperate  Zone  man  who  has  furnished  most  of  the 
capital  now  invested  in  the  Tropics  has  learned  by  experience  and 
observation  the  difficulty  of  feeding  the  railway  lines  in  climates  in 
which  there  are  no  satisfactory  facilities  for  moving  the  agricul- 
tural products  to  the  common  carrier.  As  a  result  the  24,000,000 
square  miles  of  tropical  and  subtropical  area  of  the  world  has 
but  120,000  miles  of  railway,  while  the  24,000,000  square  miles  of 
Temperate  Zone  area  has  600,000  miles  of  railway,  although  the 
])opulation  of  the  temperate  and  the  tropical  areas  is  about  the 
same.  The  people  of  the  Temperate  Zone  have  a  commerce  of 
about  $40  per  capita,  while  those  of  the  Tropics  have  a  commerce 
of  but  about  $10  per  capita,  though  in  tropical  Latin  America  the 
exports  are  about  $20  per  capita.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  the 
Temperate  Zone-half  of  the  world  are  in  normal  times  about 
$16,000,000,000  a  year,  and  that  of  the  tropical  half  about  $4,000,- 
000,000  a  year. 

The  World  Looks  to  the  South  Temperate  Zone 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  North  Temperate  Zone 
is  looking  to  the  South  Temperate  Zone  and  Tropical  America  for 
food  and  manufacturing  materials.  The  food  demands  of  the 
Temperate  Zone  people  are  chiefly  bread  and  meat,  and  the 
Tropics  at  present  do  not  produce  enough  of  these  for  their  own 
use.     And  there  are  only  three  places  in  the  South  Temperate 


UNDEVELOPED  LATIN  AMERICA  147 

Zone  to  which  to  look  for  products  of  this  character,  namely, 
South  America,  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  All  of  Argentina,  all 
of  Uruguay,  two-thirds  of  Chile  and  the  southern  parts  of  Brazil 
and  Paraguay  are  temperate.  They  grow  wheat,  corn,  and  main- 
tain enormous  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  Argentina  is  now 
beginning  to  develop  the  swine  industrj^  In  addition  to  this  the 
great  elevated  region  of  the  interior  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador  and 
Colombia  is  capable  of  producing  Temperate  Zone  products,  the 
extreme  elevation-  giving  it  a  temperate  climate  even  under  the 
Equator.  Argentina,  Uruguay,  Chile  and  Mexico  together  pro- 
duce about  225,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  a  year,  while  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  the  other  South  Temperate  Zone  wheat  produ- 
cers seldom  turn  out  more  than  100,000,000  bushels  a  year.  Of 
corn,  Argentina  is  next  to  the  United  States  in  rank  in  the  quan- 
tity of  com  produced,  and  actually  exports  more  com  than  we  do, 
and  Mexico  100,000,000  bushels,  while  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
produce  but  very  small  quantities.  Of  meats  Argentina  alone 
exceeds  Australia  and  New  Zealand  in  combination,  her  supply  of 
cattle  being  about  30,000,000  against  13,000,000  in  Australia  and 
New  Zealand.  Mexico  and  Central  America  have  normally  about 
10,000,000.  Of  sheep  Argentina  has  83,000,000,  Australia  82,000,- 
000  and  New  Zealand  25,000,000,  though  the  number  of  sheep 
slaughtered  for  food  is  small,  most  of  them  being  retained  for 
wool  production.  Of  swine  Argentina  has  about  3,000,000  while 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  about  1,000,000.  Brazil  has  as 
many  cattle  as  Argentina,  30,000,000;  Uruguay  10,000,000,  other 
countries  of  South  America  about  20,000,000,  and  Mexico  and 
Central  America  10,000,000,  making  for  all  Latin  America  about 
80,000,000  against  20,000,000  in  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South 
Africa.  The  total  number  of  cattle  in  all  the  world  is  but  about 
500,000,000.  About  125,000,000  of  these  are  in  India  which  does 
not  utilize  them  for  food,  so  that  Latin  America  has  now  over  one- 
fourth  of  the  world's  supply  of  cattle  usable  for  food.  And  when 
we  remember  that  Latin  America  has  at  the  present  time  but  an 
average  of  8  persons  per  square  mile  against  20  persons  per 
square  mile  in  the  United  States  and  120  per  square  mile  in 
Europe,  it  will  be  seen  that  her  possibilities  of  a  large  increase  in 
the  future  are  very  great,  both  in  the  matter  of  meat  supply  for 
the  outside  world,  and  that  of  grain,  for  Argentina  in  1913  held 
fourth  rank  as  an  exporter  of  wheat,  and  was  also  the  world's 
largest  exporter  of  corn.  Of  sugar  Cuba  is  the  world's  largest 
producer,  her  exports  last  year  in  sugar  alone  amounting  to  about 
$250,000,000. 


148  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

In  one  other  important  article  of  food  supply  South  America 
outranks  all  other  parts  of  the  world  combined.  This  article  is 
coffee.  Brazil  alone  produces  not  merely  more  coffee  than  any 
other  country,  but  actually  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put 
together.  In  fact  Brazil's  output  of  coffee  amounts  to  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  world's  supply,  while  several  other  of  the  Latin 
American  countries  produce  considerable  quantities  of  this  impor- 
tant world  crop.  The  total  world  output  of  coffee  averages  about 
2,500,000,000  lbs.  per  annum,  and  of  this  Brazil  produces  three- 
fourths  and  Latin  America  as  a  whole  produces  four-fifths.  And 
when  we  remember  that  the  coffee  crop  of  the  w^orld  amounts  to 
about  $350,000,000  per  annum  in  value  in  the  countries  of  produc- 
tion we  begin  to  realize  the  A'alue  of  Latin  America's  production 
of  this  article  of  commerce.  The  cacao  crop  of  the  world  amounts 
in  value  to  about  $100,000,000  per  annum,  and  Latin  America  pro- 
duces about  one-half  of  this,  divided  between  Ecuador,  Brazil  and 
the  West  Indian  Islands,  the  Ecuador  crop  amounting  to  about 
100,000,000  lbs.  a  year,  and  that  of  Brazil  about  75,000,000.  Of 
flaxseed,  or  linseed,  as  it  is  usually  termed  in  commerce,  Argentina 
produces  about  one-third  of  the  world's  supply,  the  total  world 
crop  usually  amounting  to  about  130,000,000  bushels,  while  Argen- 
tina alone  produced  44,000,000  bushels  in  1913,  though  the  crop  of 
1916  was  very  small  owing  to  the  extreme  droughts  which 
adversely  affected  many  of  the  agricultural  products  of  that 
country. 

Wool,  hides,  rubber,  tin  and  copper  are  Latin  America's  chief 
contribution  to  the  manufacturing  requirements  of  the  world  at  the 
present  time,  and  the  output  of  copper  on  the  western  coast  of  con- 
tinental Latin  America  has  greatly  increased  in  very  recent  years. 
The  relative  rank  of  the  Argentine  and  L^ruguay  in  the  world's  sup- 
ply of  wool  and  hides  is  indicated  by  the  figures  above  quoted  of 
sheep  and  cattle  in  the  same  countries  compared  with  those  of 
other  parts  of  the  world,  as  above  presented.  In  copper  produc- 
tion Chile  now  holds  second  rank  as  a  world  producer,  though  her 
output  is  small  as  compared  with  the  United  States,  which  still 
supplies  over  one-half  of  the  copper  of  the  w^orld.  Chile  has  also 
the  world's  chief  supply  of  nitrate.  Mexico  and  Peru  are  very 
large  producers  of  gold  and  silver. 

Bolivia  supplies  about  one-fifth  of  the  world's  tin,  and  has 
very  large  supplies  yet  undeveloped.  In  India  rubber  Brazil  held 
first  rank  in  world  production  prior  to  the  recent  wonderful 
development  in  the  production  of  plantation  rubber,  but  her  out- 
put of  forest  rubber  is  still  in  excess  of  any  country,  but  somewhat 


UNDEVELOPED  LATIN  AMERICA  149 

declining  by  reason  of  the  enormous  supplies  of  plantation  rub- 
ber now  entering  the  world  markets.  Of  cotton  considerable 
quantities  are  grown  in  Brazil,  Peru,  Chile,  Mexico,  Colombia  and 
the  northern  part  of  Argentina.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  great  quan- 
tities, that  of  Cuba  alone  amounting  to  about  $25,000,000  a  year. 

Latin  America  has  a  more  promising  future  than  any  of  the 
other  great  undeveloped  areas  of  the  world.  It  is,  as  already 
shown,  a  large  producer  of  many  classes  of  foodstuffs  and  manu- 
facturing material  for  which  the  world  is  clamoring,  its  fertile 
area  is  larger  in  proportion  to  its  entire  extent  than  that  of  any 
other  of  the  undeveloped  continents,  and  the  present  population 
per  square  mile  is  smaller  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  conti- 
nents except  Australia  which  has  a  much  larger  percentage  of 
desert  than  has  Latin  America.  The  greatest  lack  in  natural  sup- 
plies is  in  coal,  of  which  she  has  but  small  quantities,  found  chiefly 
in  Chile,  but  the  recent  developments  in  fuel  oil  production  in 
Mexico  and  the  mountain  regions  of  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  coupled  with  the  increasing  use  of  the  splendid  water 
poAvers  for  the  production  of  electricity,  promise  to  minimize  the 
disadvantage  due  to  this  lack  in  fuel  supplies. 

Latin  America's  greatest  requirement  at  the  present  time  is 
capital  for  transportation  facilities  and  for  the  development  of  the 
great  agricultural  and  mineral  resources  which  will  become  avail- 
able with  facilities  to  transport  the  natural  products  to  the  navi- 
gable streams  of  which  South  America  has  the  world's  greatest 
supply  and  thence  to  the  ocean  where  steamships  are  available  to 
transport  them  to  the  waiting  markets  of  the  Avorld.  The  lessons 
of  the  war  have  shown  that  the  horseless  vehicle  can  now  be  suc- 
cessfully used  over  areas  in  which  no  modern  roads  exist,  and  the 
development  of  the  motor  for  farm  purposes  has  shown  how  agri- 
culture can  now  be  conducted  in  the  Tropics  without  the  aid  of  the 
horse.  These  things  point  to  a  great  development  in  the  producing 
power  of  Latin  America  in  the  near  future. 


Economic  Scope  of  Constitutional 

Reforms 

By  Marrion  Wilcox 

THE    new    constitutions    in   three    of    the    Latin    American 
Republics,  Uruguay,  Mexico,  and  Venezuela,  invite  special 
consideration.    They  mark  the  beginning  —  in  quite  differ- 
ent  ways  —  of   a   widespread  movement   toward   adaptation   of 
fundamental  law  in  Latin  America  to  new  economic  conditions. 

In  Uruguay,  constitutional  refonns  designed  to  be  satisfac- 
tory to  the  business  interests  of  the  country  were  accepted  by 
the  Constitutional  Assembly  in  1917;  and  the  basic  ideas  of  the 
new  constitution,  which  will  come  into  force  1  March  1919,  are  the 
following:  (1)  The  next  President  is  to  be  elected  by  the  Cham- 
bers—  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  —  as  heretofore, 
but  succeeding  Presidents  are  to  be  elected  directly  by  the  people, 
with  secret  voting.  The  presidential  period  will  remain  as  at 
present,  a  four-year  period.  (2)  No  one  can  be  re-elected  as 
President  until  eight  years  shall  have  elapsed  after  his  previous 
term.  This  is  substituted  for  the  provision  that  he  must  not  be 
a  candidate  for  re-election  for  the  term  immediately  following  his 
own  tenure  of  office.  (3)  In  case  of  vacancy  occurring  in  the 
presidency,  the  Chambers,  by  absolute  majority,  shall  at  once  elect 
a  substitute  to  hold  office  for  the  remainder  of  the  period.  The 
provision  has  bQen  heretofore  that  in  case  of  the  President 's  dis- 
ability or  death,  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate  shall  assume 
the  presidency.  (4)  The  President  shall  have  direction  of  the 
army  and  navy,  and  shall  be  in  charge  of  foreign  aff'airs  and  of 
public  order  at  home  and  abroad.  The  prefects  shall  be  dependent 
upon  him  alone;  nevertheless  it  is  provided  that  they  shall  be 
appointed  by  him  from  candidates  proposed  by  an  important  body 
to  be  known  as  the  Council  or  the  Council  of  State.  (5)  The 
Council  shall  submit  for  examination  by  the  President  matters 
relating  to  the  creation  or  modification  of  taxes,  to  loans,  to  the 
budget,  the  circulating  medium,  and  to  foreign  commerce.  This 
includes  also  practically  all  proposed  economic  measures.  If  the 
President  withhold  his  approval  the  Council  may  prevail  only  by 
a  two-thirds  vote.  (6)  Conflicts  of  jurisdiction  between  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Council  of  State  shall  be  decided  by  the  Chambers. 

[150] 


ECONOMIC   SCOPE   OF   CONSTITUTIONAL   REFORMS       151 

(7)  The  Council  of  State  shall  consist  of  nine  members,  serving 
six  years  each ;  it  shall  be  renewed  by  third  parts,  every  two  years, 
by  direct  election  and  secret  voting.  The  first  Council  shall  be 
elected  by  the  Chambers^  six  members  by  the  majority  and  three 
by  the  minority.  (8)  The  Chambers  shall  be  paramount  in  their 
control  of  national  measures.  (9)  The  principle  of  municipal 
autonomy  with  the  enjoyment  of  suitable  revenues  is  adopted. 
(10)  Constitutional  reforms  may  be  initiated  by  either  of  the 
Chambers,  proposed  amendments  requiring  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  total  membership  of  each  Chamber  for  acceptance.  The 
amendments  shall  be  submitted  to  the  succeeding  legislature ;  and 
if  then  approved  in  the  same  form  and  manner  their  ratification 
shall  be  considered  complete.  (11)  All  forms  of  worship  are  free 
in  Uruguay.  The  State  does  not  sustain  any  religion.  It  recog- 
nizes the  proprietorship  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  ecclesiastical 
edifices  already  built  in  whole  or  in  part  by  national  funds,  except 
the  chapels  attached  to  asylums,  hospitals,  prisons  and  other 
public  establishments.  Churches  and  other  places  of  worship  are 
free  from  all  taxation.  (12)  Inscription  in  the  civil  register  is 
obligatory;  in  all  elections,  whether  of  national  or  of  municipal 
officers,  taking  place  after  1  March  1919  the  voting  shall  be  secret 
and  representation  shall  be  proportional;  very  positive  restric- 
tions are  imposed  upon  military  and  police  functionaries  in 
respect  to  political  activity,  etc.  The  political  parties,  Colorados 
and  Blancos,  after  conciliatory  negotiations,  agr<M^d  to  accept 
what  has  been  characterized  as  a  *'  modem,  smooth-running,  effi- 
cient mechanism  of  State  "  in  place  of  the  old  constitution  which, 
according  to  the  best  opinion  of  the  progressive  element  and  finan- 
cial authorities,  was  unsuited  to  present-day  conditions.  (See 
Uruguay — Government.  Consult  The  Americas,  New  York,  July 
1917,  pp.  21  and  22). 

Mexico's  new  constitution  (1917)  has  been  made  the  subject 
of  special  study  by  a  contributor  to  this  work.  We  therefore  refer 
our  readers  to  his  article  dealing  with  the  Mexican  government 
(pages  457-465,  inclusive,  especially  pages  460,  461,  and  463). 
Radical  change  in  Mexico's  attitude  toward  the  wealth-producing 
elements,  or  wealth-factors,  is  perhaps  sufficiently  emphasized  in 
the  sections  just  mentioned. 

The  constitution  of  Venezuela,  sanctioned  by  the  Congress 
of  Deputies  Plenipotentiary  of  the  States  in  1914  (Caracas, 
Imprenta  Nacional,  1914),  provides  in  Article  128  that  ''  the  dura- 
tion of  the  constitutional  periods  of  the  executive  and  judicial 
branches  of  the  Federal  Power  shall  be  seven  vears  and  shall  be 


152  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

reckoned  from  19  April  1915."  Under  Title  VI,  first  section, 
Article  72,  we  read:  "All  that  relates  to  the  Administracion 
General  of  the  Union,  which  is  not  consigned  to  other  authority 
by  this  constitution,  is  within  the  control  of  the  (es  de  la  compe- 
tencia  del)  Federal  Executive ;  and  this  is  exercised  by  a  magistrate, 
who  shall  be  called  President  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela, 
in  union  with  the  cabinet  ministers  who  are  his  instruments 
(organos)."  A  new  article,  number  77,  is  to  the  effect  that  a  cabi- 
net minister  designated  by  the  President  shall  supply  the  vacancy 
whenever  the  Chief  Executive  is  temporarily  absent  or  incapaci- 
tated; but  in  the  event  of  pennanent  or  absolute  disability  Con- 
gress must  be  convoked  for  the  election  of  a  new  President  to 
round  out  the  period.  The  third  section  gives,  in  Article  79,  as 
attributes  of  President :  The  power  to  appoint  and  remove  at  will 
those  national  employees  whose  election  is  not  assigned  to  other 
functionaries,  etc.  In  connection  with  the  rights  guaranteed  by 
the  nation  to  its  citizens  (Title  III,  Article  22)  a  phrase  of  pres- 
ent and  future  significance  is  added  in  the  second  subdivision, 
which  now  provides  that  property  shall  be  held  subject  to  the 
execution  of  sanitary  measures  in  conformity  with  the  law  —  a 
reservation  not  expressed  in  corresponding  parts  of  the  constitu- 
tions of  1904  and  1909.  As  for  the  rights  and  duties  of  foreign- 
ers. Title  I,  third  section.  Article  16,  epigrammatizes  them: 
"  The  law  determines  these  rights  and  duties;  but  in  no  case  can 
they  be  greater  than  those  of  the  Venezuelans."  Public  health 
and  the  status  of  foreigners,  both  subjects  of  high  importance 
that  can  be  barely  touched  upon  in  this  brief  chapter,  may  be 
here  placed  side-by-side  with  Articles  120  and  121.  The  omission 
of  the  words  "  sin  apelacion  a  la  guerra  "  (without  recourse  to 
war),  which  occurred  in  Article  120  of  the  constitution  of  1909, 
merely  simplifies  the  expression.  The  declaration  that  in  speci- 
fied instances  disagreements  must  be  arbitrated  stands  with  its 
purport  practically  unchanged;  and  former  declarations  in 
respect  to  contracts  "  of  public  interest  "  are  repeated  in  Article 
121.  The  tendency  of  thought  on  economic  subjects  at  a  period 
still  more  recent  is  shown  in  the  report  of  the  Department  of 
Finance  (Caracas  1917).  Maintenance  of  public  order,  encourage- 
ment of  industry,  loyal  and  upright  administration  of  the  national 
revenues  —  these  subjects  receive  emphasis;  and  the  lengthening 
of  the  terms  of  executive  and  judicial  officers  is  at  least  not  incom- 
patible with  the  attainment  of  prosperity.  Consult  Cuentn  Gen- 
eral de  Rentas  y  Gastos  Piihlicas,  Departmento  de  Hacienda, 
Caracas  1917. 


Latin  American  Budgets 

By  W,  B.  Graham 
Chancellor  of  the  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

THE  Latin  American  countries  are  primarily  producers  and 
exporters  of  raw  products  produced  by  unskilled  labor.  As 
a  result,  the  world  business  depression  of  1907,  followed 
by  that  of  the  Balkan  war  period,  was  severely  felt  throughout 
South  America  particularly.  In  one  way  it  was  a  real  blessing, 
in  view  of  the  present  European  war,  as  it  was  a  deterrent  to 
prodigal  expenditures  for  public  improvements.  However,  in 
1913-14  the  time  seemed  opportune  to  expand  both  government 
and  private  financial  operations  —  an  impulse  abruptly  checked  by 
the  breaking  out  of  the  present  world  hostilities.  Saving  meas- 
ures were  absolutely  necessary,  and  moratoria  were  proclaimed 
throughout  Latin  America.  The  cutting  off,  or  deflection,  of 
foreign  markets,  produced  a  stagnation  in  domestic  industry, 
financially  and  in  the  field  of  labor ;  and,  without  the  ability  to  buy 
abroad,  credits  being  curtailed,  the  customs  revenues  fell  to  a 
minimum.  In  the  face  of  all  this,  the  public  debt  charges  had  to 
be  met,  and,  due  to  decreased  revenues,  additional  obligations 
had  to  be  entered  into.  With  striking  uniformity,  measures  of 
curtailment  of  expense  were  passed  by  every  country,  a  par- 
ticular need  with  those  whose  currency  systems  were  not  on  a 
sound  basis. 

In  the  following  review  of  the  individual  countries,  the  effort 
has  been  to  show  in  United  States  currency  the  comparative 
revenues  of  Latin  America  before  and  after  the  breaking  out  of 
the  present  war.  The  figures  given  are  in  many  cases  the  official 
estimates,  no  account  being  taken  of  deficiencies  or  surpluses  at 
the  end  of  the  year.  These  estimates  represent  the  assumed 
abilities  or  resources  of  the  various  countries  as  viewed  through 
the  eyes  of  the  local  authorities. 

While  the  political  systems  of  Latin  America  are  based  upon 
that  of  the  United  States,  the  Budget  (Spanish:  Presupuesto 
General)  is  a  relic  of  European  finance,  and  has  been  found  suited 
to  most  requirements.  In  the  review  of  certain  of  the  countries, 
as  examples  of  all,  are  given  the  constitutional  excerpts  covering 
budget  expenditures  and  revenues. 

[153] 


154  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Argentina. —  The  Constitution  of  Argentina  provides  (Art, 
61)  that  the  Congress  "  shall  annually  fix  the  budget  of  expenses 
of  the  National  Administration."  The  advantageous  situation  of 
the  country,  its  varied  productions,  continuous  and  rapid  increase 
in  population,  favored  by  a  stable  political  administration,  has 
been  reflected  in  the  steady  increase  in  the  annual  revenues  and 
expenditures  which  have  not  only  been  estimated  with  a  view 
to  the  ordinary  expenses  of  the  Government,  but  likewise  to  extra- 
ordinary expenses  —  public  works,  railroads,  harbor  facilities, 
subsidies,  etc.,  in  promotion  of  the  well  being  of  the  Republic. 
For  this  latter  purpose  numerous  National  debts  have  been  con- 
tracted, in  addition,  whose  amortization  has  been  included  in  the 
annual  budgets,  the  interest  and  other  charges  on  same  being  at 
present  upwards  of  30  per  cent  of  the  total  annual  expenditures. 

The  ordinary  revenues  of  the  Republic  are  derived  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  Customs  (almost  entirely  import  duties),  50 
per  cent ;  liquors,  5  per  cent ;  tobacco,  8  per  cent ;  stamped  paper, 
5  per  cent;  posts  and  telegraphs,  4^/2  per  cent;  the  remainder 
being  pharmaceutical  and  toilet  preparations,  land  tax,  provincial 
debt  service,  fines,  and  miscellaneous.  A  special  or  extraor- 
dinary revenue  is  that  derived  from  concessions  of  various  kinds, 
the  proceeds  from  the  irrigation  fund  contributing  40  per  cent. 
Of  the  expenditures,  the  public  debt  service  (above  cited)  is  the 
greatest  item.  Next  to  it  is  that  of  Justice  and  Education,  20 
per  cent;  Interior,  15  per  cent;  Army,  9  per  cent;  Navy,  9  per 
cent ;  the  remainder  being  in  the  following  order :  Treasury,  Agri- 
culture, Pensions,  etc..  Public  Works,  Military  Purchases,  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  Congress.  In  addition,  there  is  provided  an  extra- 
ordinary expenditure,  varying  from  year  to  year,  devoted  largely 
to  public  works  and  subsidies.  All  estimates  are  made  in  terms  of 
the  paper  peso.  Reduced  to  United  States  currency,  the  budgets 
for  1914-15-16  are  as  follows:  1914,  revenues,  $180,267,798, 
expenditures,  $180,716,196;  1915,  revenues  (estimated),  $174,- 
093,895,  expenditures  (estimated),  $167,163,690;  and  1916, 
revenues  (estimated),  $174,093,895,  expenditures,  $150,120,939, 
the  extraordinary  revenues  and  expenditures  constituting  18  per 
cent  and  13  per  cent,  respectively. 

Bolivia. —  In  Bolivia  the  budget  is  a  special  attribute  of  the 
legislative  power,  and,  as  being  a  matter  of  finance,  must  be 
initiated  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (Constitution,  Arts.  18,  25). 
The  revenues  are  derived  principally  froni  customs  duties,  both 
import  and  export,  liquors,  silver  and  tin  mining,  exports  of 
rubber,  the  tobacco  monopoly  concessions,  and  stamp  taxes,  in 


LATIN  AMERICAN  BUDGETS  155 

addition  to  certain  taxes  on  the  liquidated  profits  above  a  certain 
per  cent  of  all  mining  enterprises.  Of  expenses,  the  greatest  out- 
lay is  for  the  Department  of  Finance  (including  public  debt 
charges),  War  and  Colonization,  Interior,  Public  Instruction  and 
Agriculture,  with  minor  outlays  for  Foreign  Relations  and  Wor- 
ship, and  Legislative  Services.  The  revenue  for  the  year  1904 
amounted  to  $2,825,257;  in  1913,  $8,606,985,  a  gain  of  approxi- 
mately 230  per  cent.  The  budget  for  1914  amounted  to :  revenues, 
$8,960,800;  expenditures,  $8,960,800;  1915,  respectively,  $6,619,767 
and  $8,358,454;  1916,  $6,247,041  and  $8,894,522.  Prior  to  1908 
the  Republic  was  without  foreign  public  debt,  a  fact  that  kept 
expenditures  low.  At  the  present  time  public  debt  charges  con- 
sume about  25  per  cent  of  the  revenue.  Much  of  this,  however,  is 
for  public  improvements,  particularly  railroads. 

Brazil. —  The  Brazilian  Constitution  authorizes  the  Congress 
(Art.  34)  '*  to  organize  the  financial  system,  fix  the  Federal 
expenditures  annually,  and  examine  the  income  and  expense 
accounts  of  each  financial  period,"  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
being  given  the  initiative  (Art.  29)  in  all  tax  laws.  The  prin- 
cipal source  of  National  revenue  is  that  derived  from  high  import 
customs  duties  and  surtaxes,  the  only  export  taxes  collected  by 
the  Federal  Government  being  those  collected  in  the  Federal 
Territory  of  Acre.  The  important  export  duties  collected  on 
coffee  and  rubber  belong  to  the  treasuries  of  the  various  States, 
Other  national  revenues  are  those  on  tobacco,  spirits  and  other 
internal  revenue  sources,  these  being  imposed  by  a  stamp  tax. 
Great  extensions  have  been  made  in  public  improvements, 
transportation,  education,  agriculture,  etc.,  for  which  vast  sums 
have  been  voted,  in  many  cases  by  the  issue  of  bonds.  The  expendi- 
tures in  connection  with  the  public  debt  aggregate  about  one- 
third  of  the  whole,  the  next  highest  being  that  of  Roads  and 
Public  Works,  in  charge  of  a  single  Ministry.  Other  large 
expenses  are  those  for  the  army  and  navy.  The  budget  for  1914 
amounted  to:  revenues,  $184,984,656;  expenditures,  $193,786,- 
631;  1915,  respectively,  $189,511,350  and  $121,411,608;  and  1916, 
$161,445,642  and  $177,827,858. 

Chile. —  The  Chilean  Constitution  (Art.  36)  authorizes  the 
Congress,  exclusively,  ''  to  approve  or  reject  annually  the  esti- 
mated disposition  of  funds  intended  for  the  expenses  of  the  Public 
Administration,  which  the  Government  must  present,"  and  (Art. 
37)  "fix  annually  the  expenses  of  the  Public  Administration," 
while  the  President  of  the  Republic  must  first  propose  to 
the  Council  of  State,  or  Cabinet  (Art.  105),  "  the  annual  budget 


156  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  expenses  that  the  Congress  has  to  pass."  The  revenues  are 
derived  from  customs  receipts  —  import  and  export — the  export 
of  nitrate  yielding  in  the  neighborhood  of  two-fifths  of  the  total 
Government  income,  the  two  other  items  paying  an  export  tax 
being  iodine  and  silver  bars  of  a  fineness  of  50  per  cent'  or  less. 
The  other  large  source  of  income  is  the  Government  railways, 
yielding  from  Si/o  to  4  million  dollars  annually.  In  1914  the 
revenues  amounted  to  $51,513,345 ;  expenditures,  $64,089,385 ;  1915, 
respectively,  $53,919,938  and  $37,509,154;  and  1916,  $47,062,462 
and  $48,398,482.  The  principal  expenditures  are  those  of  the 
Treasury  (including  public  debt  charges).  Railways,  Interior, 
Instruction,  War  and  Navy,  with  large  provision  for  Industrj" 
and  Public  Works. 

Colombia. —  The  Constitution  of  Colombia  (Art.  76)  author- 
izes the  Congress  ''  to  establish  the  National  revenues  and  fix 
the  expenses  of  administration."  ..."  The  budget  shall  be 
voted  for  both  during  each  legislative  session."  .  .  .  "In  the 
budget  there  shall  be  included  no  item  that  does  not  correspond 
to  an  expenditure  decreed  by  a  prior  law,  or  to  a  credit  judicially 
recognized."  The  Chamber  of  Representatives  (Art.  102)  shall 
"  initiate  laws  that  establish  contributions."  About  three-fourths 
of  the  National  revenues  are  derived  from  customs  duties.  In 
addition  to  the  other  usual  sources  of  income,  revenues  are  col- 
lected from  salt  and  the  native  emerald  mines.  The  chief  items 
of  expense  are  public  debt  charges  and  the  Ministry  of  War. 
Besides  these,  large  sums  are  annually  appropriated  for  public 
improvements,  particularly  port  w^orks  and  transportation.  In 
1913-1914  the  revenues  amounted  to  $15,922,500;  expenditures, 
$15,550,975;  in  1914-15,  respectively,  $12,974,202  and  $14,254,570; 
and  1915-16,  $10,542,812  and  $14,613,133. 

Costa  Rica. —  The  Costa  Rican  Constitution  authorizes  the 
Congress  (Art.  73)  "to  fix  taxes  and  National  contributions." 
The  principal  revenues  of  the  Government  are  derived  from 
customs  duties,  spirits,  railways,  posts  and  telegraphs,  and  the 
expenditures  are  greatest  in  finance  (including  public  debt 
charges),  public  instruction^  and  internal  development  and  im- 
provements. The  budget  for  1914  amounted  to:  revenues,  $3,908,- 
633;  expenditures,  $4,542,493;  1915,  respectively,  $3,522,139  and 
$3,758,177;  and  1916,  $3,783,141  and  $3,778,730. 

Cuba. —  Cuba  is  one  of  the  few  exceptional  countries  that 
were  not  affected  as  to  their  revenues  by  the  present  war,  the 
facilities  for  transportation  and  the  abundance  of  staples  raised 
on  the  Island,  along  with  the  increased  prices  of  all  products, 


LATIN  AMERICAN  BUDGETS  157 

save  a  temporary  decrease  in  tobaccos,  increasing  the  industry 
of  the  Republic,  The  principal  sources  of  revenue  are  customs 
duties  and  consular  fees,  and  the  chief  items  of  expenditure  are : 
Home  Affairs,  Public  Instruction,  Public  Works,  and  Finance 
(including  public  debt  charges).  The  budget  for  the  biennial 
period  ending  30  June  1914,  amounted  to:  revenues,  $37,940,200 
per  annum;  expenditures,  $33,974,147;  and  for  the  two  years 
ending  30  June  1916,  revenues,  $41,828,580  per  annum,  and 
expenditures,  $40,262,905. 

Dominican  Republic. —  The  chief  public  income  of  the  Domini- 
can Republic  is  derived  from  customs  duties,  in  addition  to  sugar, 
spirits  and  stamp  taxes,  posts,  telegraphs  and  telephones,  and 
civil  registration.  The  chief  item  of  expenditure  is  that  of  the 
public  debt  service,  an  arrangement  being  in  force  between  the 
Republic  and  the  United  States  whereby  the  latter  controls  the 
Customs  Service  to  the  end  of  guaranteeing  interest  and  prin- 
cipal of  the  National  obligations.  The  revenues  of  the  Republic 
in  1913-14,  fiscal  year,  amounted  to  $5,035,250;  expenditures, 
$4,890,216;  1914-15,  revenues,  $5,035,250;  expenditures,  $4,890,- 
216;  and  1915-16,  $3,460,000  and  $4,406,567. 

Ecuador. —  Ecuador's  revenue  is  derived  principally  from 
customs  dues  (import  and  export)  —  70  per  cent — with  15  per 
cent  from  cocoa,  land,  white  rum,  and  tobacco  taxes,  and  the 
remainder  chiefly  from  the  postal  department  and  rents  from 
state  property.  The  chief  expenditures  are  those  of  the  Govern- 
ment, army  and  navy,  and  education.  Public  debt  charges  amount 
to  about  one-eighth  of  the  total.  The  budget  for  1914  amounted 
to;  revenues,  $8,039,293;  expenditures,  $9,645,375;  1915,  respec- 
tively, $10,235,271  and  $10,110,339;  and  for  1916  the  same,  in 
default  of  a  new  budget  having  been  voted. 

Guatemala. —  The  principal  revenues  of  Guatemala  are  cus- 
toms duties,  these  being  upwards  of  four-fifths  of  the  total.  Con- 
siderable revenue  is  also  derived  from  the  export  tax  on  coffee. 
About  one-half  of  the  expenditures  of  the  Government  are  in 
connection  with  the  public  debt  service.  The  total  revenues  from 
1911  to  1916  inclusive  amounted  to  $13,274,910;  expenditures, 
$10,246,518,  leaving  a  balance  of  $3,028,392.  The  budget  for 
1912-13  (fiscal  year)  amounted  to :  revenues,  $3,458,417 ;  expendi- 
tures, $2,190,062;  1913-14,  revenues,  $2,059,998;  expenditures, 
$1,218,395;  1914-16,  $1,625,000  and  $1,502,066;  and  1915-16, 
$3,451,026  and  $2,346,631.  With  the  exception  of  the  last  fiscal 
year  named  there  may  be  a  considerable  variance  in  the  preceding 
estimates  due  to  the  great  fluctuations  in  the  local  currency  in 
terms  of  which  the  Government  estimates. 


158  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Haiti. —  Customs  duties  are  the  principal  source  of  revenue 
of  Haiti,  and  the  principal  disbursement  is  in  connection  with 
the  public  debt  service.  The  revenues  in  1912-14  (fiscal  year) 
amounted  to  $4,984,025;  1913-14,  $6,027,216;  and  1914-15, 
$6,296,516.     The  expenditures  for  tliese  years  are  not  available. 

Honduras. —  Honduras  derives  its  chief  income  from  customs 
revenues,  in  addition  to  which  taxes  are  collected  on  spirits, 
tobacco,  and  powder  —  these  being  monopolies  of  the  Govern- 
ment. Public  external  debt  charges  for  the  present  are  dormant. 
Revenues  for  1913-14  (fiscal  year)  amounted  to  $2,228,432; 
expenditures,  $2,163,181;  1914-15,  $2,256,631  and  $2,085,645;  and 
1915-16,  $2,406,360  and  $2,386,359. 

Mexico. —  Taxes  on  foreign  commerce  (customs  duties,  etc.) 
constitute  the  principal  source  of  Mexican  revenue,  followed 
closely  by  Federal  internal  revenues.  In  addition  there  are 
divers  special  taxes  and  a  lottery  under  Government  patronage. 
The  principal  expenditures  of  recent  years  have  been  for  the 
army,  followed  by  the  public  debt  service.  The  revenues  for  1912- 
13  (fiscal  year)  amounted  to  $58,906,984;  expenditures,  $53,970,771 ; 
1913^14,  revenues,  $64,433,582;  expenditures,  $64,336,591;  and 
1914-15,  $70,649,230  and  $74,123,761. 

Nicaragua. — At  the  present  time  the  chief  disbursements  of 
the  Nicaraguan  Government  are  for  the  public  debt  service  — 
interest  and  liquidation.  In  addition,  due  to  lack  of  domestic 
transportation  facilities,  appropriations  are  being  made  for  high- 
ways, railroads  and  port  facilities.  This  is  now  possible,  inasmuch 
as  the  extraordinary  expenses  occasioned  by  the  revolution  of 
1909  have  been  either  paid  or  funded.  The  chief  source  of  income 
is  from  customs  duties.  The  revenues  for  the  year  1913-14 
amounted  to  $3,712,779;  expenditures,  $3,726,889;  for  1915-16, 
revenues,  $2,147,787;  expenditures,  $2,146,252. 

Panama. —  With  the  exception  of  supplies  brought  into 
Panama  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  Canal  and 
the  maintenance  of  employees  —  the  subject  of  an  agreement 
with  the  United  States — all  imports  are  subject  to  customs 
duties  w^hich  are  the  chief  source  of  Government  income.  The 
chief  expenses  are :  Government,  Public  Improvements,  Educa- 
tion, and  Public  Debt.  The  Republic  has  no  navy  to  support. 
The  revenues  in  the  year  1914  amounted  to  $3,799,170;  expendi- 
tures, $4,439,244;  for  1915  and  1916  (biennial  budget),  revenues, 
$10,345,828;  expenditures,  $11,343,957;  and  for  the  years  1917 
and  1918  the  Government  estimates  that  the  disbursements  will 
amount  to  $7,198,170,  for  which  revenue  provision  has  been  made. 


LATIN  AMERICAN  BUDGETS  159 

Paraguay. —  The  chief  source  of  revenue  in  Paraguay  is  from 
the  customs  —  both  import  and  export.  The  principal  exports 
indigenous  to  the  country  on  which  taxes  are  collected  are  woods, 
particularly  quebracho  and  its  extract,  hides,  cattle  on  foot,  yerba 
mate,  and  tobaccos.  In  addition  there  is  a  system  of  internal  taxes, 
and  special  fees  for  the  maintenance  of  special  services.  Expendi- 
tures are  largely  for  internal  improvement,  and  Government  and 
Public  Debt  charges,  the  last  named  being  small.  Due  to  the 
present  European  war,  causing  a  depreciation  of  the  domestic 
paper  currency,  some  difficulties  were  felt  in  1914-15  in  exchange 
and  financial  operations,  and  by  the  Government  in  its  customs 
collections.  However,  by  strict  retrenchment  and  rigid  economy, 
trade,  revenues  and  expenditures  have  now  adjusted  themselves, 
the  country  to-day  having  a  favorable  balance  of  trade.  The  reve- 
nues for  the  year  1913  amounted  to  $4,264,543;  expenditures, 
$4,779,708;  1914,  revenues,  $3,349,782;  expenditures  $3,128,493; 
and  1915,  revenues,  $2,403,725;  expenditures,  $1,824,195. 

Peru. —  The  principal  revenues  of  Peru  are  derived  from 
customs,  these  aggregating  one-third  of  the  total,  monopolies, 
direct  taxes,  and  school  funds.  The  greatest  expense  is  that  of 
the  public  debt  service.  The  greater  part  of  the  latter  was  funded 
in  1890,  the  foreign  bondholders  accepting  in  full  satisfaction  all 
the  state  railways  for  66  years,  and  certain  rights  over  guano 
deposits,  mines  and  lands.  For  the  collection  of  internal  taxes  on 
most  of  the  government  resources,  spirits,  opium,  tobacco,  stamped 
paper,  etc.,  the  Compania  Recaudadora  de  Impuestos  (Tax  Col- 
lecting Company)  has  been  formed,  this  institution  assuming  full 
responsibility  and,  in  return  for  a  certain  percentage,  making 
guarantees  not  alone  as  to  revenues,  but  likewise  other  assistance 
to  the  Government.  The  revenues  for  the  year  1914  amounted  to 
$14,327,695;  expenditures,  $14,685,309;  1915,  revenues,  $19,118,- 
789;  expenditures,  $14,194,204;  and  1916,  revenues,  $13,091,567; 
expenditures,  $14,221,274. 

Salvador. —  The  principal  source  of  public  revenue  of  Sal- 
vador is  that  of  the  customs  duties,  and  the  chief  expense  is  in 
connection  with  the  public  debt  service.  The  revenues  in  1913 
amounted  to  $6,013,032;  expenditures,  $9,983,500;  1914,  revenues, 
$4,898,445;  expenditures,  $10,530,362.  While  figures  are  lacking 
as  to  the  years  following  the  outbreak  of  the  present  European 
war,  official  statements  (see  Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports, 
4  Nov.  1915)  indicate  that  distress  was  felt  in  Government 
finance  —  the  customs  receipts  decreasing  appreciably  and 
exchange  being  very  unfavorable  to  the  local  currency. 


160  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Uruguay. —  One-half  of  the  revenue  of  Uruguay  is  derived 
from  customs,  the  next  in  importance  —  one-ninth  —  being  the 
direct  property  tax.  In  addition,  factory  and  tobacco  taxes,  trade 
licenses,  stamped  paper  and  stamps  produce  an  appreciable 
amount.  Of  the  expenditures,  the  National  debt  service  consumes 
one-half,  the  next  in  importance  being  War  and  Marine,  Public 
Instruction,  Agriculture,  and  Public  Industry.  The  revenues  for 
the  fiscal  year  1913-14  amounted  to  $37,921,556;  expenditures, 
$37,839,196;  1914-15,  revenues,  $33,275,577;  expenditures,  $33,- 
099,082;  and  1915-16,  revenues,  $28,808,972;  expenditures, 
$28,710,910. 

Venezuela. —  The  revenues  of  Venezuela  are  derived  in  great 
part  from  the  customs  duties,  supplemented  since  the  breaking 
out  of  the  present  European  war  by  a  high  surtax,  amounting  to 
30  per  cent  on  the  regular  customs,  there  being  in  addition  a 
special  tax  of  25  per  cent  on  import  duties.  Spirits,  stamps  and 
stamped  paper,  taxes  on  cigarettes  and  matches,  and  the  salt 
revenue  constitute  about  one-third  of  the  Government  revenue. 
The  public  debt  service  is  the  greatest  item  of  expenditure,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  and  War  and  Marine. 
The  revenues  for  the  fiscal  year  1913-14  amounted  to  $12,996,639 ; 
expenditure,  $13,932,895;  1914—15,  revenues,  $7,150,134;  expendi- 
tures, $7,149,904 ;  and  1915-16,  $7,713,018;  expenditures,  $7,713,009. 

The  best  source  of  general  information  on  Latin  American 
Budgets,  with  much  specific  data,  is  the  Proceedings  of  the  First 
Pan  America/ti  Financial  Conference,  AVashington,  May  24  to  29, 
1915.  For  late  data,  consult  Statesmen's  Year  Book  and  Whit- 
aher's  Almanac,  and  Commerce  Reports  and  Supplements  to 
Commerce  Reports. 


HISTORY    AND   DEVELOPMENT 


OF  THE 


LATIN   AMERICAN   COUNTRIES 


1.  South  America 

2.  Mexico 

3.  Central  America' and  Panama 

4.  West  Indies 


[161] 

12 


ARGENTINA 

OB    TEE    ARGENTINE    REPUBLIC 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  ARGENTINA 

By  Ernesto  Nelson 
Director-General  of  Secondary,  Commercial  and  Industrial  Education  of  the  Argentine  Republic 

THE  Argentine  Republic  is  situated  in  the  southern  extremity 
of  South  America,  between  the  22d  and  55th  parallels  of 
south  latitude  and  between  the  meridians  of  54°  20'  and 
73°  30'  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  the  greater  part  of  the 
territory  thus  lying  within  the  temperate  zone.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  Brazil,  on  the  east  by 
Uruguay,  and  on  the  west  by  Chile.  Its  eastern  boundary  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  maritime  or  fluvial  coasts,  in  direct  contact  with 
the  world's  commerce  by  means  of  numerous  ports  of  easy  access. 
Its  area  is  1,153,119  square  miles. 

I.  The  most  notable  characteristic  of  the  country  is  found  in 
its  Pampas  which  cover  more  than  three-fourths  of  its- surface. 
The  plains,  however,  can  be  further  divided  into  four  great  sec- 
tions: (1)  The  Chaco  plains,  between  the  rivers  Pilcomayo, 
Parana,  and  Salado  del  Norte,  comprising  the  eastern  portion  of 
Jujuy,  Salta,  and  Tucuman,  the  Territory  of  the  Chaco,  part  of 
the  province  of  Santiago  del  Estero  and  the  north  of  Santa  Fe; 
all  of  it  being  warm,  thickly  wooded,  and  rich  in  excellent  timber. 
Here  preference  is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  cotton- 
growing  and  quebracho-cutting.  (2)  The  pampas  properly  so 
called,  most  notable  on  account  of  the  uniformity  of  level  and  the 
almost  total  absence  of  trees,  but  covered  by  excellent  pastures  in 
which  gramineous  grasses  preponderate.    This  region  is  gradually 

[162] 


ARGENTINA 


163 


being  devoted  to  agricultural  purposes  such  as  the  cultivation  of 
wheat,  linseed  and  corn,  after  having  first  served  for  cattle  feed- 
ing. (3)  Between  the  last  two  regions  the  saline  plains  extend 
from  the  range  of  Aconquija  to  that  of  Cordoba  and  reach  to  the 
Salado  River.  This  region  derives  its  name  from  the  great 
amount  of  salt  covering  the  soil.  (4)  The  southern  plains,  south 
of  the  38th  parallel,  and  popularly  known  as  Patagonia,  comprise 
the  territories  of  Rio  Negro,  Chubut,  Santa  Cruz  and  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  sloping  down  from  the  Andes  in  three  successive  inclines. 


Capitol    Building,    Buenos   Aires,    Argentina 

From,  Architect's  Drawing 

(Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Union) 


"  Stock  farming,  especially  sheep  farming,  dominates  in  this  field, 
yielding  large  profits,"  says  Mr.  Marrion  Wilcox,  an  American 
expert  in  Latin  American  countries,  adding:  "  New  port  works, 
extension  of  the  sheep  industry,  plans  for  rendering  navigable  the 
Patagonian  rivers,  the  production  of  minerals  in  the  Cordillera 
and  the  Far  South  —  all  these  forms  of  activity  show  that  in  a 
commercial  sense  Patagonia  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  land  of  the 
future."  (In  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society, 
Vol.  XLII,  No.  12,  pp.  903,  seq.). 

II.  The  Argentine  Mesopotamia  lies  between  the  rivers 
Parana  and  Uruguay  and  comprises  the  provinces  of  Entre  Rios 
and  Corrientes  and  the  national  territory  of  Misiones.  At  its 
southern  extremity  the  rich  alluvial  soil  covering  the  numberless 
islands  forming  the  delta  of  the  Parana  River  has  helped  the 


164  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

development  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  Toward  the  north  a  net- 
work of  streams  intersect  an  undulating  land  where  tree-clad  hill 
slopes  alternate  with  rich  meadows.  At  Corrientes  the  soil  is 
damp  and  marshy  but  rises  again  in  Misiones,  where  it  becomes 
hilly. 

III.  The  mountains  belong  to  four  separate  systems,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  Andean  system.  The  coasts  are  1,500 
miles  in  length  and  are  generally  low  and  sandy  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  Bio  Negro.  South  of  this  point  they  are  higher,  often 
raising  in  bluffs  and  cliffs  forming  innumerable  gulfs  and  bays. 
In  the  Plata  estuary  the  most  interesting  island  is  Martin  Garcia 
which  commands  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay. 
About  400  miles  off  the  shores  of  Santa  Cruz  are  the  Malvinas 
islands,  which  the  Argentine  government  claims  as  part  of  its 
territory  although  England  has  occupied  them  since  1833,  having 
named  them  Falkland  Islands. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  is  also  an  island,  belonging  half  to  Argen- 
tina and  half  to  Chile.  Staten  Island,  separated  from  Tierra  del 
Fuego  by  the  Lemair  strait,  is  used  as  a  place  of  deportation  for 
criminals.    There  are  several  other  islands  of  lesser  importance. 

Omitting  all  minor  differences,  the  A  rgentine  Republic  may  be 
divided  into  three  great  sections;  the  Central  plains,  the  river 
region  on  the  Eastern  side,  and  the  mountain  systems. 

The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  which  runs  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  forms  its  western  limit  is  the 
most  important  mountain  system  of  the  country.  Commencing  at 
the  extreme  south  of  the  Republic  in  the  shape  of  low  ranges  of 
hills,  isolated  by  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  which,  in  addition,  have 
invaded  its  valleys,  forming  an  immense  number  of  picturesque 
channels,  it  little  bj^  little  became  of  greater  height  and  breadth 
until  it  forms  in  the  north  the  elevated  tablelands  of  Atacama  and 
Jujuy,  with  a  mean  height  of  13,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
abundant  vegetation  which  covers  its  lower  slopes  in  the  south 
disappears  on  passing  beyond  the  37°  of  latitude,  and  in  the  same 
manner  the  snow,  in  the  north,  has  only  a  permanent  character 
on  the  summits  of  the  most  elevated  peaks,  such  as  the  Aconcagua, 
Mercedario,  Tupungato,  and  Juenal.  Another  interesting  feature 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  Cordillera  is  the  existence  of  deep 
gullies  which  run  through  it  and  allow  the  passage  of  important 
rivers  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  eastern  slopes,  which  otherwise 
would  have  found  an  outlet  toward  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Besides 
the  Andean  system  there  is  a  Central  system  formed  by  three 
parallel  ranges  known  by  the  general  name  of  Cordoba  and  San 


ARGENTINA  165 

Luis  ranges;  the  Buenos  Aires  system  formed  by  two  isolated 
ranges,  and  the  Misiones  system  formed  by  the  western  extremity 
of  two  mountain  ranges  entering  the  Argentine  territory  from 
Brazil  and  forming  a  letter  Y  by  their  joining  together. 

In  regard  to  the  hydrographic  system  of  the  country,  w^e  may 
divide  it  into  four  systems :  the  system  formed  by  the  rivers  within 
the  Plata  basin ;  the  central  system,  the  Patagonian  system  formed 
by  the  basins  of  the  rivers  flowing  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes,  and  lastly,  the  system  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires. 

The  basin  of  the  Plata,  which  includes  most  of  the  territory  of 
Argentina  and  part  of  those  of  Brazil,  Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  is 
drained  by  the  river  Plata,  justly  considered  as  the  entrance  gate 
to  South  America ;  the  rivers  Uruguay  and  Parana  which  debouch 
into  the  Plata  after  a  course  of  900  miles  in  the  first  case  and  of 
2,000  in  the  second;  the  river  Paraguay,  which  forms  the  axis  of 
the  system  and  joins  the  Parana  at  1,200  miles  from  its  source; 
the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo  rivers  which  rise  in  Bolivia  and  fall 
into  the  Paraguay  after  having  crossed  the  territory  of  the  Chaco ; 
the  Salado  del  Norte  River  which  runs  through  the  provinces  of 
Santiago  del  Estero  and  Santa  Fe  to  discharge  into  the  Parana 
near  the  city  of  Santa  Fe ;  the  river  <Carcarafia,  another  affluent 
of  the  Parana  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Tercero  and  Cuarto 
rivers  which  have  their  sources  in  the  Cordoba  range;  and  in 
addition  other  rivers  of  less  importance,  all  of  which  rise  in  the 
province  of  Buenos  Aires  and  are  affluents  of  the  river  Parana 
and  the  river  Plata. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Corthell,  an  American  engineer,  says  that  ''the 
Parana  has  a  larger  discharge  than  the  Mississippi;  its  annual 
flow  is  double  that  of  the  Ganges,  three  times  that  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence,  four  times  that  of  the  Danube,  and  five  times  that  of  the 
Nile.  There  are  records  of  608  cubic  miles  in  one  year."  The 
Parana  River  is  one  of  South  America's  great  waterways.  Trans- 
atlantic steamers  of  10,000  tons  drawing  23  feet  can  enter  the 
river  up  to  Rosario,  240  miles  from  Buenos  Aires.  Those  of 
6,000  tons  can  reach  the  ports  of  Parana  and  Colastine.  Specially 
constructed  vessels  can  go  farther,  to  Corrientes,  640  miles  above 
Buenos  Aires.  At  Corrientes  the  Paraguay  River  flows  into  the 
Parana  which  at  this  point  makes  a  sharp  turn  toward  the  south. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  navigation  the  Paraguay  River  is  a  nat- 
ural continuance  of  the  Parana.  Steamers  drawing  13  feet  ply 
from  Buenos  Aires  or  Corrientes  to  Asuncion,  on  the  Paraguay 
River,  during  nine  months  of  the  year. 


166  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Upper  Parana,  from  Corrientes  toward  the  east,  is  navi- 
gable by  large  boats  only  to  the  falls  of  Apipe,  145  miles  above 
Corrientes.  But  smaller  steamers  ply  regularly  beyond  Apipe  up 
to  Posadas  and  still  smaller  craft  up  to  near  Iguazu  Falls,  on  the 
boundary  line  between  Argentina,  Paraguay  and  BraziL 

The  river  Uruguay  is  navigable  by  large  steamers  up  to  Con- 
cordia which  is  an  important  agricultural  and  commercial  centre! 
But  during  the  floods  the  river  is  everywhere  navigable.  These 
floods  are  quite  sudden  but  not  long  continued.  The  floods  of  the 
Parana  are  much  longer  continued,  because  its  source  is  in  the 
tropical  and  rainy  regions  of  Brazil  and  it  receives  also,  through 
the  Paraguay,  the  waters  from  the  flanks  of  the  Andes.  At  the 
confluence  of  the  latter  river  with  the  Parana  at  Corrientes,  the 
rise  of  the  floods  is  about  33  feet ;  at  Rosario  it  is  from  19.7  to  23.5 
feet. 

Of  the  other  rivers  belonging  naturally  to  the  Plata  system, 
such  as  the  Pilcomayo,  the  Bermejo  and  the  Salado,  none  at  pres- 
ent is  of  economic  importance.  Further  south  the  Parana  River 
receives  the  Carcarana,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Tercero 
and  Cuarto  rivers  which  drain  the  southeastern  part  of  Cordoba. 
These  rivers  are  used  for  irrigation  purposes  and  the  Argentine 
government  has  entered  into  an  extensive  program  of  irrigation 
works  contemplating  the  reclamation  of  large  tracts  of  land  along 
the  valleys  of  these  rivers  and  also  of  the  Quinto,  which  more 
properly  belongs  to  the  Central  system. 

The  Central  hydrographic  basin  is  formed  by  a  vast  depres- 
sion that  in  its  lowest  part  is  occupied  by  the  lakes  of  Porongos 
and  Mar  Chiquita  into  which  several  rivers  such  as  the  Dulce  and 
the  Primero  and  Segundo  fall.  Irrigation  works  in  these  rivers 
have  been  going  forward  on  a  large  scale.  The  Rio  Primero 
dam  holds  260,000,000  cubic  meters  and  the  Segundo  River  dam 
350,000,000  cubic  meters. 

The  hydrographic  basin  of  the  Colorado  River  commences  in 
the  north  of  Rioja  with  several  rivers  which,  after  forming  the 
Vermejo,  are  lost  in  the  lagunes  of  Huanacache,  together  with  the 
rivers  San  Juan  and  Mendoza ;  and  in  succession  to  these  we  have 
the  streams  that  run  from  north  to  south,  which  join  their  waters 
with  the  Desaguadero  or,  as  we  may  call  it,  the  channel  for  the 
discharge  of  the  lakes  of  Huanacache,  and  this  conjunction  flows 
on  toward  the  south  under  the  names  of  Salado,  Chadileuvu,  and 
Curico  until  it  falls  into  the  Colorado,  having  on  its  course  south- 
ward formed  many  lakes  and  marshes;  and  lastly  the  Grande  and 
Barrancas  that  in  combination  form  the  Colorado  River,  which 


5  a  «>  Si  I  a  a  a-  -S-  -t^'i  S  tS 


ARGENTINA  167 

having  traversed  the  Pampa  from  east  to  west  debouches  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  estuary  of  Bahia  Blanca. 

Most  of  these  rivers  are  used  for  irrigating  the  grape  and 
fruit  districts  of  Mendoza  and  San  Juan,  as  well  as  the  pasture 
lands  of  San  Luis. 

The  basin  of  the  Rio  Negro  is  also  of  great  importance,  being 
formed  by  the  streams  which  flow  down  from  the  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes  between  37°  and  41°  south  latitude.  This  basin,  like  all  the 
others  that  are  found  further  south,  has  the  peculiarity  of  encir- 
cling within  it  a  large  number  of  lakes  which,  whilst  constituting 
one  of  the  principal  attractions  of  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes, 
have  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  regulation  of  the  waters.  There 
are  several  other  lakes  whose  natural  drainage  is  the  River  Limay 
which,  together  with  the  Neuquen  forms  the  Rio  Negro,  the  mouth 
of  the  main  river  on  the  Atlantic  being  a  little  to  the  south  of  the 
Rio  Colorado.  The  island  of  Choele-Choel,  renowned  for  its  great 
fertility,  is  about  midway  between  the  confluence  of  the  Limay 
and  Neuquen  and  the  sea,  but  nearer  to  the  former. 

Extensive  irrigation  works  are  being  completed  at  Negro 
River,  with  the  purpose  of  irrigating  the  barren  pampas  stretch- 
ing between  that  river  and  the  Colorado,  as  well  as  the  lands  south 
of  the  Negro.  The  Patagonian  rivers  are  also  navigable  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.    Flat  boats  have  to  be  used,  however. 

The  drainage  of  the  remaining  lakes  of  the  Cordillera  is 
effected  by  means  of  the  River  Senguer,  an  affluent  of  the  Chubut ; 
the  beautiful  lakes  of  Buenos  Aires  and  San  Martin,  whose  waters 
make  their  way  through  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  to  fall  into 
the  Pacific  in  the  same  manner  as  do  those  of  the  Lake  Lacar  and 
many  others  farther  north;  the  Argentino  and  Viedma  lakes 
whose  drainage  forms  the  river  Santa  Cruz,  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Patagonia,  which,  with  the  Deseado  and  the  Gallegos, 
completes  the  hydrographic  system  of  this  region. 

The  most  important  rivers  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires 
are :  the  Salado  del  Sur,  whose  valley  is  considered  as  being  only 
a  continuation  of  that  of  the  Rio  Quinto,  which  flows  down  from 
the  '^  Sierras  "  of  San  Luis.  This  river  gives  rise  to  important 
lagunes  and  receives,  before  falling  into  the  bay  of  San  Borombpn, 
the  superfluity  of  waters  of  many  others. 

The  remaining  rivers  of  that  province  which  debouch  directly 
into  the  ocean  are :  the  San  Borombon,  Quequen  Grande,  Quequen 
Salado,  Naposta,  Sauce  Grande,  and  Sauce  Chico. 

As  regards  the  Argentine  Mesopotamia,  it  is,  on  account  of 
the  impermeability  of  its  soil,  a  region  traversed  by  numerous 


168  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

rivers  and  streams  which  flow  into  the  Parana  and  Uruguay. 
The  province  of  Corrientes,  in  particular,  contains  the  immense 
lagnnes  of  Ibera  and  Maloya,  up  to  the  present  almost  unexplored. 
To  conclude  this  hydrographic  sketch  of  the  Republic  we  may 
call  attention  to  the  existence  of  a  certain  number  of  depressions, 
occupied  by  salt  lakes  and  deposits  of  salt,  that  constitute  so  many 
additional  basins  into  which  there  flow  streams  of  brackish  water, 
which,  on  evaporation,  deposit  the  salt  they  held  in  solution,  form- 
ing real  natural  salt  pans,  some  of  them  being  worked  to  supply 
the  requirements  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior.  In  the  high 
tablelands  of  Atacama  and  Jujuy  are  other  deposits  which  are 
doubly  interesting  on  account  of  the  deposits  of  borax  which  they 
contain.  There  are,  also,  distributed  throughout  the  whole  Andine 
region,  numerous  water-courses,  which  are  taken  advantage  of 
near  their  sources  for  the  irrigation  of  the  soil  but  which,  their 
course  being  through  immense  zones  of  permeable  land,  are 
quickly  lost  in  the  subsoil.  Amongst  these  we  may  mention,  as 
examples,  the  rivers  Tala,  the  Valle,  and  the  Paclin,  which  give 
life  to  the  beautiful  valley  of  Catamarca,  and  to  the  city  of  that 
name.  Irrigation  works  are  also  prominent  in  some  of  these 
rivers. 

Climate 

Almost  any  desired  climate,  from  tropical  to  frigid,  may  be 
had  in  a  country  that  extends  through  more  than  34  degrees  of 
latitude,  or  more  than  2,300  miles,  from  latitude  22  to  56  south, 
and  is  in  places  800  miles  wide.  Conditions  vary  widely  in  the 
same  latitude.  Rainfall  diminishes  from  the  east  to  the  west  until 
the  very  base  of  the  Andes  is  reached.  Temperature  is  highest  in 
the  central  part  of  the  country,  falling  rapidly  in  the  Andean 
region  to  a  point  many  degrees  below  the  temperature  of  localities 
due  east.     Temperature  also  diminishes  toward  the  south. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Argentina  the  transition  from  the 
rainy  to  the  dry  season  is  very  marked.  A  four  season  climate 
prevails  in  Corrientes,  Entre  Rios,  Santa  Fe,  Cordoba,  Buenos 
Aires,  Mendoza,  San  Luis,  and  the  remaining  country  lying  south. 
However,  there  is  always  a  prevalence  of  rains  from  October  to 
April.  In  the  provinces  of  Corrientes,  Salta,  Jujuy,  Catamerca 
and  Santiago  del  Estero,  and  the  territories  of  Chaco,  Formosa, 
Andes,  and  Misiones,  climatic  conditions  are  those  of  subtropical 
countries.  In  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Entre  Rios,  La  Rioja,  San 
Juan,  and  San  Luis,  south  of  Corrientes,  Santiago,  and  Cata- 
marca, and  territories  of  La  Pampa,  Neuquen  and  Rio  Negro,  the 


ARGENTINA  169 

climate  is  temperate.  In  Santa  Cruz,  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  Chu- 
but  the  climate  is  cold  but  not  so  severe  as  to  prevent  these  south- 
eastern regions  from  being  habitable. 

The  highest  recorded  temperature,  120°,  was  during  the  hot 
wave  on  February  1900,  in  the  province  of  Catamarca  at  the 
extreme  north,  and  the  lowest  recorded  temperature  was  3°,  in  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  a  range  of  117°  of  temperature 
in  33  degrees  of  latitude.  The  Argentina  weather  bureau  states, 
however,  that  lower  temperatures  are  probably  experienced  in 
the  interior  of  the  territory  of  Santa  Cruz.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  Litoral  the  ordinary  range  of  temperature  is  from  41°  to 
106°  and  in  the  southern  section  of  the  Litoral  the  usual  limits  are 
from  32°  to  102°.  This  is  the  territory  in  which  most  of  the  corn 
is  raised,  and  the  summer  temperature  averages  from  72°  to  77° 
and  is  rarely  above  96°. 

The  meteorological  system  of  Argentina  consists  of  200 
meteorological  and  1,600  rain-gauge  stations.  Besides,  the  Argen- 
tine Weather  Service  receives  information  from  12  Brazilian, 
10  Chilean  and  6  Uruguayan  stations.  The  Argentine  weather  map 
issued  daily  shows  conditions  reigning  from  Para  (Brazil)  to  the 
southernmost  limit  of  the  continent.  At  the  South  Orkney  station 
(lat.  61  deg.  south)  there  is  a  fully  equipped  meteorological  and 
magnetic  station.  The  hydrometric  service  has  established  nearly 
150  river  gauges  and  information  is  published  in  the  daily  weather 
map  as  to  the  depth  of  the  water  at  the  principal  ports  and  shallow 
passes  of  the  navigable  rivers  as  well  as  timely  warnings  of  the 
approach  of  the  freshets  in  the  rivers.  The  magnetic  service  is 
well  equipped  for  the  observation  of  the  solar  spots  and  spectro- 
scopic observations,  atmospheric  electricity,  kite  work  and  the 
preparation  of  the  isogonic  chart  of  the  country. 

Geology 

In  the  Tertiary  period  the  uplifting  of  the  Cordilleras  and  of 
the  Andes  was  effected,  and  the  levelling  of  the  Pampas,  giving 
to  the  country  the  physical  aspect  of  to-day. 

The  Pampean  system  is  characterized  by  the  abundance  of 
deposits  of  an  argillaceous  sand  of  great  fineness,  of  gray  color 
peculiar  to  deposits  of  sand  and  clay  or  alumina,  the  first  of  which 
encompasses  the  slopes  of  the  Sierras,  whilst  the  second  is  found 
along  the  margin  of  the  Plata.  The  Pampean  system  is  char- 
acterized, moreover,  by  an  abundant  and  marvellous  fauna  of 
fossil  mammals. 


170  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  works  of  Florentino  Ameghino,  who  collected  hundreds 
of  fossil  specimens  on  the  banks  of  Patagonian  rivers  will  help  in 
clearing  up  many  points  related  to  the  origin  and  distribution  of 
mammals,  man  included.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  fossils  appear 
in  formations  older  than  those  in  which  the  same  species  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Northern  hemisphere  is  leading  some  paleontolo- 
gists to  assign  man  an  antiquity  not  hitherto  suspected.  In  this 
connection  the  finding  in  1914  by  a  commission  from  the  Buenos 
Aires  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  an  arrow  head  —  evidently 
the  w^ork  of  man  —  imbedded  in  a  bone  of  Toxodon  remains,  one 
of  the  most  sensational  paleontological  discoveries  of  the  age.  To 
comprehend  the  abundance  Qf  fossil  mammals  in  Pampean  soil  it 
is  necessary  to  remember  that  in  the  Cretacean  epoch  the 
Southern  hemisphere  contained  relatively  more  land  than  water; 
whilst  in  the  Northern  hemisphere  the  contrary  condition  existed. 
This  naturally  greatly  favored  the  deposit  of  a  varied  fauna  of 
mammalia. 

The  Cretacean  epoch  is  represented  in  Argentina  by  the 
Chubutian  and  Guaranitican  formations,  which  belong  respectively 
to  the  lower  and  upper  Cretacean.  The  former  extends  over  the 
territory  of  Chubut,  occupying  the  most  central  part,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  a  very  hard  sand  of  very  marked  color.  Both  land- 
and  marine  fossils  are  found  in  it.  The  latter  formation  is  found 
in  Corrientes  and  Misiones,  reappearing  in  the  Rio  Negro  and  also 
in  Chubut,  resting  upon  the  former. 

The  period  of  the  Tertiary  epoch  is  represented  along  the 
coast  of  Patagonia  and  seashore  region  from  Puerto  Madryn  to 
the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  Nuevo,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  River,  where  it  disappears  under  the  Atlantic.  The  fossils 
are  marine  on  the  coast,  and  land  toward  the  west.  To  the  south 
of  Patagonia,  between  the  rivers  Chico  and  Gallegos,  there  extend 
other  formations  of  the  same  period. 

The  Oligocene  period  is  represented  by  a  succession  of  layers 
principally  of  marine  origin,  which  appear  in  the  province  of 
Entre  Rios  along  the  whole  length  of  the  Parana  River.  The 
same  layers  reappear  farther  south  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Negro  and  extend  along  the  Patagonia  coast  as  far  as  the  gulf  of 
Nuevo. 

Remains  of  the  Miocene  period  cover  the  central  and  south- 
western Pampas,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  Catamarca  and  Tucuman. 
To  this  period  belongs  the  immense  quantity  of  rounded  gravel 
which  covers  the  whole  surface  of  Patagonia  from  the  River  Negro 
to  the  south. 


ARGENTINA  171 

Of  the  Pliocene  period  may  be  found  representations  in  the 
Pampean  formation,  or  in  the  great  deposit  of  lime  and  reddish 
gray  clay  which  covers  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires. 

Representations  of  the  Quarternary  and  recent  epochs  are 
met  with  in  isolated  deposits  throughout  the  length  of  the 
Republic. 

Flora 

According  to  Professors  Holmberg,  Spegazzini,  and  Gallardo, 
the  Argentine  flora  represents  almost  one-tenth  of  the  flora  of  the 
world.  Professor  Stuckert  claims  to  have  studied  and  classified 
as  many  as  8,000  phanerogamous  and  vascular  cryptogamous 
plants.  The  number  of  known  plants  among  the  cryptogamous 
alone  is  calculated  at  3,000  species.  Only  a  fourth  of  the 
phanerogamous  and  less  than  a  tenth  of  the  cryptogamous  plants 
have  been  classified.  The  microscopic  flora  is  almost  entirely 
unknown. 

The  province  of  Buenos  Aires  is  almost  devoid  of  trees ;  the 
only  part  where  any  are  found  is  along  the  coast,  but  they  are 
small  and  consist  principally  of  mimosas,  which  make  excellent 
fuel.  'Calden  is  to  be  found  in  the  west.  In  part  of  Santa  Fe,  the 
Chaco,  Santiago  del  Estero,  Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  Misiones, 
Tucuman,  etc.,  there  are  immense  forests  of  the  finest  and  most 
useful  classes  of  trees,  from  the  easily  worked  cedar  to  the  que- 
braco  (axe  breaker)  used  for  railway  sleepers,  nandubay  for 
fencing  posts,  lapacho,  algarrobo,  and  numerous  varieties  of  wood 
for  shipbuilding  and  furniture.  The  ombii  is  useless  as  timber, 
and  is  not  even  suitable  for  firewood,  but  is  valued  for  its  shade, 
while  the  ceibo  bears  an  extremely  beautiful  flower  of  a  deep 
crimson  color. 

Fauna 

Very  few  species  of  animals  pertain  exclusively  to  Argentina. 
Among  the  mammals  are  recognized  two,  the  vizcacha,  which  is 
not  found  outside  of  the  Pampas,  and  the  hare  of  Patagonia. 
Among  birds  may  be  numbered  two  species  characteristic  of 
Argentina;  the  marineta,  a  bird  of  the  heron  family,  and  the 
gallito,  or  small  cock,  which  also  live  on  the  Pampas,  but  farther 
south  than  the  two  species  first  named.  Most  of  the  animal 
species  which  live  in  Argentina  are  met  beyond  the  frontiers  of  the 
country  in  Brazil,  in  Bolivia,  and  in  Chili.  Some  of  these  are 
also  common  to  the  Antilles  and  to  North  America. 

There  is  a  great  variety  and  diversity  in  the  fauna,  according 
to  the  region  studied,  since  the  animals  of  the  east  or  of  the  north 


172  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

differ  considerably  from  those  of  the  west  and  the  south. 
Dr.  Lahille  has  divided  southern  South  America  into  three 
regions:  (1)  The  Andean,  which  comprises  the  whole  of  Chili,  all 
of  Patagonia,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Andean  provinces; 

(2)  the  central  region,  formed  by  the  basin  of  the  Parana  River; 

(3)  the  Brazilian,  w^hich  comprises  the  territories  of  Misiones,  a 
part  of  the  province  of  Corrientes,  and  also  the  northern  part  of 
the  Republic  of  Uruguay.  In  the  eastern  zone  of  Argentina  live 
the  animals  that  have  emigrated  from  the  tablelands  of  Brazil. 

The  wild  animals  are  numerous,  being  the  jaguar  (tigre), 
puma  (leon)  and  various  kinds  of  wild  cats,  the  aguara-guazu  (fox 
of  Paraguay),  an  animal  of  a  reddish  color  with  a  black  stripe 
along  the  back;  gray  and  red  foxes,  various  kinds  of  weasels, 
otters,  skunks  or  polecats,  nutria,  a  rodent  which  is  called  an  otter 
but  is  Myopatamis  Copyus,  having  a  tail  like  a  rat ;  seals,  oppos- 
sums,  raccoons,  vicuna,  huanaco,  elamas,  and  alpacas,  the  last  two 
said  to  be  the  domesticated  varieties  of  the  preceding  two,  various 
kinds  of  deer  varying  in  size  from  that  of  the  red  deer  of  Europe 
down  to  18  inches  in  height ;  armadillos  of  four  varieties,  the  wild 
guinea  pig,  the  pampa  hare,  which  is  not  a  hare  but  Dolichotis  Pata- 
gonica ;  and  several  monkeys,  carpincho  or  water  hog,  vizcacha  or 
prairie  dog,  tapir,  peccari,  ant-eaters.  The  vizcacha  was  some 
years  ago  very  numerous,  but  is  not  now  to  be  found  in  the  inside 
camps,  that  is  land  that  has  been  stocked  for  many  years,  as  a 
war  of  extermination  was  waged  against  them  some  25  or  30  years 
back.  Birds  are  also  numerous,  the  more  notable  being  the  vul- 
tures, hawks,  ostrich  (rhea  or  fiandu),  eagles,  owls,  parrots, 
woodpeckers,  ovenbuilders,  humming  birds,  ibis,  flamingo,  spoon- 
bill, swallows,  pigeons,  doves,  egrets,  storks,  wood  turkeys, 
partridges  of  various  kinds,  snipe,  plovers,  ducks,  swan,  geese, 
gulls,  bustard,  and  in  the  far  south  the  penguin  and  other  sea 
birds.  The  house  sparrow  was  introduced  some  years  ago  and 
has  now  become  a  thorough  nuisance,  as  are  also  the  descendants 
of  imported  hares  in  Santa  Fe  and  the  north  of  Buenos  Aires. 

The  best  fish  are  the  pejerrey  (a  kind  of  trout),  dorado 
(something  like  salmon  but  of  a  golden  color),  corvina,  palometa, 
pacii,  anchoa  (a  large  fish  not  a  bit  like  an  anchovy),  flatfish, 
zurubi,  an  immense  yellow  and  black  spotted  catfish.  The  only  fish 
we  know  that  will  take  the  artificial  fly  are  the  pejerrey,  dorado, 
and  the  mojarra,  a  small  fish  very  like  a  sardine.  Alligators  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  upper  Parana  and  Paraguay ;  iguanas  are 
to  be  found  in  the  northern  provinces  and  lizards  throughout  the 
country. 


ARGENTINA  173 

Snakes  are  numerous  but  the  only  dangerous  ones  are  the 
rattlesnake  and  the  vibora  de  la  cruz;  possibly  some  of  the  large 
water  boas  may  be  so,  but  no  instance  has  been  reported  of  man 
being  attacked  by  them. 

Some  years  ago  it  was  successfully  demonstrated  that  oysters 
could  be  brought  from  the  favored  localities  of  the  United  States 
and  placed  in  the  bays  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  this  Republic  and 
there  multiply,  grow,  and  fatten. 

For  an  account  of  the  characteristic  fauna  —  especially  the 
mammalian  fauna  —  of  the  Neotropical  Region,  which  includes 
Argentina,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  paragraphs  under  Fauna 
and  Flora  in  the  chapter  Latin  America,  pp.  11  et  seq. 

Bibliography 

Holland,  W.  J.,  To  the  River  Plate  and  Back:  the  Narrative  of  a  Scientific 
Mission  to  South  America  (New  York  1913) ;  Mills,  G.  J.,  Argentine:  Physical 
Features,  etc.  (New  York  1914) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Argentine  Republic: 
General  Descriptive  Data  (Washington  1914);  Ross,  G.,  Argentina  and  Uruguay 
(New  York  1916);  Willis,  B.,  Northern  Patagonia,  Character  and  Resources 
(Vol.  I,  a  study  of  the  elements  of  development  in  the  region  tributary  to  the 
national  railway  from  Port  San  Antonio  to  Ijago  Nahuel  Huapi,  etc.,  under 
caption  Ministry  of  Pub.  Works,  Buenos  Aires  1911-1914).  See  also  Bibliog- 
raphies under  History,  Agriculture,  etc. 


POPULATION   AND   IMMIGRATION 

The  population  returns  of  the  1914  census,  published  in  Sep- 
tember 1916,  gave  7,885,237  inhabitants  as  the  total  population  on 
1  June  1914.  The  Argentine  Year  Book,  1915-16,  gives,  as  the 
estimated  population  for  1915  (a  calculation  by  the  National 
Statistical  Office),  7,979,259.  The  estimates  9,000,000  or  10,000,000 
frequently  given  appear  to  be  based  upon  the  growth  of  cities, 
with  which  the  rural  population  does  not  keep  pace.  The  urban 
population,  constituting  42.8  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of 
Argentina  in  1895,  increases  from  year  to  year  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  rural;  and  the  movement  toward  the  cities,  especially 
Buenos  Aires,  has  been  marked  in  the  decade  1908^1917. 

Of  the  total  population  of  the  Republic  about  2,000,000  are 
foreigners,  or  more  than  25  per  cent  as  against  10  per  cent  in  the 
rest  of  South  America  and  13  per  cent  in  the  United  States. 
About  one-fifth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  country  is  in  the 
capital  city,  of  which  about  40  per  cent  are  foreigners.  This 
shows  that  an  undue  proportion  of  immigrants  remain  in  Buenos 


174  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Aires,  while  the  sparsely  settled  country  districts  have  received  a 
minority  of  them.  To  counteract  this  tendency  the  Immigration 
Bureau  now  offers  free  lodging  during  10  days  in  the  agricultural 
centres  to  all  those  immigrants  willing  to  go  there.  Transporta- 
tion to  those  districts  is  also  free  to  the  immigrant,  his  family, 
and  baggage. 

Only  second  and  third  class  passengers  are  considered  immi- 
grants by  Argentine  law.  Immigration  regulations  are  very 
strict  regarding  health  of  immigrants  and  the  hygienic  and  safe 
conditions  of  steamers  carrying  them.  On  their  arrival  at  Buenos 
Aires  immigrants  are  provided  with  board  and  lodging,  valid  for 
five  days,  which  term  may  be  renewed  in  case  of  sickness.  TH'e 
Immigrants'  Hotel  is  a  model  establishment  offering  accommoda- 
tion for  1,000  persons  at  a  time.  Dormitory  buildings,  dining  hall, 
lecture  rooms,  lavatories  and  hot  and  cold  baths  and  swimming 
pools  are  the  chief  features.  There  are  also  immigrants'  hotels  at 
Rosario  and  Bahia  Blanca.  The  National  Labor  Bureaus  use 
every  means  to  find  a  situation  for  the  immigrant  in  the  art,  craft 
or  industry  in  which  he  wishes  to  apply  himself.  Since  the  coun- 
try was  opened  to  immigrants  in  1854  about  4,750,000  immigrants 
have  entered  Argentina,  of  which  number  30  per  cent  have 
returned  to  their  native  land.  In  1913,  the  year  before  the 
European  "war,  302,047  immigrants  entered  Argentina.  The 
immigrants  have  come  in  great  numbers  from  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  lately  from  Russia  and  the  Balkans.  The  immigrants  can 
acquire  rich  government  land  without  being  subjected  to  national- 
ization. Provision  is  also  made  for  the  supply  of  the  necessary 
funds  to  furnish  the  colonist  with  implements  and  other  equipment 
to  enable  him  to  begin  work  immediately. 

One  of  the  drawbacks  the  country  has  had  to  contend  with  is 
that  the  feudal  land  system  instituted  by  Spain  was  continued 
under  the  republic.  The  conquered  land  in  the  provinces  was 
already  mostly  held  in  private  estates.  The  remnant  was  won 
by  degrees  from  the  Indians.  After  conquering  from  them  the 
rich  lands  of  southern  Argentina  in  1885,  land  was  sold  off  in 
blocks  with  a  square  league  (6,250  acres)  as  a  unit  at  a  nominal 
price.  The  army  received  a  vast  grant  of  these  lands  in  payment 
of  the  work  accomplished.  All  these  tended  to  create  vast 
latifundia  which,  fortunately,  are  being  gradually  broken  up. 
From  1905  to  1915  the  number  of  holdings  of  less  than  12,000 
acres  has  increased  in  the  proportion  of  100  to  171,  while  the 
number  of  big  holdings  of  12,000  acres  upward  has  diminished  in 
the  proportion  of  100  to  56. 


ARGENTINA  175 

HISTORY  OF  ARGENTINA 

By  Juan  A.  Ss-vllosa 
Former  Argentine  Consul-General  to  Canada 

Spain,  not  being  satisfied  with  the  discoveries  and  conquests 
which  she  had  effected  in  America,  was  made  ambitious  by  her 
rival,  Portugal,  regarding  the  known  riches  of  the  Molucca  Islands 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  To  possess  herself  of  these  she  looked 
for  a  channel  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  traversing 
the  new  continent,  and  the  mission  of  finding  this  was  entrusted 
to  the  most  able  mariner  of  the  day.  Captain  Juan  de  Solis,  who 
in  1515  A.D.,  navigating  with  two  boats  along  the  coast  of 
America,  arrived  at  35°  south  latitude.  He  proceeded  along  what 
is  now  known  as  the  river  Plata  (Rio  de  la  Plata)  until  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Uruguay  River,  and  anchored  his  vessels  there, 
in  front  of  a  little  island  which  he  named  Martin  Garcia,  in  honor 
of  the  second  commander  of  the  expedition. 

Solis  and  some  of  his  companions  went  to  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  river,  but  they  had  liardly  disembarked  when  they  were  killed 
by  the  Charrua  Indians.  Deprived  of  their  leader  the  company 
did  not  venture  to  begin  the  exploration  of  the  newly-discovered 
country,  and  returned  to  Spain.  This  dismal  failure  disheartened 
the  Spanish  government  until  15  years  later,  when  the  discovery 
of  Brazil  and  the  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  revived  the 
ambition  of  Spain.  In  1526  the  Spanish  government  sent  nearly 
simultaneously  two  expeditions  to  the  south,  one  under  the  com- 
mand of  Diego  Garcia,  with  the  intention  of  stopping  the  advance 
of  the  Portuguese,  and  the  other  in  charge  of  the  English  captain 
Sebastian  Cabot,  with  the  object  of  finding  an  interoceanic 
passage.  The  lack  of  provisions  and  a  mutiny  among  the  sailors 
prevented  Cabot  from  carrying  out  his  designs,  and  unfortunately 
while  navigating  in  the  river  discovered  by  Solis,  and  following 
the  Uruguay  River,  the  detachment  that  disembarked  to  explore 
the  region  had  no  better  fate  than  that  of  Solis  and  perished  at 
the  hands  of  the  Charruas.  Cabot  therefore  changed  his  route 
and  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Parana.  Here  he  established  in 
the  delta  the  first  European  port  in  the  region  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  the  fort  Espiritu  Santo.  Ascending  the  Parana  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Paraguay,  Cabot  began  trading  with  various  tribes 
of  Indians,  whom  he  found  using  many  silver  ornaments  and 
utensils.  This  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  explorer,  who, 
thinking  he  had  discovered  a  region  of  silver  mines,  named  the 
estuary  then  known  as  Rio  de  Solis  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  Silver 
River.  ■ 


176  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

By  chance  the  expedition  of  Diego  Garcia,  which,  as  previously 
stated,  had  been  sent  out  to  stop  the  advance  of  the  Portu- 
guese, arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Plata.  Quarrels  broke 
out  between  the  two  commanders  which  obliged  Diego  Garcia 
to  return  to  Spain,  and  fearing  the  decision  of  the  government 
at  Madrid  would  be  unfavorable  to  himself,  Oabot  returned  to 
Europe,  leaving  large  supplies  in  the  fort  Espiritu  Santo,  which 
was  soon  assaulted  in  an  unexpected  way  and  burned  to  the 
ground  by  the  Timbu  Indians,  who  up  to  this  time  had  maintained 
friendly  relations  with  the  Spaniards. 

These  early  discoveries  in  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  led  to  a  great 
deal  of  jealousy  and  desire  for  territorial  expansion  on  the  part 
of  European  monarchs.  Carlos  V.,  King  of  Spain  and  Emperor 
of  Austria,  who  was  at  war  with  Francis  I.  of  France,  not  being 
able  to  disband  his  army  nor  to  give  much  attention  to  the  con- 
quest of  America,  decided  to  send  out  exploring  parties  to  annex 
definitely  the  territory  of  the  river  Plata.  A  rich  Spanish  noble, 
Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  arranged  with  his  government  to  equip 
at  his  own  cost  an  expedition,  on  condition  that  he  was  to  be 
named  governor  over  all  the  territories  which  he  discovered  or 
conquered.  The  Mendoza  expedition  consisted  of  a  fleet  of  14 
vessels  and  about  2,000  men,  many  of  whom  were  Germans.  This 
force  entered  the  river  Plata  20  Feb.  1535,  and  landed  on  the  spot 
where  now  stands  the  capital  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  There 
a  town  site  was  chosen,  Mendoza  giving  it  the  name  of  Santa 
Maria  de  Buenos  Aires,  which  means  Saint  Mary  of  the  Good 
Breezes.  Subsequently  the  little  town  was  destroyed  by  the 
Querandi  Indians  who  inhabited  the  region.  The  expedition 
escaped  to  the  Espiritu  Santo  fort,  leaving  seven  horses  and  five 
mares,  the  first  herd  of  horses  in  Argentina.  From  Espiritu 
Santo,  Mendoza  sent  his  principal  lieutenant,  Don  Juan  de  Ayolas, 
to  explore  the  Parana  River.  After  numerous  fights  with  the 
various  Indian  tribes  Ayolas  occupied  the  land  and  founded  the 
town  of  Asuncion  in  1537.  He  intended  later  to  penetrate  as  far 
as  Lima  in  Peru.  Mendoza,  sick  and  discouraged,  started  to 
return  to  Spain,  but  died  on  the  way.  Ayolas  succeeded  him  in 
command  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  Plata. 

From  Asuncion,  Ayolas  went  on  an  expedition  to  Peru,  and 
upon  his  return  was  killed  by  the  Indians.  This  expedition 
brought  from  Peru  some  ewes  which  had  been  imported  from 
Spain  via  Panama.  These  ewes  constituted  the  nucleus  of  the 
Argentine  flocks.     Several  years  before  this  seven  cows  and  one 


ARGENTINA  177 

bull,  the  first  cattle  in  the  river  Plata  territory,  had  arrived  at 
Asuncion. 

All  the  people  who  did  not  care  to  follow  Ayolas  on  his 
unfortunate  expedition  across  the  unknown  continent  remained  in 
Asuncion.  Among  them  were  many  Germans  and  some  French, 
Belgians,  and  Italians.  They  elected  Domingo  Martinez  de  Irala 
as  governor,  and  that  formed  the  first  autonomic  government  of 
South  America,  organizing  the  first  colony  and  entering  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  neighboring  tribes  of  Indians. 

The  polygamous  condition  of  these  tribes  made  easy  the 
multiplication  of  the  Colonials,  thus  originating  the  half-breed 
type,  who  in  their  turn  joining  with  the  Europeans  gave  the  racial 
character  of  the  new  population  of  the  region.  D'Orbigny  thus 
describes  the  Mestizo,  or  mixed  blend  of  people:  "  The  mixture  of 
the  Spaniards  with  the  Guaranies  produces  men  of  large  form, 
nearly  white,  and  having  beautiful  faces  even  from  the  first  gener- 
ation; large  eyes,  clear  complexion,  and  nose  generally  like  the. 
Spaniards.  As  a  rule  they  have  scanty  beards  until  the  third 
generation,  when  it  becomes  as  thick  as  the  white  man's." 

During  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century,  while  they  were 
founding  and  organizing  the  governments  of  Paraguay  and  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  other  expeditions  leaving  Peru  by  land  explored  and 
settled  the  interior  territory  of  the  Plata.  In  this  way  were 
founded  the  cities  of  Estero,  Tucuman,  Cordoba,  Salta,  Rioja,  and 
Jujuy.  Other  conquerors,  coming  from  the  general  headquarters 
in  Chile,  took  possession  of  the  Cuyo  region  and  founded  the  cities 
of  San  Juan,  Mendoza,  and  San  Luis. 

The  inefficiency  of  the  military  conquest  of  the  Indians  and 
their  continued  insubordination  decided  the  government  at  Asun- 
cion to  try  to  bring  them  into  submission  through  the  medium  of 
church  missions,  which  they  commissioned  the  Jesuit  Fathers, 
already  established  in  Peru,  to  undertake.  The  missionaries 
founded  their  schools  in  Salta,  Cordoba,  and  Santa  Fe.  Others 
went  to  unexplored  sections  and  established  missions  with  the 
most  perfect  theocratic  government  among  the  Guaranies. 

The  government  of  Spain,  after  the  death  of  Irala,  sent  out 
Don  Juan  de  Garay  as  governor  of  Paraguay.  Needing  a  fortified 
position  nearer  to  the  ocean,  Garay  descended  from  Asuncion 
resolved  to  reconquer  the  site  occupied  by  Mendoza  in  1536,  and 
succeeded  in  re-establishing,  11  June  1580,  the  abandoned  colony 
of  Buenos  Aires.  Plans  were  made  for  the  laying  out  of  the  town 
which  the  Indians  again  tried  to  destroy.  The  first  inhabitants 
13 


178  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  Buenos  Aires  were  19  Spanish  and  50  Creoles.  With  the 
founding  of  Buenos  Aires  the  period  of  conquest  in  the  region 
now  comprising  the  Argentine  Rejjublic  may  be  said  to  have 
finally  closed,  to  be  followed  by  the  colonial  regime. 

The  desire  to  secure  communication  between  Buenos  Aires 
and  Asuncion  necessitated  the  foundation  of  various  forts  and 
colonies  along  the  Parana  River  in  the  region  which  to-day 
constitutes  the  provinces  of  Santa  Fe,  Entre  Rios,  and  Corrientes. 

During  this  time  the  Portuguese  were  advancing  their 
explorations  south  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  arriving  at  the  left 
margin  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  This  alarmed  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment, which,  being  powerless  to  quell  the  internal  anarchy  of  the 
colonies  while  in  the  midst  of  the  fight  with  rebellious  tribes  of 
Indians,  separated  Buenos  Aires  from  the  government  of  Para- 
guay, instituting  the  Province  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  dependent  on  the 
Viceroy  of  Peru,  and  named  for  governor  General  Bruno  deZabala, 
who,  in  1726,  founded  the  city  of  Montevideo,  now  the  capital 
of  the  Republic  of  Uruguay. 

The  Spanish  government  did  not  permit  commercial  importa- 
tion through  the  port  of  Buenos  Aires  and  the  colonists  of  this 
region  were  obliged  to  resort,  to  troublesome  transcontinental 
traffic  to  reach  Lima,  the  capital  of  the  Viceroyalty,  the  only 
market  of  importation  which  they  could  count  on.  But  as 
Paraguay  received  direct  importations  in  freight  boats  for  the 
official  agents  of  the  Spanish  government,  and  the  traffic  neces- 
sarily had  to  pass  near  to  Buenos  Aires,  the  inhabitants  of  this 
city  devised  methods  to  organize  a  trade  with  Cadiz,  from  which 
place  there  were  secretly  sent  to  Buenos  Aires  books  that  the 
Spanish  government  did  not  permit  to  circulate  even  in  Spain, 
which  contained  comments  on  the  American  Revolution  and 
philosophical  writings  such  as  preceded  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. One  can  understand  that  these  books  found  eager  readers, 
since  the  cultured  class  of  Buenos  Aires  had  been  recruited  from 
liberals,  who,  fleeing  from  persecution  in  Spain,  preferred  as  a 
refuge  the  modest  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  to  the 
brilliant  capital  of  Peru,  centre  of  military  and  ecclesiastical  pres- 
tige, and  head  of  an  aristocracy  formed  from  descendants  of 
successful  adventurers.  The  liberal  ideas  of  this  class  separated 
them  somewhat  from  the  theocratic  and  military  influence  which 
ruled  the  interior,  but  during  the  next  two  centuries  Buenos  Aires 
received  only  such  liberal  literature  as  could  be  smuggled  from 
Europe. 


ARGENTINA  179 

In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  Spain  was  engaged  in  war 
with  Portugal,  which,  allied  with  England,  sent  a  fleet  to  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  and  took  possession  of  a  small  port  on  the  left 
bank  in  front  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  government  sent  forces  which 
repelled  the  invasion,  and,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  river 
la  Plata  required  more  safeguards,  reorganized  the  colonial 
administration,  constituting  the  Viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Aires  with 
its  jurisdiction  in  the  territories  now  occupied  by  the  republics  of 
Uruguay,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  and  Argentina,  and  opening  in  1776 
the  ports  of  the  river  Plata  to  importation. 

The  first  Viceroy,  Zeballos,  explored  part  of  the  coast  of 
Patagonia.  His  successor,  Juan  Jose  de  Vertiz,  a  Mexican  of 
excellent  antecedents,  dedicated  himself  to  the  advancement  of 
the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  using  for  this  object  the  property  con- 
fiscated from  the  Jesuits  by  Carlos  III.  Buenos  Aires  at  that  time, 
1778,  contained  22,000  white  inhabitants,  of  whom  15,000  were 
European  Spaniards.  The  total  population  of  the  country  was 
300,000,  of  whom  10  per  cent  were  negroes  or  mulattoes.  The 
buildings  were  almost  exclusively  of  unbaked  bricks,  roofed  with 
straw.  The  increase  of  the  horses,  abandoned  by  Mendoza,  that 
had  scattered  themselves  through  the  pampas,  had  modified  the 
traits  of  the  Indians  of  the  region,  who,  becoming  horsemen,  fled 
from  the  harsh  treatment  of  their  conquerors. 

The  facility  with  which  a  colonist  could  make  himself  a  large 
landed  proprietor,  and  the  impossibility  of  inducing  the  natives  to 
work,  promoted  the  importation  of  negroes  as  slaves,  and  in  1715 
the  government  had  conceded  to  an  English  company  the 
monopoly  of  importing  1,200  negroes  a  year,  which  concession, 
however,  was  abolished  in  1728,  although  the  importation  con- 
tinued in  a  very  light  proportion  till  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century. 

At  this  time  it  was  the  custom  of  the  wealthy  class  in  these 
colonies  to  send  their  studious  young  men  to  complete  their 
education  in  the  schools  and  colleges  of  Europe.  The  unliberal 
spirit  which  ruled  in  the  University  of  Cordoba  in  the  centre  of 
the  country  did  not  attract  the  young  men  of  Buenos  Aires. 

In  1806  an  English  expedition,  returning  from  the  conquest" 
of  the  Boer  colonies  at  Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  crossed  the 
Atlantic  and  invaded  Buenos  Aires,  The  Viceroy,  Sobremonte, 
fled  to  the  interior  of  the  country,  leaving  the  defence  of  the  city 
to  the  Spanish  residents  and  natives.  The  English  assault  was 
repelled,  all  being  made  prisoners,  although,  taking  advantage  of 
the  confusion,  the  invaders  seized  $1,500,000,  which  was  in  the 


180  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

fiscal  treasury  and  which  they  sent  to  England.  This  produced  an 
extraordinary  effect  in  London  in  regard  to  the  riches  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  region,  and  induced  the  English  government  to 
send  another  and  better  equipped  expedition,  consisting  of  60 
boats  and  12,000  men,  to  take  possession  of  Buenos  Aires.  This 
second  attempt,  however,  had  no  better  success  than  the  first,  and 
many  English  prisoners  remained  in  the  country  where  they 
eventually  intermarried  with  the  natives.  The  authorities  and  the 
Spanish  residents  accused  the  masses  of  sympathy  with  the  invad- 
ers; nevertheless  the  English  were  freed  and  received  by  the  first 
families,  thus  helping  to  constitute  the  liberal  element  which  was 
later  to  have  the  direction  of  the  revolution  of  independence. 

The  government  of  Spain,  alarmed  at  the  projects  of 
Napoleon,  could  not  extricate  itself  from  warring  elements,  and 
had  refused  to  send  aid  for  the  defence  of  the  river  Plata.  The 
citizens  of  Buenos  Aires,  proud  of  their  triumphs  and  dissatisfied 
with  the  Viceroy,  Sobremonte,  deposed  him,  and  named  as  his 
successor  Liniers,  a  French  captain  who  had  helped  them  in  the 
first  defence  against  the  English;  but  the  Spanish  government 
denounced  this  act  and  appointed  as  viceroy  a  Spanish  marshal, 
Cisneros.  At  this  time,  because  of  Napoleon's  domination  over 
Spain,  the  authority  of  the  Spanish  viceroy  was  not  recognized 
and  fresh  germs  of  independence  were  sown.  With  this  impetus 
some  of  the  patriots  met  and  announced  a  government  Junta. 
This  assembly  took  place  25  May  1810,  the  date  which  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  celebrates  as  its  birthday.  This  congress  invited  all 
the  authorities  of  the  Viceroyalty  to  join  the  movement,  and 
founded  a  periodical  of  revolutionary  tendencies  called  The 
Buenos  Aires  Gazette;  for  it  was  evident  that  the  power  of  Spain 
could  only  be  broken  by  united  effort  of  the  patriots  who  were 
scattered  throughout  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  and 
that  Buenos  Aires  was  the  natural  leader  in  such  an  entei-prise. 
The  colonial  authorities,  however,  refused  the  invitation,  and, 
supported  by  the  loyal  colonists,  repelled  the  revolutionary  expe- 
ditions which  were  later  sent  from  Buenos  Aires  to  overthrow  the 
Spanish  authorities. 

For  seven  years  the  success  of  the  insurrection  remained  in 
doubt.  The  Argentines  suffered  defeats  in  Paraguay  and  in  Upper 
Peru  (now  Bolivia),  and  the  Spanish  held  unconquered  the  fort 
of  Montevideo  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Plata,  During  this  time 
the  enthusiastic  propaganda  for  liberty  and  equality,  and  the 
revolutionary  documents  sent  out  from  Buenos  Aires  to  all  the 
colonies,  had  awakened  fanciful  ambitions  and  uneasy  repinings 


ARGENTINA  181 

among  the  natives  and  illiterate  semi-barbarous  half-breeds,  who 
during  the  progress  of  seven  generations  —  more  than  two  cen- 
turies—  had  submissively  considered  themselves  inferior  to  the 
whites.  So  when  the  Argentines  had  once  conquered  the  Spanish 
forts  of  Montevideo  and  Asuncion,  the  Provinces  of  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay  declared  themselves  independent. 

By  1815,  the  leaders  having  sown  anarchy  in  all  the  colonies, 
the  revolutionary  government  of  Buenos  Aires  saw  itself  beset  by 
the  danger  of  invasion  of  the  territory  of  the  provinces  of  the 
Plata  by  the  forces  under  the  command  of  the  Viceroy  of  Peru, 
and  on  the  borders  of  the  Plata  River  by  the  Spanish  fleet.  In 
such  emergencies  the  larger  paii;  of  the  directors  of  the  revolution- 
ary movement  felt  powerless  to  follow  the  model  of  the  republic 
established  by  the  English  colonies  in  North  America,  and  dis^ 
cussed  a  monarchical  government  (one  of  the  leaders  even  proposed 
annexation  to  the  British  Empire)  in  order  to  link  the  provinces 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata  with  European  countries,  and  to  silence  the 
resentments  of  Spain.  At  the  same  time  they  would  submit  to  the 
insurgents  who  were  breaking  up  the  country  by  encouraging  the 
passions  of  the  half-breeds,  and  stimulating  their  narrow  clannish- 
ness  which  they  disguised  under  the  name  of  federalisui.  To  bring- 
about  a  crisis  the  revolutionary  government  convoked  a  congress 
of  representatives  from  all  the  provinces  united  with  Buenos 
Aires.  This  congress  met  in  the  city  of  Tucuman  9  July  1816,  and 
pledged  itself  to  a  Declaration  of  Independence  for  the  United 
Provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  a  date  which  the  Argentines  celebrate 
as  a  national  holiday.  The  Congress  of  Tucuman,  where  the  local 
element  predominated,  decided  also  that  the  form  of  the  govern- 
ment should  be  democratic-republican-federal,  by  which  title  the 
Congress  exalted  the  elements  of  anarchy  and  diminished  the 
prestige  of  the  active  industrial  class  which  produced  the  independ- 
ent movement  whose  centre  w^as  Buenos  Aires. 

England  and  the  United  States,  the  former  to  limit  the 
political  power  of  Spain,  the  latter  to  remove  from  the  American 
continent  the  other  great  powers,  were  the  first  nations  to  recog- 
nize the  independence  of  the  Argentines.  It  was  then  that  Presi- 
dent Monroe  proclaimed  the  doctrine,  "America  for  the  Ameri- 
cans." However,  the  Spanish  rule  was  not  ended  in  America,  but 
maintained  itself  firmly  in  the  rest  of  the  colonies.  It  was  the 
destiny  of  Argentina  to  fulfil  her  mission  of  Liberator. 

Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  was  the  centre  of  the  Spanish  power 
which  extended  through  the  latter  country,  Chile,  and  the  northern 
part  of  South  America,  Central  America,  and  Mexico.     Besides, 


182  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  Spaniards  still  held  the  city  of  Montevideo  which  was  their 
bulwark  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

To  reach  Lima  by  land  was  a  task  beyond  the  bounds  of 
possibility,  on  account  of  the  geographical  conditions  which 
favored  the  Spanish  troops  by  offering  them  a  safe  position  within 
easy  reach  of  their  headquarters.  The  Argentine  Congress  had 
the  good  fortune,  however,  to  find  a  soldier  of  genius  to  whom  they 
confided  this  new  undertaking.  His  name  was  San  Martin. 
Realizing  the  risk  of  meeting  the  Spanish  forces  on  land,  he  con- 
ceived the  project  of  crossing  the  Andes  to  drive  out  the  Spaniards 
from  Chile  and  to  reach  Lima  by  sea.  This  bold  enterprise  was 
secretly  preparing  for  two  years,  and  in  1817  General  San  Martin 
led  across  the  Andes  an  army  of  5,000  Argentine  soldiers, 
largely  recruited  from  the  hardy  plainsmen  and  cowboys.  This 
little  force  of  rough-riders,  by  defeating  the  Spanish  troops  in  the 
battle  of  Chacabuco,  gave  independence  to  the  Chilean  people. 
San  Martin  was  also  successful  against  the  Spaniards  in  Peru, 
entering  Lima  as  a  liberator  in  1821.  Though  urged  to  take  the 
civil  government  of  the  countries  he  had  freed,  this  soldier  of 
splendid  quality  refused  the  rewards,  honors,  and  offices  of  civil 
life,  which  men  fulfilling  similar  missions  in  other  countries  have 
almost  without  exception  consented  to  receive. 

While  the  patriotic  army  gloriously  ended  their  campaign  on 
the  Pacific,  ambitious  leaders  had  converted  the  country  at  home 
into  various  feudal  dependencies,  which  were  at  war  with  one 
another.  The  government,  being  powerless  to  contend  with  the 
factions,  dissolved,  leaving  the  provinces  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. This  picture  of  savagery  discouraged  San  Martin,  who, 
upon  his  return  from  his  campaign,  despairing  of  seeing  the  return 
of  order  and  peace  in  the  new  communities,  retired  to  France, 
where  he  died  some  years  later. 

The  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  had,  no  doubt,  an  exemplary 
government.  The  soul  of  it  was  Bernardino  Rivadavia,  a  mulatto 
who,  as  secretary  of  the  government,  completed  commercial 
treaties  with  England  and  other  countries,  and  obtained  in 
London,  through  the  Baring  Bank,  a  loan  of  £1,000,000,  at  6  per 
cent  interest,  which  was  totally  covered  at  the  fixed  rate  of  70 
per  cent.  He  also  interested  some  small  English  capitalists  in  the 
enterprise  of  sending  over  the  first  herds  of  fine  cattle. 

Rivadavia  also  founded  a  bank  of  discount  and  for  the  issue 
of  paper  money,  which  began  its  operations  with  an  issue  of 
$290,000,  the  first  Argentine  currency. 


ARGENTINA  183 

But  the  half-civilized  conditions  continued  in  the  rest  of  the 
country,  though  the  leaders  of  emancipation  tried  to  reunite  the 
provinces  under  national  control,  naming  Rivadavia  as  President. 
Here  we  encounter  the  origin  of  the  two  great  political  parties  in 
the  history  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  one  being  the  Unitary, 
which  favored  a  strong  central  government,  in  opposition  to  the 
localism  of  the  Federals,  or  State-Rights  party. 

Rivadavia  advanced  his  epoch,  and  to  him  Argentina  owes 
many  progressive  ideas,  among  others  the  governmental  owner- 
ship of  the  land  and  the  natural  sources  of  wealth.  He  carried  on 
great  works  of  public  utility,  employing  the  funds  obtained  from 
Baring  Bank  to  found  schools,  universities,  a  national  bank,  hos- 
pitals, and  other  benevolent  institutions.  However,  he  could  not 
triumph  over  the  local  rivalries,  and,  discouraged,  like  San  Martin, 
gave  up  the  government,  which  dissolved  immediately,  having 
been  unable  to  crush  out  anarchy,  which  now  broke  out  more 
furiously  than  ever.  The  discount  bank  of  the  Province  of  Buenos 
Aires  had  been  changed  to  a  national  bank,  and  its  issue  of  paper 
money  now  rose  to  $2,700,000,  yet  the  ]jayment  of  the  debt  to 
Baring  Bank  had  not  even  been  commenced. 

The  new  Empire  of  Brazil,  heir  to  the  Portuguese  policy  in 
South  America,  expected  to  reach  the  river  Plata  and  to  dominate 
Montevideo,  the  capital  of  the  Repu])lic  of  Uruguay.  Buenos 
Aires,  which  had  inherited  at  the  same  time  the  Spanish  secular 
views,  notwithstanding  that  it  was  itself  menaced  by  anarchy, 
aided  the  Republic  of  Uruguay  to  obtain  its  independence  from 
Brazil  in  a  war  which  lasted  three  years,  and  whose  chief  purpose 
was  to  drive  out  the  Brazilians  from  the  Plata  (1828). 

The  anarchical  wars  had  reduced  considerably  the  masculine 
part  of  the  population,  which  in  1810  numbered  half  a  million,  the 
fourth  part  of  which  were  quadroons  descended  from  half-breeds, 
mulattoes,  and  negroes.  A  leader  unbalanced  and  fierce,  Juan 
Manuel  de  Rozas,  chief  of  the  federals,  now  assumed  command, 
and  pleased  himself  with  collecting  the  savage  negroes  of  the 
population,  some  40,000,  recently  emancipated  slaves,  nearly  all  in 
the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  bringing  about  the  exile  of  the 
cultivated  and  industrious  elements,  who  took  refuge  mostly  in 
the  Republic  of  Uruguay  and  in  Chile.  The  reckless  spirit  that 
during  25  years  reigned  in  all  the  local  military  dictatorships  had 
ended  in  destroying  the  mining  and  wine-making  industries  that 
the  Spanish  colonies  had  started  in  the  interior. 

The  dij)lomats  of  Europe,  acknowledging  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
hastened  to  recognize  the  self-styled  Republic.     In  1829  England 


184  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

recognized  the  independence  of  the  new  country  and  entered  into 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  tyrant  Rozas.  The  final  recognition 
of  it  by  Spain  in  1842  completed  the  assurance  of  the  leaders, 
who,  confident  of  their  independence,  had  now  no  other  idea  but 
to  destroy  each  other. 

Of  all  the  old  provinces  of  the  ancient  A^iceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Aires,  the  only  one  which  prospered  through  these  years  was  the 
new  Republic  of  Paraguay,  in  reality  an  absolute  kingdom  at  the 
mercy  of  the  powerful  will  of  the  tyrant  dictator  Francia.  Its 
independence  was  recognized  by  Europe  and  Brazil  but  not  by 
Buenos  Aires,  and  this  made  it  impossible  for  Paraguay  to  enlarge 
its  outside  commerce,  as  its  only  outlet  to  the  sea  was  by  way  of 
sailing  850  miles  on  the  rivers  Parana  and  Plata.  This  obliged 
them  to  pass  in  front  of  Buenos  Aires  with  all  their  export  and 
import  traffic. 

Because  Rozas  at  Buenos  Aires  could  close  the  natural  chan- 
nels and  hinder  the  traffic  of  Paraguay  with  Brazil  and  Europe, 
the  English  and  French  governments  decided  in  1845  to  establish 
a  blockade  of  Buenos  Aires  and  open  to  free  navigation  the 
Parana,  and  thus  assure  international  communication  with  Para- 
guay. This  blockade  lasted  two  years,  and  in  1847  the  English 
fleet  abandoned  the  waters  of  the  Plata.  During  these  two  years 
the  English  officials  tried  to  excite  the  settlers  of  Buenos  Aires  to 
rise  against  the  tyrant  Rozas,  but  they  were  weak  and  timid  and 
did  not  think  they  could  free  themselves  without  the  help  of  the 
exiled  patriots  and  their  allies.  Various  attempts  had  been  made 
to  expel  Rozas  but  without  success,  until,  understanding  that  the 
problem  was  not  local  but  national,  they  united  with  the  expatriated 
from  other  i)rovinces,  and  counting  on  the  help  of  the  dictator  who 
ruled  the  province  of  Entre  Rios- (separated  from  Buenos  Aires  by 
the  Parana  River)  and  with  the  aid  of  the  troops  sent  by  the  Empire 
of  Brazil,  they  deposed  Rozas  and  instituted  the  national  govern- 
ment with  its  capital  in  the  city  of  Parana,  province  of  Entre  Rios. 
Then,  taught  by  experience,  the  people  resolved  to  safeguard  their 
rights  and  privileges  for  the  future.  On  25  May  1853,  a  Constitu- 
tion, closely  resembling  that  of  the  LTnited  States,  was  formed, 
with  some  modifications,  particularly  in  regard  to  civil  legislation 
which  is  national  and  not  provincial,  and  the  United  Provinces  of 
Rio  de  la  Plata  took  the  name  of  Argentine  Republic  (from  the 
Latin  Argentum,  silver). 

Here  began  a  period  of  national  reconstruction  and  the 
normalization  of  the  provincial  autonomies.  The  country  entered 
into  commercial  treaties  with  various  European  countries  and 


ARGENTINA  185 

with  Brazil,  and  began  to  pay  the  Baring  Bank  of  London  the 
accumulated  interest  and  collateral  on  the  loan  obtained  by  Riva- 
davia  25  years  before.  The  national  bank,  founded  by  Rivadavia 
and  converted  into  a  mint  by  Rozas,  became  the  Provincial  Bank 
of  Buenos  Aires. 

The  ensuing  years  witnessed  some  jiractical  advances,  such  as 
the  inter-provincial  telegraph,  the  construction  of  the  first  rail- 
road, and  communications  by  steamboat  between  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  and  Europe,  reducing  to  40  or  50  days  the  passage  which 
up  to  this  time  had  taken  three  or  four  months  by  sailing  vessels. 

But  the  incipient  economic  interests  had  not  yet  much  politi- 
cal representation.  Personal  rivalries  among  the  commanders  of 
the  army,  and  the  troublesome  pride  of  Buenos  Aires,  jealous  at 
seeing  the  national  caj^ital  in  the  city  of  Parana,  separated  that 
province  from  the  rest  of  the  confederacy,  and  civil  war  began 
once  more,  hindering  the  steps  of  real  progress  which  had  been 
taken.  After  various  bloody  battles,  in  1861,  the  hegemony  of 
Buenos  Aires  threatened  the  integrity  of  the  rest  of  the  country 
and  the  provisional  capital  was  moved  to  that  city.  But  the 
aggressions  of  the  tyrant  Solano  Lopez,  dictator  of  Paraguay,  a 
country  which  had  been  formed  under  the  fiercest  of  the  dictator- 
ships which  the  people  of  the  south  had  been  subjected  to,  had 
forced  Brazil  to  war.  The  invasions  into  the  Argentine  territory 
by  Paraguayan  armies,  which  moved  toward  the  Republic  of  Uru- 
guay with  a  view  to  assuring  an  outlet  to  the  ocean,  provoked  the 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  of  Brazil  with  the  republics  of 
Uruguay  and  Argentina,  which  brought  on  a  devastating  war  that 
lasted  five  years,  and  in  which  70,000  combatants  took  part.  Its 
outcome  was  the  complete  overthrow  of  Paraguay,  whose  male 
population  was  reduced  to  one-tenth. 

Already  the  Argentine  government  had  become  suspicious  of 
the  policy  of  Chile,  a  country  less  democratic  than  its  neighbors, 
who  found  themselves  exhausted  by  civil  and  other  wars.  Chile 
manifested  a  strong  inclination  to  obtain  ports  on  the  Atlantic 
side  of  Patagonia.  Notwithstanding  the  complete  victory  over 
Paraguay,  the  Argentine  government  asserted  the  doctrine  thai 
''  victory  does  not  give  rights,"  and  offered  to  submit  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  President  Hayes  of  the  United  States  the  question  of 
the  boundaries  of  Paraguay,  thus  making  an  honorable  precedent 
in  international  policy. 

The  costs  of  the  war  with  Paraguay  were  defrayed  by  a  loan 
contracted  with  the  Bank  of  London.  The  honorable  arrangement 
which  in  1854  the  government  had  proposed  to  the  Baring  Bank 


186  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  pay  the  debt  made  in  1825  had  aroused  English  capitalists,  who 
not  only  covered  the  loan  for  the  war  but  also  organized  railroad 
and  marine  transportation  companies. 

The  continuous  issue  of  fiat  money  had  depreciated  the  cur- 
rency to  an  extreme  limit  so  that  the  rate  of  exchange  was  27 
pesos  to  one  gold  dollar.  In  1867  the  Provincial  Bank  established 
the  rate  of  exchange  at  the  fixed  point  of  one  dollar  gold  for  25 
paper,  and  vice  versa. 

The  war,  notwithstanding  its  epidemics  and  miseries,  did  not 
wholly  check  the  progress  of  civilization.  The  struggle  with  the 
foreigner  united  the  confederate  provinces  against  Buenos  Aires, 
which,  though  politically  allied  to  the  rest  of  the  country,  socially 
still  felt  itself  aloof.  At  the  same  time  the  influx  of  British  capital 
and  the  entrance  of  some  thousands  of  immigrants  changed  this 
feeling  a  little.  Meanwhile  citizens  who  were  enthusiastic  admir- 
ers of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  endeavored  to  make  this 
the  general  opinion,  and  in  1868  a  pacific  presidential  election  took 
place  in  Argentina,  resulting  in  the  choice  of  Domingo  Sarmiento, 
who  was  at  that  time  the  Argentine  Minister  in  Washington.  He 
was  devoted  to  the  progress  of  civilization  in  South  America, 
through  schools  and  industries.  He  established  throughout  the 
country  compulsory  and  free  public  schools,  and  inviting  normal 
teachers  and  scientists  from  the  United  States  and  Germany,  he 
founded  institutions  of  scientific  and  general  culture  and  strength- 
ened the  sway  of  the  national  Lyceums,  instituted  by  his  prede- 
cessor. General  Mitre,  and  established  in  all  the  provinces.  Sar- 
miento obtained  from  the  Bank  of  London  $5,200,000  gold,  which 
he  employed  in  public  works. 

Faith  in  the  progress  of  the  country  had  grown  much  firmer 
through  the  fact  of  the  peaceful  presidential  election.  People 
^^0>  trusted  in  personal  and  property  guarantees,  and  the  rural  indus- 
tries, using  wire  fences  to  inclose  pastures,  passed  from  the 
nomadic  and  route  systems  which  the  cowboy  had  opened  up  to 
civilization.  But  the  adventurous  element  of  the  low  class,  result 
of  the  mixed  races,  and  composed  of  uncultured  men,  asserted 
their  rights  to  political  equality,  stirred  up  provincial  revolutions 
and  uprisings  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  placing  again  in  con- 
stant uncertainty  industry  and  commerce,  and  checking  immigra- 
tion. Yet  through  it  all  the  new  modes  of  communication,  and  the 
work  of  Sarmiento  little  by  little  made  stable  the  growth  of 
civilization. 

As  a  result  of  wars  and  revolutions  the  scourge  of  cholera  for 
two  years  decimated  the  country  and  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever. 


ARGENTINA  187 

brought  from  Brazil,  in  its  turn  for  a  third  time  destroyed  the 
population  on  the  banks  of  the  Plata,  whose  death  rate  remained 
for  years  about  45  per  thousand.  In  1873,  the  population  of  the 
city  of  Buenos  Aires  was  about  220,000,  almost  all  whites;  the 
whole  population  of  the  country  was  about  2,000,000,  nearly  a 
third  part  of  them  half-breeds.  Stability  of  money  was  impos- 
sible, and  the  Provincial  Bank  closed  its  office  of  exchange.  The 
wars  of  independence,  revolutions,  and  uprisings  during  the  period 
of  anarchy  and  tyranny,  the  war  with  Paraguay,  and  the  civil 
wars  had  reduced  considerably  the  masculine  part  among  the 
Creoles,  half-breeds,  and  negroes,  so  that  the  feminine  element 
made  alliances  with  the  European  immigrants. 

But  the  foreigner,  who  was  indifferent  to  the  quarrels  of  the 
political  leaders  and  to  the  depreciation  of  paper  money,  which 
had  fallen  to  the  ratio  of  30  to  1,  entered  heartily  into  agriculture 
which  had  recently  shown  unusual  results,  and  the  political  lead- 
ers became  uncertain  of  a  field  for  their  propaganda,  warlike  and 
personal. 

Withal  they  had  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  capital,  up  to  that 
date  provisionally  located  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  which  was 
also  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  In  1880,  because 
of  the  presidential  election,  the  national  government,  which  was 
beginning  to  organize  its  small  army  in  the  conquest  of  the  desert, 
reducing  the  nomadic  tribes  which  existed  in  those  regions,  and 
which  had  extended  the  railroads  to  the  distant  provinces,  and 
increased  the  schools,  was  violently  expelled  by  the  government 
of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  which,  with  the  help  of  the  party 
preponderant  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  headed  by  Ex-President 
Mitre,  resisted  the  entrance  of  the  national  forces.  After  many 
bloody  combats,  however,  the  national  forces  triumphed  and  fixed 
forever  the  national  capital  at  Buenos  Aires. 

The  government  of  Buenos  Aires  province  removed  its  capi- 
tal in  1882,  founding  the  city  of  I^a  Plata  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
of  that  name,  57  kilometers  from  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires.  The 
founding  of  this  city  of  La  Plata  cost  $30,000,000. 

After  the  Paraguay  war  the  two  political  parties  ceased  to 
exist.  This  gave  rise  to  the  founding  of  personalistic  parties 
named  for  their  leaders.  After  having  lost  the  city  of  Buenos 
Aires  in  1880  the  party  of  Mitre  retreated  from  the  electoral  strug- 
gle, and  their  chief.  General  Mitre,  devoted  himself  to  literature 
and  high  politics,  becoming  a  famous  figure  in  the  nation,  and 
popular  with  the  masses,  on  account  of  his  daily  paper  La  Nacion, 
which    united    the    characteristics    of    the    English    daily    and 


188  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

French  review.  The  electoral  withdrawal  of  the  Metristas  gave 
opportunity  to  the  party  of  Federal  origin,  which  was  under  the 
control  of  General  Boca,  who  was  then  President  of  the  Kepublic, 
to  take  possession  of  all  government  positions,  both  national  and 
provincial. 

Chile,  having  defeated  Peru  and  taken  from  it  the  provinces  of 
Tacna  and  Arica,  now  raised  the  question  of  the  boundaries  along 
the  rid^e  of  the  Andes.  Being  short  of  squadrons  and  provisions 
to  defend  the  desert  coast  of  Patagonia  and  the  valleys  of  the 
Andes,  the  Argentine  government  ceded  a  part  and  recognized  the 
claim  of  Chile  to  part  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego ;  and  by 
common  agreement  both  governments  left  out  the  surveying  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  land,  thus  allaying  fears  of  a  new  war. 

Although  in  the  hands  of  the  party  of  Federal  origin  and 
under  a  Federal  constitution,  the  national  government  adopted  as 
its  own  the  programme  of  centralization  laid  down  by  Rivadavia, 
the  founder  of  the  Unitary  party,  and  continued  somewhat  the 
work  of  progress  begun  by  Sarmiento.  They  secured  another  loan 
from  the  Baring  Bank  for  $12,000,000,  gold,  at  the  rate  of  90  per 
cent  and  at  1  per  cent  interest,  to  be  used  in  railroad  extension. 
Two  years  later,  in  1882,  they  obtained  another  loan  of  $9,000,000, 
gold,  at  the  rate  of  84  per  cent  and  5  per  cent  interest,  to  found  a 
national  bank,  and  immediately  Parliament  authorized  another 
loan  of  $20,000,000,  gold,  for  public  schools. 

The  conquest  of  the  desert  and  the  reduction  of  the  Indian 
tribes  was  followed  by  great  prosperity,  enriching  the  government 
by  the  possession  of  millions  of  square  miles  of  excellent  ground 
for  pasture.  These  most  valuable  regions  were  divided  among  the 
military  who  had  made  the  campaign  of  the  desert,  and  govern- 
ment politicians.  The  increase  of  immigration,  which  was  now 
about  100,000  a  year,  in  most  part  northern  Spaniards  and  north- 
ern Italians,  attracted  by  the  advertisements  of  free  lands  and  the 
advantages  offered  by  the  government,  and  the  investments  of  for- 
eign capital  in  railroad  companies  and  public  improvements  in  the 
cities  of  La  Plata  and  Buenos  Aires,  inflated  considerably  the  price 
of  land  in  the  hands  of  the  military  and  government  leaders.  In 
less  than  one  year  it  doubled  in  price.  The  national  government 
continued  to  ask  for  loans  from  the  Bank  of  London,  and  again 
obtained  $20,000,000,  gold,  at  6  per  cent  interest,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  port  at  Buenos  Aires.  In  1886  another  loan  was  made  of 
$42,000,000,  gold,  at  80  per  cent  rate  and  at  5  per  cent  interest,  to 
unify  diverse  loans  for  public  works. 


ARGENTINA  189 

In  these  conditions  the  military,  in  great  part  made  up  of 
half-breeds  and  quadroons,  enriched  by  the  gain  of  their  desert 
conquests,  and  by  the  prodigality  with  which  the  London  bankers 
loaned  money  to  the  government,  outshone  the  old,  cultured,  and 
quiet  well-to-do  people  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  other  centres.  The 
latter  were  descendants  of  the  patriots  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  of  the  exiled  patricians,  yet  they  were  overshadowed 
by  the  new  military  plutocracy,  who  had  no  thought  but  ostenta- 
tion, and  were  destitute  of  all  idea  of  duty,  civic  and  social.  They 
simply  centred  in  Buenos  Aires  to  enjoy  life  in  pseudo-Parisian 
style. 

In  1886  the  government,  hindered  by  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing more  loans  in  London,  abolished  the  law  of  *'  conversion,"  and 
began  again  to  issue  millions  of  fiat  money,  thus  giving  a  chance 
to  stock  jobbing,  and  producing  an  extreme  instability  of  currency, 
which  in  1889  had  a  relation  of  five  pesos  to  one  gold  dollar.  At 
that  time  the  fiat  money  reached  the  sum  of  $80,200,000.  The  Lon- 
don bankers  had  not  only  been  beguiled  into  loaning  money  to  the 
national  government,  but  had  also  made  loans  to  provincial  and 
municipal  governments  to  the  extent  of  $80,000,000  in  gold,  which 
was  largely  embezzled  by  the  intermediaries  in  Europe  and  the 
retainers  of  the  authorities  of  those  centres. 

In  the  Pan-American  Congress  held  at  Washington  in  1889, 
the  Argentine  representatives,  fearing  the  interpretation  Blaine 
gave  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  ''America  for  the  Americans,"  would 
be  ratified  by  the  Congress,  declared  as  the  Argentine  sentiment, 
''America  for  Humanity,"  expressing  the  Argentine  inheritance 
of  blood  and  of  interests  through  the  mixtures  of  the  Spanish, 
English,  French,  and  Italian  races,  and  its  independence  of  the 
rest  of  the  American  continent  outside  of  its  own  boundaries. 

Argentina  now  had  more  than  $500,000,000  English  capital 
invested  in  the  country  and  more  than  a  half  a  million  Italian  citi- 
zens. Political  and  administrative  corruption,  however,  seemed  to 
know  no  bounds.  Fiat  money  reached  $197,000,000,  making  the 
national  dollar  less  than  30  cents,  gold,  and  the  credit  of  the 
country  was  compromised  in  loans  of  more  than  $300,000,000,  gold, 
covered  by  mortgages  on  its  inalienable  property  and  interests, 
which  amounted  to  more  than  40  per  cent  of  its  estimated  wealth. 

The  inaction  of  public  opinion  and  the  lack  of  any  party  of 
opposition  moved  the  young  men  of  the  universities  and  those  in 
active  business  to  form  a  protesting  party  — ' '  The  National  Civic 
Union," — which  in  a  few  months  after  its  founding  conspired 
with  some  of  the  chiefs  and  officials  of  the  army  and  navy,  and 


190  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

incited  mutinies  and  mobs  which  drove  the  President,  in  1890,  to 
resign  his  position.  The  Vice-President,  Dr.  Pellegrini,  a  man  of 
great  energy  and  capacity,  but  lacking  political  tact,  remained  in 
office  and  partly  quelled  the  provincial  revolutions.  Meanwhile, 
the  personalist  leaders,  reviving  the  traditions  of  the  old  parties. 
Federal  and  Unitary,  separated  the  elements  which  formed  the 
young  party  of  the  Civic  Union. 

The  national  government  had  to  ask  delay  from  the  European 
banks,  and  finally  the  National  Bank  with  the  Provincial  Bank  of 
Buenos  Aires  failed.  The  Argentine  credit  was  completely  lost, 
immigration  ceased  as  well  as  the  coming  in  of  foreign  capital; 
public  service  became  uncertain.  Money  was  wanted  to  prosecute 
public  improvements  and  education.  The  country  found  itself 
exhausted,  and  again  threatened  by  Chile,  which  had  recently 
come  out  of  a  cruel  civil  war,  the  only  one  in  its  histor}',  and 
rapidly  and  cleverly  militarized  under  the  direction  of  German 
officials.  Now  Chile  wanted  the  boundaries  on  the  Andean  frontier 
to  be  made  at  once.  As  the  interest  of  English  and  Italians  were 
great  in  Argentina  the  danger  of  war  opened  again  an  opportunity 
for  credit  to  improve  the  national  defence,  and  the  government 
spent  more  than  $100,000,000,  gold,  in  forming  a  modern  navy, 
making  strategic  lines  and  military  posts,  and  purchasing  mili- 
tary supplies.  During  this  time  agriculture  and  stock-raising 
prospered  and  in  a  few  years  doubled  the  exportation.  But  again 
the  instability  of  the  fiat  money,  which  originated  the  stock  job- 
bing in  the  Stock  Exchange  of  Buenos  Aires,  was  a  grave  cause  of 
discredit  and  checked  immigration.  The  working  classes  organ- 
ized themselves  in  labor  unions  and  formed  a  socialist  party.  This 
called  elements  of  leadership  from  university  students  and  young 
professional  men,  particularly  doctors. 

The  government  in  1891  founded  the  Bank  of  the  Nation  and 
offered  to  the  public  a  subscription  for  $250,000,000,  to  be  used  as 
its  capital.  The  public  did  not  respond  to  any  extent  and  the  gov- 
ernment only  saved  the  situation  by  resorting  again  to  the  issue 
of  fiat  money.  In  1892  the  government  founded  the  ''  Caja  de 
Conversion  "  (Exchange  office)  and  in  1899  modified  its  organiza- 
tion, forming  a  reserve  fund  to  change  the  bills  in  circulation  at 
the  price  fixed  by  law  of  44  cents,  gold,  to  one  peso,  and  pledging 
themselves  to  set  aside  gold  corresponding  to  this  price  for  each 
new  issue.    See  Banking  and  Finance. 

Disquietude  over  the  boundaries  of  Chile  and  the  costs  occa- 
sioned by  it,  did  not  disappear  till  1902,  when  the  differences  were 
referred  to  and  settled  by  the  King  of  England,  followed  by  a 


ARGENTINA  191 

treaty  of  partial  disarmament,  signed  in  Buenos  Aires,  in  1904,  the 
only  instance  of  the  kind  in  the  history  of  jjeace,  and  which 
reflected  great  honor  on  both  peoples.  AVith  this  act  the  Argentine 
nation  assured  forever  its  international  policy  of  peace,  and  gave 
an  impetus  to  the  progress  of  civilization.  She  now  felt  sure  of 
her  destiny. 

The  hard  experience  during  a  decade  of  complicity  between 
some  national  and  local  leaders  and  European  bankers  which 
endangered  and  discredited  the  country,  and  another  decade  of 
anxieties  and  expenses  for  the  national  defence,  moved  Argentine 
opinion  to  sustain  the  Calv^o  doctrine,  proposed  by  Drago  and 
upheld  by  the  Argentine  representative,  in  the  Pan-American 
Congress  at  Rio  Janeiro,  in  1906,  according  to  which  the  new 
nations  have  a  right  to  rejnidiate  the  debts  contracted  with  for- 
eign banks  which  enter  into  treaties  and  plots  with  the  reckless 
heads  of  government.  This  was  opposed  to  the  Roosevelt  doc- 
trine according  to  which  payments  of  debts  contracted  by  the 
agents  of  those  in  authority  are  to  be  coerced  from  the  defrauded 
people. 

The  rare  coincidence  of  the  almost  simultaneous  disappear- 
ance of  the  men  who  were  most  prominent  in  politics  —  Ex-Presi- 
dent General  Bartolome  Mitre,  Ex-President  Dr.  Carlos  Pelligrini, 
President  Dr.  Manuel  Quinta,  Ex-Governor  Dr.  Barnardo  Trigoyen 
—  whose  deaths  occurred  in  1906,  left  the  party  of  opposition 
without  leaders,  and  the  old  political  Unitary  organization  changed 
its  name,  substituting  for  it  *'  The  National  Autonomistic  Party," 
directed  by  Ex-President  Julio  A.  Roca. 

In  1906  Dr.  Figueroa  Alcorta  was  elected  President.  Serious 
disturbances  occurred  during  the  first  week  of  May  1909,  in  con- 
sequence of  labor  troubles  and  anarchist  agitation.  On  13  March 
1910  Dr.  Roque  Saenz  Pena  was  the  successful  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  Two  months  later  Buenos  Aires  was  thrown  into 
great  confusion  by  an  attempt  to  call  out  a  general  strike.  The 
one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  the  nation  was  cele- 
brated 25  May.  Diplomatic  relations  between  Argentina  and 
Bolivia,  which  had  been  interrupted  as  a  result  of  boundary  dis- 
putes, were  resumed  in  January  1911,  through  the  good  offices  of 
the  United  States.  In  November  1913  Colonel  Roosevelt,  Ex-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  visited  the  Argentine  Republic.  On  9 
Feb.  1914  the  ministry  resigned,  after  President  Saenz  Pena,  who 
had  been  ill  for  a  long  time,  turned  over  his  functions  to  the  vice- 
president.  Dr.  Victorino  de  la  Plaza.  On  25  April,  four  days  after 
the  United  States  had  inaugurated  hostilities  at  Vera  Cruz,  diplo- 


192  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

matie  representatives  at  Washington,  D.  C,  of  the  "A.  B.  C." 
powers,  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Chile,  offered  to  act  as  mediators 
between  the  American  and  Mexican  governments  (See  Mexico  — 
History.)  In  1915  the  first  actual  treaty  between  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  Chile,  signed  at  Buenos  Aires  25  May,  provided  for 
five  years  of  peace  between  the  three  nations,  during  which  time 
each  of  said  nations  was  pledged  not  to  make  war  on  either  of  the 
others  until  the  causes  of  conflict'  should  have  been  investigated 
and  reported  upon  by  an  impartial  commission.  Independence 
Day  was  celebrated  with  special  ceremonies  —  that  being  the 
centenary  —  on  9  July  1916. 

Argentina,  after  more  than  80  years  of  distracted  political  life 
hindering  its  development,  has  succeeded  in  the  last  25  years  in 
establishing  its  prominence  among  the  young  nations,  and  in 
bringing  to  itself  immigrants  from  the  European  races.  See 
International  Claims  against  Latin-America,  p.  66. 

Bibliography 

Bilbao,  M.,  Buenos  Aires  desde  su  Fundacion  (Buenos  Aires  1902) ;  GKias- 
tavino,  J.  E.,  San  Martin  y  Simon  Bolivar  (Buenos  Aires  1913) ;  Mitre,  B.,  Archive 
del  General  Mitre  (Buenos  Aires  1911-1913),  Historia  de  Belgrano  y  de  la  Inde- 
pendencia  Argentina  (Buenos  Aires  1887)  and  The  Emancipation  of  South  America 
(London  1893);  Sarmiento,  D.  F.,  Obras  (Paris  1895-1909).  See  also 
Bibliographies  under  Agriculture,  Banking  and  Finance,  Government,  etc. 


THE  GOVERNMENT 

Bv  Ernesto  Nelson 

The  form  of  government  of  Argentina  is  a  representative 
republican-federal  one,  modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  and  in  accordance  with  its  historical  antecedents 
every  province  keeps  its  own  peculiar  autonomy,  drawing  up  its 
own  constitution,  fixing  the  number  of  its  magistrates,  the  organ- 
ization of  its  municipalities,  and  administering  its  property  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  National  Government. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  an  officer  bearing  the  title  of 
President  of  the  Nation.  The  terms  of  office  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  are  six  years,  and  they  cannot  be  re-elected  until 
after  the  passing  of  a  presidential  period.  The  Ministers  are 
eight:  Interior,  Foreign  Relations  and  Worship,  Treasury,  Jus- 
tice and  Public  Instruction,  War,  Navy,  Public  Works,  and  Agri- 
culture, Industry,  and  Commerce. 


ARGENTINA  193 

The  legislative  pow  er  is  vested  in  two  bodies  or  chambers,  that 
of  the  Deputies  and  that  of  the  Senators.  The  former  are  elected 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  people,  and  the  latter  by  the  legis- 
latures of  the  provinces,  thus  ensuring  two  senators  for  each  fed- 
eral State,  and  two  senators  for  the  capital  elected  by  the  people. 

The  Judiciary  is  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  Fed- 
eral Chambers  of  Appeal  in  the  capital  and  also  in  the  cities 
Cordoba,  Parana  and  La  Plata;  federal  courts  in  the  capital  and 
throughout  the  provinces  and  territories ;  Chambers  of  Appeal  in 
the  capital  for  civil,  commercial,  criminal  and  correctional  cases. 
Each  province  has  its  own  judicial  system  with  a  Supreme  Court 
and  several  minor  courts.  Penal,  civil,  commercial  and  military 
laws  are  national  laws,  uniform  throughout  the  Republic  and  codi- 
fied under  national  codes.  The  provinces  can  only  enact  such  laws 
of  procedure  as  do  not  affect  the  national  laws. 

The  seat  of  the  National  Government  is  Buenos  Aires,  the  fed- 
eral capital  of  the  Republic.  The  national  territories  are  ruled  by 
governors  appointed  by  the  Executive  Power,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate. 

The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  elected  by  the  people.  For- 
eign citizens  can  hold  real  estate. 

Article  14  of  the  Constitution  provides  for  the  absolute 
freedom  of  the  people  of  the  nation  in  the  exercise  of  their  reli- 
gious faith. 

There  is  no  State  religion  though  in  accordance  with  the  Con- 
stitution the  State  contributes  to  the  support  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic religion,  the  expenses  of  which  are  about  $1,000,000  in  gold 
per  year ;  but  it  likewise  contributes  aid  for  the  support  of  educa- 
tional or  charitable  institutions  established  by  other  denomina- 
tions.   In  1884  civil  marriage  was  established. 

The  ecclesiastical  government  consists  of  an  archdiocese  and 
seven  dioceses,  under  the  patronage  of  the  National  Government 
which  authorizes  or  prohibits  the  carrying  out  of  papal  decrees. 


EDUCATION 

By  Ernesto  Nelson 


As  reformed  in  March,  1916,  this  comprises  six  divisions: 

Primary  (four  years).  Intermediate  (two  years),  Secondary  (five 

years).  Normal   (four  and  seven  years),  and  Higher  education 

(from  five  to  seven  years).    The  sixth  division  includes  Industrial, 

14 


194  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Commercial  and  Education  of  the  Abnormals  and  is  called  Special 
Education.  Agricultural  education  is  partly  controlled  by  the 
universities  and  partly  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Public 
education  is  free  throughout. 

Primary  Education 

Primary  schools  are  the  concern  of  state  (provincial) 
authorities.  The  exceptions  are :  the  control  of  the  Primary 
schools  of  the  Federal  city  of  Buenos  Aires  by  the  National  Board 
of  Education,  and  a  system  of  subsidies  by  the  federal 
government  for  the  benefit  of  certain  provinces  whose  finances 
are  not  equal  to  the .  needs  of  primary  education.  In  1894 
there  were  3,000  primary  schools,  public  and  private,  which 
increased  during  the  next  20  years  to  7,877  schools;  likewise  did 
the  teaching  force  of  these  schools  grow^  from  7,800  to  over 
26,000  teachers,  80  per  cent  of  whom  are  women.  The  pupils 
attending  the  primary  schools  in  1894  numbered  280,000,  whereas 
in  1914  the  attendance  increased  to  900,000  pupils.  The  expendi- 
tures incurred  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools  rose  sixfold. 
Population  increased  less  than  twofold  during  that  period. 

Secondary  Education  '    . 

Secondary  education  was  originally  shaped  after  European 
models,  but  the  schools  are  already  responding  to  the  modern 
demands  of  democracy.  From  mere  preparatory  institutions  for 
the  university  they  are  fast  becoming  schools  of  advanced  educa- 
tion to  an  increasing  number  of  men  and  women.  In  1894  the 
students  in  secondary  colleges  numbered  3,000,  which  number  rose 
to  10,000  in  1914,  the  expenses  being  increased  from  $400,000  to 
$2,500,000.  There  are  33  of  such  lyceums  (16  in  1894)  eight  of 
which  are  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  (only  one  in  1894). 
Secondary  education  is  not  compulsory. 

Normal  Education 

Normal  schools  are  for  primary  teachers  and  for  secondary 
teachers.  There  are  also  special  institutions  for  teachers  of 
modern  languages  and  of  physical  training.  Normal  schools 
for  primary  teachers  numbered  70  in  1914  (10  of  which  were 
in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires)  with  an  enrollment  of  8,970  students, 
about  six  times  those  enrolled  20  years  before.    They  offer  a 


ARGENTINA  195 

four-year  general  course  followed  by  a  three-year  special  course 
leading  to  the  professor's  diploma.  Teachers  graduating  from 
normal  schools  are  eligible  for  positions  of  $900  a  year.  Prin- 
cipals get  from  $1,250  to  $1,500.  After  25  years  teachers  may 
retire  with  95  per  cent  of  their  salary,  provided  it  has  been 
earned  during  four  years  and  also  that  the  candidate  is  more 
than  45  years  old.  Normal  schools  for  secondary  teachers  offer 
courses  in  different  specialties  besides  the  general  courses. 
Graduates  who  secure  positions  as  teachers  in  secondary  schools 
get  from  $800  to  $3,600.  Salaries  of  principals  vary  from  $2,500 
to  $4,000  a  year.  Both  teachers  and  principals  also  retire  with 
the  95  per  cent  of  their  last  salary,  but  only  after  30  years'  work, 
the  remaining  conditions  being  equal. 

Minor  terms  of  special  study  are  required  for  qualification 
for  the  professions  of  chemist,  midwife,  dental  surgeon,  surveyor, 
and  architect. 

The  University  of  Cordoba  is  composed  of  the  school  of  med- 
icine; the  school  of  engineering;  and  the  school  of  law,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

In  order  to  follow  his  profession  in  the  country,  the  profes- 
sional graduate  of  a  foreign  university  is  obliged  to  prove  his 
ability  by  means  of  an  examination  before  some  Argentine 
university. 

Technical  Education 

Technical  education  also  is  encouraged  by  the  National 
and  Provincial  governments.  Prominent  among  those  of  the 
first  category  are  the  national  industrial  schools,  similar  in 
type  to  the  manual  training  high  schools  in  the  United  States, 
although  the  courses  cover  six  years  and  afford  specialization 
in  engineering,  architecture,  chemistry  and  mechanics.  Other 
technical  schools  of  a  vocational  type  provide  training  in 
the  various  trades.  There  are  about  15  trade  schools  for  girls 
also  under  the  control  of  the  National  government  giving  instruc- 
tion in  dressmaking,  embroidery,  millinery,  flower,  lace  and  glove 
making,  metal  work,  telegraph  operating,  drawing,  painting  and 
industrial  arts.  Several  provinces  also  have  established  schools 
similar  to  these. 

Agricultural  Education 

Agricultural  education  is  of  a  two-fold  type,  special  and 
general.  Special  or  so  called  regional  schools  look  toward  the 
education  of  future  workers  in  special  fields,  such  as  the  sugar 


196  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

industries  of  Tucuman,  the  wine  industries  of  Mendoza,  the 
lumber  industry  of  Misiones,  the  dairy  industry  of  the  Plata 
Valley,  the  fruit  industry  of  San  Juan,  and  several  other  regional 
activities.  Other  schools  provide  for  the  thorough  scientific 
instruction  underlying  all  agricultural  occupations,  and  they  are 
of  a  type  similar  to  the  agricultural  colleges  in  the  United  States. 

Commercial  Schools 

Commercial  schools  for  men  and  women  offer  courses  in 
commercial  practice  (five  years),  bookkeeping  (four  years)  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  public  accountant  (three  more  years).  A 
more  recent  addition  to  the  scope  of  the  commercial  schools  is  the 
degree  of  doctor  for  advanced  work  in  economics. 

Other  Educational  Interests 

Besides  national  schools  for  abnormal  children,  deaf,  dumb 
and  blind,  the  government  is  establishing  a  number  of  special 
schools  for  weak  children  in  need  of  fresh  air  as  well  as  moun- 
tain or  sea  side  climate.  In  connection  with  such  provisions  for 
the  health  of  children  it  is  interesting  to  mention  here  that  every 
school  child  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  is  given  a  glass  of  milk 
at  the  noon  hour.  After  15  years  of  such  practice  milk  drinking 
has  become  a  habit  among  all  classes  of  the  population,  thereby 
reducing  the  consumption  of  intoxicating  liquors. 

The  National  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  gives  free  instruction 
in  drawing,  painting,  decorative  and  industrial  arts. 

Popular  interest  in  education  is  shown  by  the  number  of 
organizations  established  either  with  the  purpose  of  studying 
educational  problems,  helping  the  schools,  or  conducting  educa- 
tional centres.  The  working  classes  themselves,  through  the 
Socialistic  Party,  have  done  considerable  good  in  organizing  lec- 
tures, educational  excursions,  and  other  elements  of  self- 
improvement. 

Education  of  women  has  made  great  progress  in  Argentina. 
In  certain  districts  primary  and  secondary  schools  are  co-educa- 
tional. Also  some  of  the  normal  schools  and  all  the  universities. 
Pedagogical  departments  are  well  patronized  by  women  who 
also  are  preeminent  in  medical  studies.  Women  take  an  active 
interest  in  social  work,  notably  through  the  remarkable  Philan- 
thropic Association,  which  although  recognized  and  endowed  by 
the  National  government  is  practically  under  the  management 


ARGENTINA  197 

of  a  woman's  board.  Women  are  active  in  education  and  have 
also  done  much  to  bring  the  child-saving  agencies  to  the  present 
state  of  efficiency. 

The  National  government,  as  well  as  some  of  the  provinces, 
maintains  numerous  scholarships  to  support  Argentine  students 
in  England,  the  United  States,  Canada,  Italy,  France,  and  Ger- 
many. Those  in  the  United  States  number  about  50,  and  as 
many  more  are  supported  by  their  own  means  or  enjoy  private 
scholarships;  they  are  principally  engaged  in  studying  engineer- 
ing, agriculture,  and  commerce. 

No  fewer  than  300  young  Argentinos  are  attending  courses 
in  Europe,  the  great  majority  of  them  paying  their  own  expenses. 

Bibliography 

Alberdi.  J.  B.,^)raani2aci6n  de  la  Confederaeion  Argentina  (Buenos  Aires 
IQi^XilAntokoIetz,  D.^Histoire  de  la  Diplomatie  Argentine  (Tome  1,  Paris  1914) ; 
Argentine  Republic:  General  Descriptive  Data  Prepared  by  the  Pan  American 
Union  (Washington  1916) ;  Argentine  Republic:  Statutes,  Codes  (Buenos 
Aires  1913);  Argentine  Year  Book  (10th  ed.,  1915-16,  Buenos  Aires 
1916);  Buenos  Aires:  Universidad  Naeional:  Facultad  de  Filosofia  y  Letras, 
Documentos  para  la  Historia  Argentina  (Buenos  Aires  1913-14) ;  Davis,  W.  G., 
Climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic  (Buenos  Aires  1910);  Law.  and  Regu- 
lations Respecting  General  Enrollment  in  the  Argentine  Rejmblic  (London  1913) ; 
Martinez,  A.  B.,  Baedeker  of  the  Argentine  Republic  (New  York  and  London 
1916)  ;  Nelson,  E.,  Un  Experimento  Trascendental  en  la  Educacion  Argentina 
(Buenos  Aires  1912).  See  also  Bibliographies  under  History  op  ARGENTrNA_, 
Agriculture  in  Argentina,  Banking  and  Finance  in  Argentina. 


AGRICULTURE  IN  ARGENTINA 

By  Marhion  W/lcox 

Under  this  title  we  shall  endeavor  to  treat  of  Argentine  agri- 
culture as  the  great  importance  of  the  subject  deserves,  in  the 
broadest  sense  of  the  word,  with  such  economic,  geographic, 
and  even  historic  implications  as  are,  for  the  sincerity  and 
thoroughness  of  our  study,  really  indispensable. 

The  area  of  land  under  cultivation  is  more  than  95,000  square 
miles,  and  its  chief  products  are  as  follows:  Wheat,  more  than 
105,000,000  bushels;  oats,  61,000,000  bushels;  maize,  190,000,000 
bushels;  linseed,  40,000,000  bushels;  sugar,  more  than  280,000  tons. 
Analyzing  the  statistics  for  recent  years  we  find  that  between 
16,000,000  and  17,000,000  acres  are  devoted  to  wheat,  about 
16,000,000  acres  to  alfalfa,  10,000,000  to  11,000,000  acres  to  Indian 


198  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

corn  (maize),  over  4,000,000  acres  to  linseed,  and  over  3,000,000 
acres  to  oats,  the  other  crops  being  barley,  sugar  cane,  grapes,  rice, 
potatoes,  cotton,  tobacco,  etc.  But  the  fact  is  to  be  noted  that  of  the 
somewhat  more  than  1,000,000  square  miles  embraced  in  the  Repub- 
lic more  than  one-third  (about  334,000)  are  arable.  In  other  words 
241,000  square  miles  of  the  arable  regions  remain  to  be  brought 
under  cultivation.  It  is  therefore  proper  to  regard  the  present 
output  of  cereals,  despite  its  unquestionable  importance,  as  only 
a  promise  of  the  vastly  greater  crops  which  will  be  secured  when 
the  limit   of  Argentina's  jiotential  productivity  has  been   even 


! 

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Grain    Elevators,    Bahia    Blanca,    Argentina 

approximately  attained.  Moreover  the  agricultural  system 
accepted  and  practiced  in  Argentina  at  the  present  time  is  as  far 
as  possible  removed  from  the  intensive  system,  its  aim  being 
simply  and  frankly,  and  perhaps  with  overemphasis  of  facility,  to 
obtain  the  maximum  of  profit  with  a  minimum  of  capital  and 
labor.  Compare  it  with  the  agricultural  system  of  Canada.  We 
may  call  the  former  "  extensive,"  the  latter  intensive.  Thus,  in 
Canada  the  farms  of  less  than  200  acres  constitute  88  per  cent  of 
the  total  of  holdings  of  rural  property;  in  Argentina  the  holdings 
are  relatively  large  and  it  appears  that  farms  which  best  respond  to 
the  present  conditions  of  agriculture  there  are  those  of  500  to  750 
acres.  The  capital  required  for  farming  operations  in  Canada  is 
$59.25  gold  per  hectare  (2.47  acres)  including  the  value  of  the 
land,  buildings,  and  machinery;  in  Argentina,  $27.70  gold  per 
hectare.  The  amount  produced  in  a  given  area  by  the  Argentine 
farmer  can  be  greatly  increased  whenever  it  becomes  more  profit- 
able to  cultivate  intensely  than  simply  to  extend  the  margin  of 
cultivation. 


ARGENTINA  199 

In  addition  to  the  arable  regions  we  have  to  consider  a  second 
one-third  part  of  the  entire  area  of  the  Republic  —  roughly  speak- 
ing 333,000  to  335,000  square  miles  that  can  be  utilized  for  sheep 
or  cattle  and  to  a  large  extent  already  have  been  assigned  to  the 
stock-raising  industry.  In  fact  live-stock  has  been,  from  the  early 
years  of  Spanish  colonization,  one  of  the  two  principal  sources 
from  which  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants  has  been  derived;  and 
the  figures  given  in  a  recent  census  are,  for  the  entire  country: 
80,000,000  sheep,  29,500,000  bovine  cattle,  9,700,000  horses,  452,- 
000  goats,  3,050,000  pigs,  and  920,000  asses  and  mules  —  the  esti- 
mated total  value  being  $700,000,000  gold.  The  nucleus  of  the 
supply  of  live-stock  was  derived  mainly  from  Peru  and  Spain  in 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 

The  remaining  areas  are  commonly  assumed  to  be  (in  the  agri- 
cultural sense)  unproductive;  and  as  an  illustration  or  the  most 
striking  example  of  the  worthless  section,  it'  has  been  customary 
in  the  past  to  mention  Argentine  Patagonia.  But  in  the  light  of 
recent  investigations  and  practical  experiments  we  are  enabled  to 
correct  that  erroneous  impression;  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect 
that  the  whole  subject  of  Argentine  agricultural  expansion  will  be 
revised  when  essential  new  facts,  which  would  have  been  called 
heresies  even  a  decade  or  so  ago,  are  arrayed  against  very  old  but 
wholly  unwarranted  prejudice.  Our  task  at  the  moment  is  to  set 
forth  such  essential  facts. 

Agricultural  Patagonia 

Argentine  Patagonia  is  divided  into  five  parts,  namely,  the 
Territories  of  Rio  Negro,  Neuquen,  Chubut,  Santa  Cruz,  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  whose  combined  areas  (about  775,000  square 
kilometers  or  302,250  square  miles)  exceed  the  total  area  of  Chile, 
and  constitute  between  one-third  and  one-fourth  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  Republic  of  Argentina,  or  nearly  one-twentieth  of  the 
continent  of  South  America.  A  comparatively  small  portion  of 
the  Patagonian  regions  belongs  to  Chile,  and  forms  the  Chilean 
Territory  of  Magallanes.  In  view  of  the  circumstance  that  its 
climate,  ranging  from  temperate  to  cold  (since  it  extends,  roughly 
speaking,  between  lat.  40°  S.  and  lat.  55°  S.),  favors  the  develop- 
ment of  vigorous  communities,  we  note  with  special  interest 
records  of  Patagonia's  agricultural  achievements  which  demon- 
strate the  fertility  of  the  soil,  accessibility  of  the  interior  districts, 
facilities  for  irrigation,  etc.  The  question  whether  this  distinctly 
habitable  one-twentieth  of  South  America  possesses  such  elements 


200  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  substantial  prosperity  lias  entered  a  new  phase;  and  it  is 
obviously  a  very  large  question.  The  18th  century  witnessed  a 
race  between  England  and  Spain  for  the  control  of  this  region.  In 
1774,  the  Jesuit,  Thomas  Faulkner,  having  penetrated  to  the  heart 
of  the  country,  found  the  interior  so  unexpectedly  desirable  that 
he  urged  England  to  undertake  its  conquest.  The  Spanish  govern- 
ment, when  this  project  became  known,  hastened  to  take  formal 
possession  of  the  coast  by  establishing  forts  there.  On  15  Dec. 
1778,  an  expedition  w^as  sent  from  Montevideo,  and,  after  a  voyage 
of  22  days,  a  landing  was  made  on  the  north  shore  of  Valdez  Penin- 
sula. The  bay  (a  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Matias)  where  this 
landing  was  effected  received  the  name  of  San  Jose.  Spanish 
settlements  were  established  there  and  at  Puerto  Deseado  —  the 
latter  in  what  is  to-day  the  Territory  of  Santa  Cruz.  When  Spain 
was  on  the  point  of  losing  forever  her  control  over  Argentina, 
England  decided  to  strike,  but,  aiming  first  at  the  capital, 
neglected  to  put  sufficient  force  into  the  blow  —  and  the  captured 
English  regimental  flags  are  still  to  be  seen,  in  frames  and  under 
glass,  on  the  pillars  of  S.  Domingo  church  at  Buenos  Aires.  A 
quarter  of  a  century  passed.  Argentina,  distressed  by  war  and 
political  dissensions,  was  shunned  by  nearly  all  Europeans,  except- 
ing soldiers  of  fortune.  Then,  after  1832,  the  world  received  from 
one  of  its  greatest  men  extremely  unfavorable  impressions  in 
regard  to  this  portion  of  the  Far  South.  When  Captain  Fitzroy 
on  the  Beagle  was  devoting  his  attention  to  Patagonian 
hydrography,  Charles  Darwin,  as  the  naturalist  accompanying  the 
expedition,  pursued  his  investigations  on  land.  But  inasmuch  as 
Darwin's  studies  were  in  the  main  confined  to  the  dreary  repel- 
lent wastes  of  the  littoral,  he  of  course  depicted  the  land  in  darkest 
colors  on  account  of  its  lack  of  vegetation.  To  this  condemnatory 
judgment  was  due,  in  part,  the  delay  in  colonizing  central  and 
southern  Patagonia.  Genuine  colonization  of  Central  Patagonia 
—  the  Chubut  Territory  —  began  in  the  year  18fi5.  In  1862  an 
important  emigration  society  had  been  formed  in  England  with 
the  object  of  establishing  colonies  in  Patagonia.  Two  representa- 
tives had  examined  Chubut  Valley,  and  subsequently  applied  to 
the  Argentina  minister  of  the  Interior,  Dr.  Rawson,  for  an  assign- 
ment of  national  government  lands.  In  the  name  of  the  govern- 
ment the  minister  stated  that  he  was  ready  to  give  to  each  family  of 
immigrants  an  adequate  portion  of  the  national  land.  On  28  July 
1865,  a  ship  arrived  from  Liverpool  with  153  Welshmen  on  board, 
and  in  September  of  the  same  year  Colonel  Murga,  tliereto  commis- 
sioned by  the  government,  came  to  point  out  to  the  immigrants  the 


ARGENTINA  201 

land  assigned  to  them  in  Chubut  Valley.  On  16  September  the 
colony  was  formally  established.  The  Argentina  flag  was  hoisted 
and  the  place  received  the  name  of  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
Eawson.  From  the  very  beginning  a  lack  of  means  of  subsistence 
occasioned  great  suffering.  Forty-eight  newcomers  abandoned 
the  community,  and  the  government,  whose  energies  were 
absorbed  by  the  war  with  Paraguay,  could  extend  no  aid.  For- 
tunately the  starving  Welshmen  obtained  a  little  food  from  the 
Tehuelche  Indians.  The  second  harvest  was  a  failure  because  the 
rainfall  was  insufficient.  When  the  colonists  abandoned  their 
settlement  and  betook  themselves  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  port 
of  Madryn,  Dr.  Rawson  promised  support  to  the  poor  people  and 
requested  them  to  remain  one  year  longer  in  the  colony.  There- 
upon irrigation  canals  were  cut.  At  one  stroke  the  situation 
changed.  Splendid  crops  of  wheat  were  produced.  From  the  year 
1867  onward  the  harvests  were  good,  but  communication  with  the 
outside  world  was  very  imperfect.  Application  was  made  to  the 
national  government  for  assistance  in  exporting  wheat.  New 
bands  of  Welsh  immigrants  came  in  1874  and  1875.  Chubut  wheat 
was  then  sent  to  Buenos  Aires  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  The 
colonists  established  a  s])ecies  of  autonomous  government,  electing 
for  this  i)urpose  a  council  which  consisted  of  12  members,  and 
which  promoted  the  public  interests  and  discouraged  private 
quarrels.  This  council  of  12  elected  a  president.  Thus  matters 
stood  until  1876,  when  a  commissioner  was  appointed  to  represent 
the  national  administration.  In  1881  the  inhabitants  of  Chubut 
Valley  numbered  1,000.  The  law  of  16  Oct.  1884  relating  to  the 
National  Territory  prescribed  for  Chubut  the  following  bound- 
aries :  On  the  north,  Lat.  42°  S.,  on  the  east,  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  south,  Lat.  46°  S.,  and  the  Chilean  frontier  on  the  West. 
Under  this  law  a  governor,  a  federal  judge  and  other  officials  were 
assigned  to  each  Territory.  The  first  governor  of  Chubut,  L.  J. 
Fontana,  installed  the  territorial  administration  at  Rawson. 
Grovernor  Fontana  promptly  realized  that  he  knew  nothing  about 
the  10,000  square  leagues  constituting  his  realm.  Therefore,  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  1885  he  set  out  with  30  men  to  explore  the 
Andean  valleys.  The  entire  outfit  —  provisions,  a  large  number 
of  cattle,  etc., —  had  been  supplied  by  the  participants  themselves ; 
and  the  reason  why  so  many  colonists  undertook  the  journey  was 
that  certain  friendly  Indians  had  told  them  about  the  fruitfulness 
and  beauty  of  the  Cordillera  valleys,  and  the  agreeable  climate 
prevailing  there  had  been  the  subject  of  much  praise.  The  interior 
of  Chubut  had,  indeed,  been  studied  at  certain  points  by  foreign 


202  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

geologists  and  botanists  but  not  a  word  had  been  said  about  the 
agricultural  possibilities  of  the  hinterland;  and  in  Buenos  Aires 
the  commercial  world  knew  probably  less  about  the  southern 
territories  than  did  the  people  of  Europe. 

Fontana's  expedition  reached  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras 
after  a  journey  of  three  months,  and  there  the  wanderers  discov- 
ered a  beautiful  wide  valley  which  their  leader,  in  honor  of  the 
day  on  which  the  territorial  divisions  had  been  decreed,  named 
Valle  16  de  Octobre.  A  stock-farming  colony  was  founded  there. 
Fontana  has  characterized  the  newly  discovered  regions  in  the 
south  as  follows  : — ' '  There  were  30  of  us  and  we  belonged  to  four 
different  nationalities,  yet  all  declared  to  me  unanimously  that 
they  had  seen  no  other  spot  on  earth  Avhere  nature  had  combined 
on  such  a  liberal  scale  whatever  is  necessary  for  the  welfare  of 
mankind. " 

A  word  of  explanation  is  necessary  in  regard  to  conflicting- 
accounts  of  certain  portions  of  the  Patagonian  Territories.  The 
Rio  Negro  Valley  and  Limay  region  have  been  described  by  some 
writers  as  verj^  fertile,  while  other  writers  have  represented  them 
to  be  entirely  worthless  for  agriculture.  If  a  visitor  happened  to 
come  at  the  close  of  a  rainy  season  he  found  luxuriant  vegetation ; 
whereas  another  visitor  arriving  in  time  of  drought  could  scarcely 
obtain  fodder  for  his  horse.  The  facts  that  the  wheat  grown  in 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Negro  is  as  good  as  or  better  than  the  Chubut 
wheat,  and  that  both  are  superior  to  the  wheat  grown  in  the  warm 
northern  provinces,  deserve  to  be  kept  in  mind. 

Increase  of  Agricultural  Resources 

The  assertion  has  been  made  that  the  Rio  Negro  Valley  in 
many  respects  is  like  the  Nile  Valley.  Its  total  length,  from  the 
point  where  the  Neuquen  and  Limay  rivers  unite  to  form  the 
Rio  Negro  to  the  disemboguement  of  the  latter  in  the  Atlantic,  is 
about  275  miles,  and  the  average  width  about  four  miles.  Great 
Britain's  old  ambition  to  which  we  li^ve  referred  has  in  our  own 
times  manifested  itself  in  the  construction  of  railways  and  the 
investment  of  very  large  sums  of  money  in  the  development  of  the 
country.  On  1  June  1899  the  railway  connecting  Bahia  Blanca  and 
Buenos  Aires  with  Neuquen  was  opened,  and  this  gave  ready 
access  to  region^  which  formerly  were  reached  by  long  stage- 
coach journeys.  The  English  spirit  of  daring  which  undertook 
the  extension  of  the  great  system  of  the  Southern  Railroad  merits 
recognition.     The  region  to  be  crossed  was  in  part  so  poor  that 


ARGENTINA  203 

the  prospect  of  good  financial  returns  was  frankly  admitted  to  be 
remote,  and  no  colonization  could  be  expected  to  follow  except  in 
the  Rio  Negro  Valley.  But  English  capitalists  looked  far  beyond 
the  present  and  saw  in  the  line  connecting  Bahia  Blanca  with 
Neuquen  only  the  first  half  of  the  great  Trans-Andean  route, 
which  should  supply,  for  the  products  of  South  Argentina  and 
South  Chile,  an  outlet  at  that  point  (Bahia  Blanca)  which  has,  as 
its  most  valuable  asset,  a  natural  harbor,  much  deeper  and  better 
for  large  vessels  than  the  harbor  of  any  other  place  in  the  extreme 
southeast.  As  evidence  of  the  interest  that  the  Argentine  govern- 
ment takes  in  the  southern  Territories,  we  may  mention  the  con- 
struction of  the  Patagonian  Railroad,  which  was  begun  in  1908. 
The  discover}^  of  petroleum  about  1907  near  Comodoro  Rivadavia 
is  another  factor  in  the  growing  prosperity  of  southern  or  Pata- 
gonian Argentina.  It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  the  cultivation  of 
cereals,  with  all  its  promise,  is  not  the  most  important  source  of 
wealth.  Stock-farming,  especially  sheep-farming,  dominates  here ; 
in  fact  this  region  sustains  a  relation  to  the  provinces  on  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  analogous  to  that  which  the  southwest  and  west 
in  the  United  States  held  to  the  middle  and  eastern  States  just 
after  the  Mexican  War.  The  progress  made  in  recent  years  proves 
that  these  territories  can  at  least  produce  all  that  is  requisite  for 
the  continuance  of  prosperity.  The  Territory  of  Neuquen  made 
gains  in  the  matter  of  population  (white  and  Indian  in  the  pro- 
portion of  3  to  1)  to  such  an  extent  that  it  had  recently  about 
30,000  white  inhabitants,  most  of  whom  were  Chileans,  and  about 
10,000  Indians;  and  it  was  recorded  that  these  40,000  individuals 
possessed  or  were  in  the  employ  of  those  who  possessed  195,000 
cattle,  105,000  horses,  676,000  sheep,  170,000  goats,  and  7,000  mules. 
Considering  only  one  item,  we  note  that  there  were  16.9  sheep  for 
each  man,  woman  and  child.  Some  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
plans  for  rendering  navigable  the  Santa  Cruz  River.  In  1909  a 
steamer  carrying  many  passengers  and  a  cargo  of  80  tons  suc- 
ceeded in  going  up  against  the  rapid  current  of  that  stream  as  far 
as  the  Rincon  Chico  region,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as 
inaccessible.  The  feasibility  of  plans  for  river  improvement  which 
shall  enable  larger  vessels  to  come  and  go  between  the  wide 
interior  zone  and  the  outside  world  has  to  be  conceded.  It  is  of 
highest  importance  to  consider  the  agricultural  possibilities  of 
these  very  extensive  regions,  situated  in  latitudes  that  favor  their 
development  by  the  more  vigorous  classes  of  immigrants.  The 
observation  has  quite  recently  been  made  that  Argentina 's  expan- 
sion into  the  temperate  southern  regions  of  the  South  American 


204  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

continent  is  in  its  own  way  not  less  truly  interesting  than  are  the 
similar  westward  movements  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  the 
eastward  one  in  Russia,  or  the  northward  one  of  South  Africa. 
This  is  Argentina's  wide  and  deep  frontier,  the  borderland  in 
which  pioneer  conditions  give  place  to  rapidly  growing  settle- 
ments, and  scientific  methods  convert  supposedly  useless  areas 
into  sources  of  economic  wealth. 

Argentina's  Chief  Agricultural  Products  ^ 

At  this  point  it  is  desirable  to  form  correct  and  very  distinct 
impressions  in  respect  to  each  of  the  items  that  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  agricultural  products.  We  begin  with  the  wheat.  It 
will  be  seen  that  wheat,  representing  57  per  cent  of  all  cereals 
produced  in  the  Republic,  covers  approximately  17,000,000  acres 
of  land;  but  if  labor  were  available  no  less  than  80,000,000  acres 
could  at  once  be  brought  under  the  plow  for  its  cultivation.  There 
is  a  decided  tendency  to  increase  the  area  of  wheat-sown  lands 
toward  the  south,  where  the  climatic  conditions  are  even  more 
favorable  —  a  tendency  attributable  to  the  new  shipping  facilities 
at  Bahia  Blanca. 

With  the  steady  encroachments  of  tillage  upon  the  pasture 
the  need  for  opening  up  fresh  areas  is  making  itself  felt.  The  vast 
available  tracts  of  unoccupied  lands  could,  of  course,  be  utilized 
for  stock-raising,  but  the  indigenous  grasses  are  too  coarse  and 
unpalatable  for  forage  purposes.  These  coarse  grasses  will  have 
to  be  replaced  by  the  fine  short  grasses  growing  in  the  lowlands, 
and  gradually  superseded  by  alfalfa,  rye,  barlej^,  and  oats.  These 
changes  cannot  be  effected  without  a  considerable  outlay  of  cap- 
ital, which  may  in  turn  enhance  the  already  high  prices  of  cattle. 

The  fertile  region  lying  north  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires, 
close  to  the  banks  of  the  Parana  —  at  one  time  the  realm  of  herds 
and  flocks  —  is  to-day  the  principal  centre  of  maize  cultivation. 
Levee  work  is  in  progress  on  one  of  the  islands  in  the  Parana. 
River  near  Rosario  Avith  a  view  to  preventing  inundation  at  the 
period  of  floods.  Should  the  venture  prove  successful  considerable 
land  will  be  reclaimed  on  this  and  on  other  islands  where  the  soil 
is  very  fertile.  It  is  estimated  that  these  reclaimed  lands  are 
worth  $100  per  acre. 

The  Argentine  Year  Booh  for  1916  contains  the  statement  that 
improvement  in  the  grade  of  cattle  has  been  brought  about  by  the 
importation  of  pedigree  animals  valued  at  $8,000,000  in  about  13 
years.    The  essentially  cattle-breeding  zones  are  now  to  be  found 


\ 


ARGENTINA  205 

in  the  provinces  of  Entre  Rios  and  Corrientes.  Here  the  climate, 
the  pastures,  and  the  water-courses  are  ideal  features  that  have  \. 
insured  the  lasting  prosperity  of  this  pastoral  zone,  in  which  the 
old  meat-packing  industry  still  survives  the  advent  of  the  large 
modern  factories.  The  pastoral  industry  is,  as  we  have  said, 
extending  into  Patagonia,  which  is  already  being  covered  from 
the  Cordillera  to  the  Atlantic,  with  flocks  that  promise  to  be  the 
best  in  the  Republic.  The  Argentine  Republic  annually  produces 
Sn  the  neighborhood  of  300,000,000  pounds  of  wool,  75  per  cent  of 
which  comes  from  white-faced,  long-wool  sheep,  Lincolns  and 
Leicesters,  and  is  known  in  the  world  markets  as  Argentine 
crossbred.  When  sorted,  this  wool  grades  largely  into  coarse  and 
medium  crossbred,  corresponding  to  domestic  commons  and 
domestic  one-fourth  bloods  in  the  United  States.  The  fine  cross- 
bred of  Argentina  is  known  in  the  United  States  as  domestic  three- 
eighths  blood.  Merino  fleeces  form  20  per  cent  of  the  yearly  total, 
producing  wool  that  is  graded  as  domestic  fine  in  the  United 
States.  The  remaining  5  per  cent  is  wool  of  black-faced  and 
domestic  sheep.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  is  5.3  pounds. 
Previous  to  the  war  France  and  Germany  were  the  principal  buy- 
ers of  the  wool  crop,  but  the  United  States  has  now  become  the 
principal  purchaser,  taking  152,330  bales  (925  lbs.)  of  the  298,939 
bales  exported  in  the  year  ending  30  Sept.  1916.  This  industry  in 
Santa  Cruz  is  represented  by  5,000,000  sheep,  which  yield  12,000 
metric  tons  (2,204.6  lbs.)  of  wool,  all  of  which  is  exported.  Within 
the  last  30  years  the  area  devoted  to  linseed  has  increased  twenty- 
fold.  Argentina  is  to-day  the  largest  linseed  producer  in  the 
world.  Although  the  plant  can  be  grown  in  nearly  any  part  of  the 
Republic,  its  cultivation  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Territory  of 
Pampa  Central  and  to  the  provinces  of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe, 
Entre  Rios  and  Cordoba. 

The  richest  alfalfa  fields  are  to  be  found  on  the  immense 
pampa  plains.  The  cultivation  of  alfalfa  has  assumed  vast  pro- 
portions, as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  figures:  1872,  264,500 
acres;  1888,  585,000  acres;  1895,  1,780,000  acres;  1912,  13,501,500 
acres;  1914,  16,725,250  acres.  This  forage  plant,  which  is  dis- 
placing the  native  grasses,  grows  so  rapidly  when  favored  by  the 
weather  that  three  or  four  crops  are  easily  obtained.  Its  yield  is 
six  to  eight  tons  per  acre.  Formerly  all  the  alfalfa  grown  was 
consumed  in  the  country,  but  it  is  now  being  exported  to  Brazil. 

Large  tracts  of  land  in  the  northwestern  section  of  the 
country  are  well  adapted  to  cotton,  but  the  crop  has  made  little 
progress.     Most  of  the  cotton  grown  comes  from  the  Territory 


206  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  Chaco.  It  is  also  grown  in  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe,  and  Corrientes. 
The  annual  production  is  about  1,230,000  pounds,  of  which  about 
60  per  cent  is  exported.  About  71,536  acres  were  planted  under 
beans  in  1914,  but  although  a  primarily  agricultural  country, 
Argentina  is  dependent  to  a  large  extent  on  imports  for  its  supply 
of  beans,  peas,  and  chick-peas.  Rice  is  produced  to  the  extent  of 
15,000,000  pounds  annually,  which  is  only  14  per  cent  of  the  rice 
consumed  in  the  Republic. 

When  discussing  the  general  outlook  in  a  year   (1914)   of 
depression  in  the  land  market,  the  South  American  Year  Boo^ 
for  1915  published  the  following: 

''As  a  general  rule,  land  values  in  the  Argentine  are  below 
those  current  in  other  countries  less  favorably  situated  as  regards 
fertility,  climatic  conditions,  and  accessibility  to  markets,  and, 
that  being  so,  it  would  be  only  a  matter  of  time  when  prices  would 
revert  to  their  old  level.  Every  year  the  land  is  becoming  more 
and  more  closely  settled  and  its  productive  power  increased,  and 
the  country  is  in  the  happy  position  of  having  a  practically 
unlimited  market  for  its  staple  commodities." 

If  we  desire  to  found  our  opinions  in  regard  to  the  permanence 
of  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  a  large  country  even  in  part  upon 
the  statistics  of  production  (a  procedure  always  attended  by  risk 
of  error) ,  we  must  at  least  examine  the  figures  that  relate  to  long 
periods  of  time  and  to  years  in  which  fairly  normal  conditions 
prevailed,  rather  than  to  a  single  year,  or  to  two  or  three  recent 
years  alone,  in  which  the  conditions  may  have  been  exceptional. 
With  this  rule  in  mind,  we  may  now  revert  to  the  Canadian-Argen- 
tine comparison,  and  may  mention  the  suggestive  and  somewhat 
propagandist  statistics  prepared  by  Sefior  Lahitte,  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  Agricultural  Statistics  and  Rural  Economy  for  the  Min- 
istry of  Agriculture  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  which  show  that  the 
increase  in  land  farmed  in  Canada  between  1871  and  1891  was 
75  per  cent;  the  increase  in  the  area  devoted  ex(;lusively  to  the 
cultivation  of  cereals  in  Argentina  between  1895  and  1909  was 
284  per  cent.  Such  figures  arrest  attention,  especially  because  the 
inhabitants  of  the  two  countries  compared  are  about  equal  in 
number.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  hectares  (one  hec- 
tare =  2.47  acres)  of  cultivated  land  in  Argentina  since  the  first 
year  of  independence  is  shown  as  follows: — From  1810  to  1888, 
only  2,300,000  hectares ;  from  1888  to  1910,  nearly  17,000,000  hec- 
tares. Exported  products  of  stock  farming  alone  were  valued 
at  only  $3,300,000  in  1822  and  at  $71,075,955  in  1888,  but  in  1915 
their  value  was  $218,780,485.    From  statistics  prepared  in  the  year 


ARGENTINA  207 

1914  (Department  of  Agriculture,  Argentine  Republic;  Ricardo 
Pillardo,  Director  General,  Commerce  and  Industry)  we  extract 
the  returns  of  the  four  principal  products  of  the  arable  regions, 
showing  that  Argentina  exported  as  follows: 

In   1904  In   1913 

Wheat     $66,947,891   gold  Wheat     $102,631,143  gold 

Maize     44,391,196   gold  Maize     112,292,394  gold 

Linseed     28,359,923  gold  Linseed    49,910,201  gold 

Oats     541.973   gold  Oats     20,447,278  gold 

Summarized,  the  value  of  exports  of  these  four  products  increased 
during  that  decade  from  $140,240,983  gold  in  1904  to  $285,281,016  K 
gold  in  1913.  In  1916  there  were  16,088,963  acres  under  wheat, 
3,207,411  acres  under  linseed  and  2,525,402  acres  under  oats.  The 
official  estimate,  published  17  Dec.  1916  places  the  wheat  yield  for 
1916  at  77,393,258  bushels,  linseed  5,280,071  bushels,  and  oats  at 
33,610,157  bushels.  Exports  of  linseed  from  1  Jan.  to  7  Dec.  1916 
amounted  to  619,210  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  took  209,337 
tons.  '  v,^ 

Another  comparison  was  suggested  to  the  writer  in  the  course 
of  studies  he  made  in  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires  and  in  the 
Paraguay-Parana-La  Plata  regions  between  Asuncion  and  the 
city  of  Buenos  Aires,  namely,  the  comparison  with  the  pastoral 
industry  of  Australia,  that  country  which  rivals  Argentina  in 
flocks  and  herds,  as  clearly  appears  from  the  fact  that  Australia 
at  the  close  of  1904  possessed  65,822,918  sheep,  7,868,520  cattle, 
1,595,256  horses,  etc.;  and,  thanks  to  the  characteristic  Australian 
rapidity  of  increase,  at  the  end  of  1911  the  number  of  sheep  in  the 
commonwealth  was  93,003,521 ;  of  cattle  11,828,954 ;  and  of  horses 
2,279,027.  In  regard  to  this  matter  the  writer  was  glad  to  avail 
himself  of  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  engaged  in  this  indus- 
try on  a  large  scale  in  both  countries;  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that,  tested  by  such  practical  experience,  the  conditions  in 
southern  and  central  Argentina  are  found  to  be  unsurpassed. 

Unquestionably  the  main  support,  and  a  very  substantial  one, 
of  Argentina's  leadership  in  varied  or  mixed  agriculture  is  her 
possession  of  good,  fertile  soils,  in  flat  or  nearly  level  areas  of  vast 
extent,  grass-grown  and  not  covered  with  forests  that  have  to  be 
cleared  away,  easy  of  access,  lying  open  and  ready  for  the  plough  in 
regions  so  temperate,  as  a  rule,  that  agricultural  work  can  proceed 
almost  without  interruption  throughout  the  entire  year  and  cattle 
can  be  kept  always  in  the  open  and  at  pasture.  Invasions  of 
locusts  occur  and  in  the  past  have  proved  to  be  exceedingly  destruc- 
tive; but  preventive  measures  can  in  the  long  run  so  reduce  the 
injury  from  this  source  that  it  will  become  a  negligible  quantity. 


208  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Irrigation  is  required  in  many  sections,  though  it  is  true  that  in 
the  rich  alluvial  central  basin  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
the  annual  rainfall  averages  30  inches;  but  it  is  demonstrable 
that  irrigation  constitutes  a  better  and  much  safer  reliance  for  the 
farmer  than  mere  rainfall  in  every  region  not  mountainous  and 
not  occupying  an  exceptional  position  with  respect  to  permanent 
air  and  water  currents.  From  Rio  Negro  to  Misiones,  in  the  sub- 
tropical northeast,  and  to  Jujuy  and  Catamarca,  in  the  Andean 
Northwest,  soils  of  excellent  quality  and  great  or  sufficient  depth 
have  been  known,  or  cultivated  successfully  without  knowledge, 
for  many  years ;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  we  are  at  liberty  to  enter- 
tain a  favorable  opinion  in  regard  to  soils  in  the  Argentine  Pata- 
gonian  Territories. 

Bibliography 

(General,  supplemented  by  Bibliographies  under  Banking  and  Finance, 
History,  Government,  etc.). — Agricultural  Argentina:  prepared  by  the  Bureau 
of  Agricultural  Statistics  (Buenos  Aires  1910)  ;  Ambrosetti,  J.  B.,  Exploraciones 
.  Provincia  de  Salta  (Buenos  Aires  1907-08);  Anuario  Kraft:  Gran  Guia 
General  (Buenos  Aires  1915)  ;  Clemeneeau,  G.,  Notes  de  Voyage  dans  V Amerique 
du  Sud  (Paris  1911) ;  Gancedo,  A.  Jr.,  La  Argentina, su  Evolueion  (Buenos  Aires 
1913) ;  Hirst,  W.  A.,  A  Guide  to  South  America  (New  York  1915)  ;  Holland, 
W.  J.,  To  the  River  Plate  and  Back:  the  Narrative  of  a  Scientific  Mission  (New 
York  1913) ;  Huret,  J.,  En  Argentine  (Paris  1913) ;  Koebel,  W.  H.,  The  South 
Americans  (New  York  1915)  ;  Larden,  W.,  Argentine  Plains  and  Andine  Glaciers 
(New  York  and  London  1911)  ;  Mills,  G.  J.,  Argentina :  Physical  Features,  Natural 
Resources,  etc.  (London  1914) ;  Moses,  B.,  The  Spanish  Dependencies  in  South 
America  (New  York  1914)  ;  Pennington,  A.  S.,  The  Argentine  Republic  (London 
and  New  York  1910) ;  Kegel,  F.,  i.  e.  Christian  Fricdrich  Leopold,  Argentinien 
(Frankfurt  a.  M.  1914) ;  Ross,  E.  A.,  South  of  Panama  (New  York  1915,  pages 
114-138  et  passim)  ;  Schmidt,  U.,  and  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  A.  N.,  The  Conquest  of  the 
River  Plate  1535-1555  {hondon  1891)  ;  Schuster,  A.  N.,  Argentinien:  Land,  Volk, 
Wirtschaftsleben  und  Kolonisation  (Miinchen  1913) ;  Willis,  B.,  The  Physical 
Basis  of  the  Argentine  Nation  (In  Clark  University  Addresses,  Worcester,  Mass., 
Latin  America,  New  York  1914). 


COMMERCE  IN  ARGENTINA 

By  M^rriox  WiLcax 

In  the  year  1915  Argentina's  imports  amounted  to  $218,951,000 
and  exports  to  $539,000,000,  while  in  1916  the  value  of  imports 
M^as  $211,310,688  and  of  exports  $453,841,507.  In  1914  the  total 
foreign  trade,  exclusive  of  coin  and  bullion,  was  $602,439,880 
(U.  S-  gold),  that  being  the  sum  of  imports  to  the  value  of  $263,- 
663,363  and  exports,  $338,776,517.    More  nearly  normal  was  the 


ARGENTINA  209 

year  1913,  the  last  wholly  normal  year  before  the  European  War, 
in  which,  according  to  the  official  report  of  the  statistical  office,  the 
total  foreign  trade  of  the  Republic  was  $877,711,376  (U.  S.  gold, 
equivalent  to  904,857,089  pesos),  that  being  the  sum  of  imports 
valued  at  $408,711,966  (421,352,542  pesos)  and  exports  $468,999,410 
(483,504,547  pesos).  In  1913  the  imports  from  Great  Britain  were 
valued  at  $126,959,989;  from  Germany,  $69,172,279;  from  the 
United  States,  $60,171,867;  from  France,  $36,933,537.  To  Great 
Britain  in  the  same  year  the  exports  were,  in  value,  $116,756,777 ; 
to  Germany,  $56,178,368;  to  France,  $36,586,981;  to  the  United 
States,  $22,207,965.  The  chief  imports  are:  Food  products,  tex- 
tiles and  allied  products,  manufactured  articles  of  iron  and  steel, 
railway  supplies,  agricultural  implements,  electric  apparatus, 
glass  and  china  ware,  chemicals,  building  materials,  manufactured 
articles  of  hides  and  skins,  oils  and  beverages.  The  chief  exports 
are  products  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  industry,  of  the  forests 
and  of  the  mines.  During  the  decade  1904-1913,  commercial 
progress  on  the  part  of  Argentina,  Uruguay,  Chile  and  Brazil  has 
been  especially  noteworthy;  and  we  learn  by  consultation  of  the 
official  data  that  the  percentages  of  increase  are  as  follows :  Argen- 
tina, slightly  more  than  108  per  cent  increase;  Uruguay,  104  per 
cent  increase;  Chile,  slightly  more  than  94  per  cent  increase; 
Brazil,  54  per  cent  increase.  Argentine  exports  (with  values  in 
gold  dollars)  in  a  single  year  preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
in  Europe,  are  listed  as  follows:  Live-stock,  $8,770,045;  meat, 
hides,  wool,  etc.,  $136,336,218;  manufactured  animal  products, 
$18,124,419;  by-products,  $2,569,451;  agricultural  products  (in  the 
restricted  sense,  products  of  tillage  or  of  the  field  and  garden), 
including  raw  material,  manufactured  and  by-products,  $301,267- 
094 ;  woodland  products,  $10,617,985 ;  products  of  the  chase,  $1,816,- 
911;  mineral  products,  $194,690;  other  products,  $3,807,734. 

Of  the  cereals,  Argentina  exported  592,797  tons  of  oats  in 
1915,  74,899  tons  of  barley,  4,921  tons  of  rye,  4,330,594  tons  of 
corn,  2,511,514  tons  of  wheat,  and  116,049  tons  of  corn  meal.  The 
exports  of  frozen  beef  reached  a  record  figure  in  1916,  while  the 
exports  of  mutton  were  less  than  in  any  year  in  the  last  five-year 
period.  The  shipments  of  chilled  and  frozen  beef  in  1916  were  47 
per  cent  more  than  in  the  last  normal  year,  1913. 

Argentine  imports,  value  in  gold  dollars,  during  the  same 
year  were:  Live-stock,  $1,419,290;  animal  foods,  $6,572,463;  vege- 
table foods  and  fruits,  $2,583,251 ;  spices  and  condiments,  $8,098,- 
967;  vegetables  and  cereals,  $6,727,848;  substances  for  infusions, 
15 


210  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

etc.,  $9,517,360;  flour,  macaroni,  bread,  etc.,  $1,434,066;  tobacco 
and  manufactures  of,  $7,038,055;  wines,  $9,866,310;  spirits  and 
liquors,  $3,022,088;  other  drinks,  $1,153,760;  textiles,  raw  and 
manufactured,  $89,560,214  (this  includes  silk,  $7,080,063;  wool, 
$16,751,832;  cotton,  $41,407,338,  and  sundries,  $24,320,981) ;  vege- 
table and  mineral  oils,  $23,778,916 ;  chemical,  medicinal  and  phar- 
maceutical substances  and  products,  $15,193,658 ;  paints  and  dyes, 
$2,535,437 ;  timber  in  bulk,  $4,252,600 ;  timber  worked,  $6,576,339 ; 
paper  and  pasteboard,  $6,011,345;  sundry  paper  manufactures, 
$3,890,640;  leather  and  manufactures  of,  $4,610,560;  iron  (raw 
material),  $24,149,251;  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  $25,891,054; 
other  metals  unwrought  or  manufactured,  $14,257,919;  agricul- 
tural machinery,  sacking,  seeds,  etc.,  $9,124,632 ;  railway  material, 
vehicles  of  all  classes,  etc.,  $37,223,336 ;  stone,  clay,  glass,  $36,577,- 
913  (including  raw  material,  $31,640,937,  and  manufactured, 
$4,936,994);  building  material,  $35,775,580;  electrical  supplies, 
$10,110,088;  sundry  articles  and  manufactures,  $14,399,584.  The 
foreign  trade  of  Argentina  in  1916  amounted  to  760,755,161  gold 
pesos  ($733,748,324),  of  which  imports  represented  217,409,322 
])esos  ($202,940,400)  and  exports  543,345,839  pesos  ($524,057,350). 
This  gives  the  country  an  apparent  favorable  balance  of  trade  of 
325,936,517  pesos  ($314,365,752). 

Commerce  with  the  United  States 

In  1915  the  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Argentina  were 
valued  at  $53,912,544.  The  record  of  Argentina's  commerce  with 
the  United  States  during  20  years  (1895  to  1914  inclusive)  shows 
a  very  marked  preponderance  of  imports  over  exports,  except  in 
the  first  and  last  of  those  years.  Thus,  in  1895  Argentina 
imported  from  the  United  States  goods  valued  at  $6,419,519,  and 
exported  to  the  United  States  goods  valued  at  $8,589,278 ;  and  in 
1914  the  figures  were  $35,585,913  for  imports  and  $41,680,985  for 
exports.  But  in  the  years  that  intervened  the  balance  of  trade  in 
favor  of  the  United  States  was  conspicuously  large.  The  impor- 
tance of  the  Argentine  market  will  be  most  readily  appreciated 
when  we  ascertain,  from  a  study  of  the  records  for  the  year  1913, 
that  the  value  of  merchandise  exported  from  the  United  States  to 
Argentina  was  nearly  (within  $7,430)  as  great  as  the  value  of 
merchandise  exported  from  the  United  States  to  Brazil,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay  and  Ecuador  combined;  and  that  it  was  $12,543,939 
greater  than  the  sum  of  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Chile, 
Colombia,  Peru,  Venezuela,  British  Guiana,  Bolivia,  Dutch  Guiana, 
French  Guiana  and  the  Falkland  Islands.     In  brief,  Argentina 


ARGENTINA  211 

received  36.2  per  cent  of  the  total  exports  from  the  United  States 
to  South  America.  The  principal  articles  thus  supplied  by  the 
United  States  to  Argentina  were :  iron  and  steel,  raw  material  and 
manufactures  of  33.4  per  cent  of  total  supplied  by  the  United 
States  to  South  America ;  wood  and  manufactures,  62  per  cent  of 
total ;  oils  —  animal,  mineral  and  vegetable,  39.8  per  cent  of  total ; 
agricultural  implements,  82  per  cent  of  total ;  cars,  carriages,  other 
vehicles  and  parts  of,  35.8  per  cent  of  total ;  leather  and  manufac- 
tures of,  42.5  per  cent  of  total;  fibres,  vegetables,  and  manufac- 
tures of,  74  per  cent  of  total;  engines,  locomotives  and  railway 
material,  21.1  per  cent  of  total;  aeroplanes,  automobiles,  bicycles, 
motor  and  other  cycles,  38.5  per  cent  of  total;  chemicals,  drugs, 
dyes  and  medicines,  36  per  cent  of  total;  naval  stores,  36.4  per 
cent  of  total;  paper  and  manufactures  of,  44.6  per  cent  of  total; 
other  goods  of  minor  importance,  14.9  per  cent  of  total.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Argentine  commercial  statistics  of  1913  goods  to  the 
value  of  $22,135,215  from  the  United  States  were  received  duty 
free.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  emphasize  in  this  connection  the 
fact  that  among  the  seven  nations  that  lead  in  exports  to  Argen- 
tina, the  United  States  took  only  a  third  position,  surpassed  by 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  and  followed  by  France,  Italy,  Bel- 
gium and  Spain,  until  there  came  the  enormous  increase  (see 
Latin  America  —  Commerce  tvitli  the  United  States)  that  charac- 
terized the  years  1913-1917,  inclusive. 

In  1916  the  United  States  imported  from  Argentina  articles 
valued  at  $100,000,000,  approximately,  and  the  value  of  exports 
from  the  United  States  to  Argentina  in  1916  was  about  $65,000,- 
000.  Consult  Americas,  The  (New  York,  published  monthly, 
1914-17) ;  Argentine  International  Tr/ide  (Panama-Pacific  Int. 
Exp.,  1915,  Buenos  Aires,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914). 


MINING  AND  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES 

By  Marhion  Wilcox 

Although  it  is  true  that  gold,  silver,  and  copper  have  been 
mined  in  a  small  way  from  early  times,  the  mining  industry  in 
Argentina  has  not  been  developed  to  any  great  extent.  It  is  often 
said  that  the  main  reason  is  the  total  lack  of  manual  labor;  that 
the  mineral  outcrops  are  found  in  the  Andean  region  where  labor 
is  scarce ;  that  the  mineral  zone  has  an  area  of  48,000  square  miles 
and  is  inhabited  by  only  20,000  people,  living  mostly  in  or  near 


212  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  town  of  San  Rafael;  and  that  a  large  area  is  altogether 
unpopulated.  The  means  of  communication  (as  stated  in  consular 
reports,  etc.,)  are  insufficient,  and  on  those  lines  that  do  exist 
a  prohibitive  freight  is  exacted.  Writers  mention  districts 
' '  reported  to  contain  ' '  copper,  petroleum,  silver,  iron,  borax,  sul- 
phur, gold  and  tin.  But  it  is  quite  safe  to  say  that  districts  which 
are  with  certainty  known  to  contain  such  things  in  paying  quanti- 
ties do  not  remain  unpopulated  or  wholly  unprovided  with  manual 
labor.  Means  of  communication  are  provided  readily  enough  in 
any  part  of  the  Republic  that  particularly  requires  and  can  make 
uncommonly  good  use  of  them ;  in  fact,  the  capitalists  interested 
in  Argentine  railway  development  are  especially  alert.  The  con- 
clusion is  that  mines  which  are  referred  to  in  such  terms  are  not 
of  sufficient  value  to  attract  capital  and  labor  for  their  develop- 
ment. But  in  Cordoba  Province  (which  has  a  large  population 
and  railways)  copper,  silver,  gold,  marble  and  lime  are  found. 
Jujuy  has  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  borax,  salt  and 
asphalt.  Other  mining  districts  are  those  of  the  Province  of  Salta, 
which  have  kaolin,  beside  the  minerals  found  in  Jujuy.  Similarly 
the  provinces  of  Catamarca,  Rioja,  and  San  Juan  have  mineral 
products.  Mining  of  marble  and  wolfram  is  the  principal  indus- 
try of  San  Luis;  Chubut  and  Mendoza  produce  coal  and  petro- 
leum. In  1915  there  were  15  petroleum  wells;  petroleum  is 
exploited  by  the  government  and  eight  private  companies ;  gold  is 
found  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Santa  Cruz  and  Chubut.  (See  Com- 
merce IN  Argentina,  p.  208.) 

Nearly  all  the  important  branches  of  human  industry  are  rep- 
resented in  the  period  of  development  that  began  after  the  year 
1875.  Manufacturing  establishments  at  the  present  time  produce 
standard  varieties  of  food,  clothing,  building  material,  furniture, 
etc.,  to  a  limited  extent ;  but  the  Republic,  agriculturally  so  power- 
ful, is  both  willing  and  able  to  continue  to  be  a  purchaser  of  such 
manufactured  articles  as  can  be  produced  more  correctly  and  at 
less  cost  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  Naturally  the  prep- 
aration of  products  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  industries  for 
domestic  and  foreign  markets  increases  rapidly,  favored  by 
wholly  exceptional  conditions.  Flour  and  sugar  mills  are  in  vigor- 
ous and  profitable  operation,  and  the  dairies  have  increased 
remarkably.  There  are  525  creameries,  16  butter  factories,  129 
cheese  factories,  etc.,  a  total  of  1,259  establishments  connected 
with  dairies.  During  the  last  reported  year  over  35,()0(),()()() 
pounds  of  cream  were  produced,  20,000,000  pounds  of  butter,  and 
12,000,000  of  cheese.    The  estimated  value  of  these  products  was 


ARGENTINA  213 

about  $8,000,000.  The  production  of  sugar  and  wine  tends  to 
increase,  the  annual  output  now  exceeding  230,000  tons  of  the 
former  and  500,000,000  quarts  of  the  latter.  Tucumtin  has  72  per 
cent  of  the  registered  sugar  mills  of  the  Republic.  Mendoza  is 
the  centre  of  the  wine  district.  Important  also  are  the  tanneries 
(about  200  in  number),  the  manufactories  of  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
of  furniture,  etc.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  speak  of  Argentine  manu- 
factures and  mining  as  though  they  ranked  with  Argentine  agri- 
culture. They  do  not;  and  their  attainment  of  such  rank  in  the 
near  future  is  highly  improbable.  According  to  the  last  indus- 
trial census,  there  were  31,988  factories  in  Argentina,  employing 
a  total  of  329,490  persons.  The  total  capital  was  $727,591,135,  and 
the  output  was  valued  at  $1,227,549,196. 

According  to  an  industrial  census  taken  in  1914,  Buenos 
Aires  at  that  time  had  437  shoe  manufactories,  which  gave  employ- 
ment to  9,970  workmen  and  consumed  raw  material  valued  at 
$8,460,418,  of  which  $5,854,172  worth  was  domestic  and  $2,606,246 
imported.  The  combined  annual  sales  of  these  factories  amounted 
to  $16,448,514.  It  is  estimated  that  the  industry  in  Buenos  Aires 
represents  approximately  75  per  cent  of  the  total  for  the  country. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE  IN  ARGENTINA 

By  M\rbiom  Wilcox 

The  first  important  operation  of  credit  made  by  Argentina  was 
a  loan  negotiated  with  Messrs.  Baring  Bros.  &  Co.,  of  London,  in 
the  year  1823,  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent  and  2i/j 
per  cent  amortization,  issued  at  90  per  cent.  Shortly  after  this 
operation,  internal  political  troubles  caused  the  suspension  of 
interest;  and  not  until  many  years  after,  during  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Mitre,  did  the  Republic  resume  the  service  on  its 
debt.  Eventually  the  stockholders  of  the  bonds  received  their  full 
capital  and  interest  in  new  bonds.  During  the  years  1883  to  >v 
1885  many  of  the  Argentine  provinces  issued  loans  in  order  to 
assist  in  establishing  national  banks  under  a  special  national  law. 
A  number  of  these  provinces  negotiated  their  loans  in  Europe, 
principally  with  French  bankers.  Unfortunately,  owing  to  the 
crisis  in  1890,  the  provinces  suspended  service  of  interest  on  these 
loans,  the  country  suffering  at  the  same  time  a  great  crisis;  and 
although  the  national  government,  during  the  presidency  of  Dr. 
Pellegrini,  who  is  remembered  as  an  able  statesman,  endeavored 


214  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  continue  the  service  in  cash,  it  could  not  do  so.  At  that  time 
Dr.  Victorino  de  la  Plaza  (subsequently  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic) transmitted  to  Buenos  Aires  sound  financial  views  prevailing 
in  London,  and  by  his  counsel  the  funding  loan  was  issued  to  pay 
service  in  bonds  instead  of  cash  for  five  years.  Before  the  expira- 
tion of  that  time  the  country  renewed  the  normal  service  in  cash 
of  its  entire  debt.  Soon  afterward  the  National  government 
decided,  in  the  interest  of  the  credit  of  the  country,  to  make 
arrangements  to  assume  the  loans  created  by  the  provinces,  giv- 
ing national  bonds  in  exchange  for  the  provincial  bonds ;  and  thus 
the  loans  issued  by  the  different  provinces,  as  we  have  mentioned 
above,  were  withdrawn.  The  same  thing  was  done  with  the  rail- 
way guaranties,  under  national  laws,  given  for  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  lines.  In  consequence  of  the  financial  crisis  of 
1890,  these  guaranties  were  not  punctually  paid,  and  it  was 
decided  to  treat  this  question  in  a  radical  way  by  computing  the 
value  of  each  guaranty  and  giving  to  the  railway  4  per  cent 
national  bonds.  Fifty  million  dollars  assigned  to  this  purpose  are 
known  as  national  railway  bonds.  The  credit  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  thus  completely  re-established,  has  been  maintained  dur- 
ing a  long  period  without  an  interruption,  notwithstanding  the 
difficult  moments  experienced  in  the  years  1914-1916  over  all  the 
world  in  consequence  of  the  European  War.  It  is  but  just  and 
right  to  mention  in  this  connection  the  able  manner  in  which  the 
President,  Dr.  de  la  Plaza,  controlled  the  finances  of  the  country. 

Aid  Extended  by  British  and  American  Bankers 

Nearly  all  the  loans  made  by  the  Argentine  Republic  were 
issued  under  the  auspices  of  Messrs.  Baring  Bros.  &  Co.,  who 
have  been  the  friends  and  bankers  of  the  country  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  have  won  the  respect  and  the  sympathy  of  all  the  Argen- 
tine people.  Many  of  the  principal  loans  of  the  Republic  were 
issued  solely  for  the  construction  of  railways,  water  and  drainage, 
port-works,  and  other  improvements,  all  of  which  belong  to  the 
National  government  and  earn  enough  to  pay  the  service. 

American  bankers  have  had  until  quite  recently  little  direct 
negotiation  with  Argentina.  Messrs.  J.  S.  Morgan  &  Co.,  of 
London,  issued  a  loan  jointly  with  Messrs.  Baring  Bros.  &  Co.,  in 
1886-87;  again,  but  on  this  occasion  unaided,  issued  the  funding 
loan  of  1890;  and  also  organized  and  retained  a  large  interest  in 
one  of  the  railway  companies,  the  Argentine  Great  Western  Rail- 
way, now  known  as  the  Pacific  Railways.    The  only  direct  loan 


ARGENTINA  215 

contracted  with  American  bankers  was  one  for  $10,000,000  made 
by  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  in  1882  with  Messrs.  Morton, 
Bliss  &  Co.,  who  took  the  whole  amount.  This  loan,  according  to 
the  statement  in  Don  Pedro  Agote  's  book  on  finance,  was  the  first 
Argentine  loan  issued  at  par,  and  was  brought  out  in  the  London 
market.  The  same  firm,  afterwards  the  Morton  Trust  Co.,  now 
the  Guaranty  Trust  Co.,  of  New  York,  has  maintained  intelligent 
interest  in  and  continued  its  friendly  relations  and  financial  con- 
nections with  Argentina.  Compare  the  memorandum  on  the 
finances  of  Argentina  submitted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Hale  Pearson,  in 
Proceedmgs  of  the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Conference 
(Washington  1915). 

Since  the  loan  of  1882,  the  first  financial  operation  of  marked 
and  conspicuous  importance  negotiated  with  the  banks  of  the 
United  States  was  an  advance  for  a  short  period  of  $15,000,000 
made  in  1914  by  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York  and  its 
associates.  Its  sequel  was  the  new  issue  made  in  1915  by  the  same 
bank  and  its  associates  for  a  further  amount  of  $25,000,000,  the 
object  of  the  second  issue  being  the  retirement  of  the  first  advance 
of  $15,000,000;  and  it  must  be  understood  that  the  issue  by  the 
National  City  Bank  and  its  associates  was  part  of  a  loan  of  $50,- 
000,000  of  which  Messrs.  Baring  Bros.  &  Co.,  of  London,  issued  the 
other  half  in  London.  With  this  loan  for  five  years,  a  number  of 
small  advances  have  been  retired. 

La  Caja  de  Conversion  was  created  by  national  law  in  the  year 
1896.  Its  duties  have  relation  to  the  exchange  of  used  notes  for 
new;  the  receipts  of  gold  and  issuance  of  paper  money  for  its 
legal  value  (Mf',  gold,  per  dollar),  or,  vice  versa,  the  conversion 
of  paper  into  gold  at  the  same  rate;  the  exclusive  control  of  the 
printing  and  issuing  of  the  currency  of  the  country,  etc.  When 
the  Caja  de  Conversion  was  created  the  circulation  of  currency  in 
the  Republic  was  about  $300,000,000,  but  to-day  it  is  about 
$600,000,000;  the  gold  value  is  about  $425,000,000,  and  against  this 
there  is  in  the  vault  nearly  $300,000,000,  or  about  70  per  cent  of  the 
notes  issued.  (Report  of  Financial  Conference  at  Washington  — 
see  Bibliography). 

Development  of  Arg-entine  Banking 

And  now  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the  Argentine  banking 
system.  During  the  early  years  of  the  independence  of  the  coun- 
try a  number  of  banks  were  established,  although  the  old  Bank  of 
the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  founded  in  the  year  1802,  continued 


216  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  lead  them  all.  This  was  a  bank  of  issue,  having  fiscal  privi- 
leges, and  became  a  very  powerful  institution.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
pioneer  and  founder  of  the  wealth  of  the  country,  its  useful  prac- 
tice being  to  loan  its  money  at  low  interest,  with  a  5  per  cent 
amortization  each  three  months,  to  the  farmers  and  owners  of 
land,  enabling  them  to  improve  and  develop  the  ranches.  By  such 
means  did  the  principal  land  owners  of  Argentina  make  their  for- 
tunes. This  bank  had  close  relations  with  Messrs.  Baring  Bros. 
&  Co.,  and  became  very  powerful,  having  large  credits  in  London 
and  controlling  the  exchange  market  for  many  years ;  nevertheless 
the  financial  and  political  crisis  of  1890  caused  its  suspension,  and 
years  passed  before  it  was  reorganized  with  a  capital  of  $30,- 
000,000.  To-day  it  is  half-owned  by  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires 
and  half  by  private  shareholders.  In  the  year  1873  a  group  of* 
wealthy  citizens  organized  a  national  bank,  the  government 
contributing  half  of  the  capital,  and  for  many  years  this  was  a 
powerful  institution,  helping  the  development  of  Argentine  indus- 
tries, such  as  the  sugar  in  Tucuman,  the  wine  industry  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Mendoza  and  San  Juan,  and  agriculture  in  the  province 
of  Santa  Fe.  This  institution  also  experienced  financial  difficul- 
ties in  the  crisis  of  the  year  1890.  During  Dr.  Pellegrini's  admin- 
istration, in  the  year  1891,  the  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Argentina  was 
created,  with  a  capital  of  $50,000,000  currency  (this  bank  taking 
over  the  liquidation  of  the  Banco  Nacional).  It  is  an  entirely 
official  bank,  and  one  of  the  articles  of  its  ''  law  of  creation  "  con- 
tains the  provision  that  all  the  net  profits  are  to  be  applied  to  the 
increase  of  its  capital.  To-day  that  capital  has  reached  the  sum 
of  $128,000,000  paper,  equivalent  to  over  $60,000,000,  currency  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  bank  has  besides  a  reserve  fund  of 
$14,500,000  in  gold.  The  management  does  not  sustain  such  rela- 
tions of  dependence  upon  the  national  government  as  the  circum- 
stances that  the  directors  are  named  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  and  their  nominations  require  confirmation  by  the 
national  Senate,  would  seem  to  indicate.  It  has  over  150  branches 
in  Argentina  and  is  constantly  increasing  the  number,  following 
the  growth  of  the  nation.  It  has  no  agencies  abroad,  although  its 
financial  relations  with  the  principal  banks  and  bankers  of  the 
world  are  being  increased  every  year,  and  it  now  has  very  friendly 
relations  with  some  of  the  principal  banks  of  the  United  States. 
Its  deposits  have  reached  over  $300,000,000  gold,  and  during  the 
universal  financial  difficulties  of  1915  it  helped  the  commerce  and 
industry  of  the  Republic,  which  would  otherwise  have  suffered 
more  severely  from  the  restriction  of  credits  caused  by  the  war. 


ARGENTINA  217 

Beside  the  Bank  of  the  Nation  and  the  banks  of  the  Province 
of  Buenos  Aires  to  which  we  have  referred,  there  are  several  pri- 
vate banks,  formed  solely  with  Argentine  capital,  which  are  very 
prosperous  institutions  and  have  been  created  as  the  requirements 
of  the  country  demanded,  such  as  the  Banco  Espaiiol  and  Banco 
de  Italia  del  Rio  de  la  Plata,  whose  combined  capital  is  over 
$80,000,000  (gold).  There  are  also  several  foreign  banks  which 
have  aided  materially  in  the  development  of  the  trade  of  the  coun- 
try. One  of  the  first  of  these  was  the  Bank  of  Maua  (now  liqui- 
dated), established  in  Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo  about  IS&S. 
The  very  important  London  and  River  Plate  Bank  was  founded  in 
the  year  1862.  Since  that  date  the  following  have  been  estab- 
lished: The  London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  The  British  Bank, 
Anglo- South  American  Bank,  two  German  and  several  other 
banks,  including  Italian,  Spanish  and  Dutch,  with  a  total  capital 
of  about  $300,000,000.  The  most  recently  established  is  the  agency 
of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York. 

The  National  Mortgage  Bank  is  strictly  a  governmental  insti- 
tution managed  by  a  board  of  directors  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  This  bank 
issues  national  cedulas  (real  estate  mortgage  bonds).  The  trans- 
action must  not  in  amount  exceed  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
lands.  Loans  are  limited  to  $250,000  to  any  one  person.  These 
cedulas  bear  either  5  or  6  per  cent  interest,  and,  because  this  bank 
is  a  national  institution,  have  the  guaranty  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  Some  of  the  first  issues  were  of  7  per  cent,  but  all  have 
1  per  cent  amortization.  They  were  principally  held  in  Belgium, 
having  been  one  of  the  favorite  investments  of  the  Belgian  public. 
The  total  amount  of  cedulas  issued  is  in  the  neighborhood  of 
$200,000,000. 

Argentine  finances  suffered  from  a  crisis  that  began  in  1913 
and  went  on  with  increasing  stress  until  the  end  of  1914  and  the 
early  months  of  1915,  when  conditions  began  to  improve.  The 
European  War  was,  of  course,  a  tremendous  shock,  which  further 
unsettled  the  financial  structure  of  the  country,  but  which  offered 
some  compensating  advantages  in  the  form  of  increased  demand 
and  higher  prices  for  the  food  products  which  Argentina  was  so 
abundantly  able  to  supply.  The  situation  in  1915  improved  rap- 
idly, and  in  1916  decidedly  favorable  tendencies  prevailed. 

The  national  finances,  collection  of  customs,  stamp  taxes,  dis- 
bursements, and  the  service  of  the  public  debt  are  entrusted  to  the 
Department  of  Finance;  and  the  conversion  office  (Caja  de  Con- 
version) is  charged,  with  the  maintenance,  as  we  have  said  above, 


218  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  proper  relation  between  gold  and  paper  money,  besides 
having  in  its  care  the  national  archives,  the  bureau  of  statistics, 
the  national  chemical  office  (established  to  enforce  the  national 
pure  food  law),  the  custom-houses,  ports,  and  all  banks. 

The  basis  of  the  monetary  system  of  Argentina  is  the  gold 
standard.  The  unit  is  a  gold  peso,  divided  into  100  centavos, 
weighing  1.6129  grammes  of  gold  .900  fine,  or,  say,  1.4516 
grammes  fine  gold.  Its  par  value,  expressed  in  terms  of  United 
States  currency,  is  $0.96475.  The  parity  of  $1.00  United  States  cur- 
rency in  terms  of  Argentine  gold  pesos  is  $1.0365.  The  actual  cur- 
rency of  Argentina  is  government  notes,  to  which  a  value  of  44  per 
cent  of  the  gold  peso  has  been  assigned  by  the  government.  This 
parity  of  44  per  cent  is  maintained  through  the  medium  of  a  con- 
version fund  which  exchanges  gold  for  paper,  and  vice  versa,  on  the 
basis  of  $44  gold  for  $100  paper,  or  $227.27  paper  for  $100  gold. 
Therefore,  since  the  value  of  the  paper  peso  is  fixed  by  govern- 
mental decree  and  is  maintained  through  the  conversion  fund,  the 
paper  peso  represents  0.6387  grammes  of  fine  gold,  and  its  parity 
expressed  in  terms  of  United  States  currency  is  $0.4245.  The 
parity  of  $1  United  States  currency  in  terms  of  Argentine  paper 
pesos  is  $2.35576  curso  ler/al  (paper  currency).  Bills  of  exchange 
on  foreign  countries  are  quoted  in  both  paper  and  gold,  but 
usually  they  are  quoted  in  gold.  When  Buenos  Aires  quotes  New 
York  exchange  on  the  basis  of  paper  currency,  the  quotation 
represents  the  equivalent  in  United  States  currency  of  $1  paper 
peso.  Thus,  42.50  means  that  $0.4250  United  States  currency  is 
the  equivalent  of  $1  peso,  paper.  When  Buenos  Aires  quotes 
New  York  exchange  on  the  basis  of  the  gold  peso,  the  quotation 
is  expressed  in  gold  pesos;  thus,  "  New  York  sight  $1.0375  " 
means  that  $1.0375  Argentine  gold  pesos  equal  $1  United  States 
currency.  Compare  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Mod- 
ern Foreign  Exchange  (see  Bibliography). 

The  trade  balance  in  favor  of  Argentina  in  1915  was  note- 
worthy :  331,000,000  Argentine  gold  pesos.  Failures  in  the  Repub- 
lic during  the  recent  period  of  financial  crisis  are  summarized  as 
follows:  Year  1912,  assets  $95,000,000  and  liabilities  $82,000,000; 
Year  1913,  assets  $200,000,000  and  liabilities  $173,000,000;  Year 
1914,  assets  $603,800,000  and  liabilities  $422,800,000;  Year  1915, 
assets  $233,500,000  and  liabilities  $178,000,000.  These  figures, 
supplied  to  us  by  the  courtesy  of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New 
York,  clearly  demonstrate  both  the  stress  and  the  recovery  men- 
tioned above.  The  budgets  at  hand  give  us:  Total  estimated 
ordinary  revenue  for  the  year  1913,  $342,292,894.54  curso  legal; 


ARGENTINA  219 

and  for  the  year  1914,  $361,773,132.  The  new  budget,  signed  22 
Feb.  1917,  appropriates  the  same  amount  as  in  1916,  namely,  381,- 
000,000  paper  pesos  ($161,772,600).  The  latter  proved  to  be 
excessive.  The  income  for  custom  houses  and  port  services  during 
1916  amounted  to  $118,587,979,  against  $108,929,011  for  1915,  and 
$133,352,488  for  1914.  The  total  debt  of  the  Republic,  31  Dec.  1911 
was  $526,540,088  gold;  at  the  end  of  1912  it  was  $532,398,699  gold; 
on  31  Dec.  1913  it  amounted  to  $544,820,000  gold;  and  on  31  Dec. 
1914  it  was  $545,023,470  gold.  We  must  add  to  the  total  for  1913 
about  $100,000,000  gold  in  order  to  approximate  the  amount  of  the 
public  debt  in  1915  and  1916. 

Bibliography 

Americas,  The  (New  York  1914  et  seq.),  published  monthly  and  giving 
reliable  information;  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and 
Exchange  Conditions  (New  York  1915);  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings  of 
the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915) ;  Funes,  G.,  Ensayo  de  la  Historia 
Civil  ,de  Buenos  Aires  (Buenos  Aires  1856) ;  Gonzales,  V.,  Modern  Foreign 
Exchange  (New  York  1914) ;  Lough,  W.  H.,  Financial  Developments  in  South 
American  Countries  (Washington  1915).  See  also  Bibliographies  under  Agri- 
culture, History,  Government,  etc. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND   COMMUNICATION 

By  Marrion  Wilcox 

Shipping 

We  shall  first  consider  the  shipping  at  the  ports  of  the  river 
system  (La  Plata,  Parana,  etc.) ;  and  the  magnitude  of  British 
trading  interests  in  Argentina  is  one  of  the  facts  that  will  claim  our 
attention  immediately.  The  preponderating  share  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  the  sea-borne  commerce  of  the  Parana-La  Plata  river 
system,  as  the  South  American  Year  Book  suggests,  may  be 
summed  up  in  a  single  sentence :  the  number  and  tonnage  of  Brit- 
ish shipping  in  Argentine  waters  exceeds  that  of  all  the  other 
nations  put  together.  So  important  is  the  sea-carrying  trade  of 
the  British  flag,  and  so  keen  has  become  the  competition  of  foreign 
shipping,  that  even  so  slight  a  fall  in  the  relative  position  of 
British  shipping  as  i/^  per  cent  before  the  European  War  began 
was   commented   upon  by  British   writers   as    a   not   altogether 


220 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


propitious  sign.  Taking  the  shipping  of  all  the  ports  of  the  river 
Plata  as  a  whole,  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  owned  by  British  sub- 
jects represented  in  1912  no  less  than  3,557,700  tons,  or  6O14  per 
cent  of  the  total  shipping,  but  compared  with  1911  there  was  a 
falling-off  of  97,000  tons  to  be  recorded.  In  the  year  last  men- 
tioned the  British  tonnage  attained  3,654,700  tons,  or  61  per  cent 
of  the  tonnage  of  all  nations.  Germany  took  the  second  place  with 
661,400  tons,  followed  by  Italy  with  426,500  tons,  and  France  with 
400,000  tons.    Germany  and  France  were  credited  with  an  increase 


Docks  and    Elevators  at    Buenos  Aires,  AiytjtU;iia 
(Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Union) 


of  16,300  and  46,990  tons  respectively ;  the  Italian  flag  showing  the 
considerable  decrease  of  140,300  tons,  as  a  result  of  the  utilization 
of  liners  as  transports.  Under  the  Argentine  flag  we  find  78 
steam  vessels  with  43,001  tons,  and  9  sailing  vessels  with  7,052 
tons.  At  the  Atlantic  port  of  Bahia  Blanca,  during  the  normal 
period  before  August  1914,  the  number  and  tonnage  of  British 
vessels  nearly  doubled  in  the  short  space  of  a  single  year.  Prac- 
tically all  the  important  shipments  here  were  made  in  British  ves- 
sels, notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Germany  to  secure  a  footing 
in  this  trade.  Rapid  travel  has  become  a  necessity  in  Argentina 
as  elsewhere.  Competition  between  the  various  steamship  com- 
panies for  fast  services  between  Argentine  ports  and  Europe  has 
become  keener  than  ever. 

The  efforts  of  the  government  to  foster  the  Argentine  coast- 
ing trade  have  accomplished,  unfortunately,  very  little.     As  for 


ARGENTINA  221 

river  communication,  some  progress  is  now  being  made  and  the 
communications  with  Paraguay  by  the  Parana  River  are  grad- 
ually improving.  There  is  a  service  of  rather  light-draft  steamers 
from  Buenos  Aires  as  far  as  Asuncion,  while  transit  by  water 
between  the  capital  and  Rosario,  to  which  port  on  the  Parana 
River  ocean-going  steamships  ascend,  is  beginning  to  compete 
advantageously  with  the  railways.  From  a  handbook  prepared 
by  the  Pan  American  Union  {Argentine  Republic,  Washington, 
D.  C,  1916)  we  quote  as  follows:  "Austrian,  Belgian,  Brazilian, 
British,  Danish,  Dutch,  French,  German,  Italian,  Spanish  and 
Swedish  steamers  arrive  and  depart  regularly  from  the  ports  of 
Argentina  to  all  quarters  of  the  earth.     There  are  50  lines  with  « 

agencies  in  Buenos  Aires.  Regular  passenger  service  is  main- 
tained to  the  various  ports  of  Europe  and  steamers  leave  or  arrive 
several  times  a  week.  To  New  York,  while  there  are  not  so  many 
steamers,  opportunity  is  offered  at  least  once  in  a  fortnight  for  the 
traveler  to  take  a  direct  steamer."  Argentine  official  statistics 
show  that  since  the  year  1900  the  total  tonnage  (entrances  and 
clearings  to  and  from  ports  of  the  Argentine  Republic)  have 
increased  124.2  per  cent.  In  March  1917  a  regular  line  of  cargo 
steamers  was  inaugurated  between  Japan  and  Argentina  and 
Brazil.  This  line  calls  at  Vladivostok,  Chinese  ports,  Singapore, 
Durban  and  Cape  Town. 

Railway,  Postal  and  Telegraph  Services 

Argentine  railways  have  at  least  one  characteristic  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  those  of  the  other  South  American  countries ; 
each  is  part  of  a  system  designed  to  promote  the  development  of 
the  entire  Republic. 

For  a  number  of  years  practically  all  imports  were  sent  to 
Buenos  Aires,  and  thence  forwarded  to  the  centres  of  consump- 
tion. That  made  necessary  the  joining  of  Buenos  Aires  with  all 
the  interior  districts  by  a  number  of  radiating  main  lines.  These 
help  to  develop  the  agricultural  districts  they  influence,  which  in 
turn  give  them  a  large  amount  of  traffic.  Secondary  lines  are  then 
interconnected  and  the  points  where  such  lines  cross  the  original 
lines  become  in  turn  new  centres.  Subsequently,  radiating  lines 
were  constructed  from  other  important  places  also,  such  as  Bahia 
Blanca,  Rosario  and  Santa  Fe,  the  shipping  facilities  of  these  foci 
being  increased  to  accommodate  the  growing  traffic.  The  result  is 
seen  in  the  present  logically  developed  system  which  is  uncom- 
monly efficient  and  capable  of  almost  indefinite  expansion.  Up 
to  the  beginning  of  the  year  1 914  there  had  been  constructed  and, 


222  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

as  a  rule,  very  well  equipped,  20,502  miles  of  railways.  Of  these, 
6,226  miles  were  of  narrow  gauge;  1,611  miles  of  standard  gauge 
and  12,967  miles  of  broad  gauge.  Private  corporations  owned 
17,351  miles,  while  3,454  miles  belonged  to  the  State.  The  railway 
system  was  extended  391  miles  during  the  year  1913.  In  1915 
there  were  open  22,688  miles  of  railways,  of  which  4,136  miles 
belong  to  the  State.  This  railway  expansion  places  Argentina  in 
the  ninth  position,  with  respect  to  length  of  railways,  among  the 
countries  of  the  world;  more  extensive  systems  exist  only  in  the 
United  States,  Germany,  Russia,  France,  India,  Great  Britain, 
Austria-Hungary  and  Canada.  '^  The  nation  has  realized,"  says 
the  Argentine  Handbook,  "  that  to  have  a  population  to  develop 
the  rich  soil  of  the  country,  the  railway  must  go  in  advance 
of  settlement.  Surveys  have  therefore  been  encouraged  and 
actual  construction  has  been  hastened  into  regions  practically 
unvisited  by  man  until  then."  A  phase  of  the  railway  develop- 
ment during  1913  was  the  practical  completion  of  the  line  west- 
ward from  the  Port  of  San  Antonio,  in  Rio  Negro  Territory,  to 
Lake  Nauhal  Huape ;  the  plan  being  to  extend  this  road  into  Chile 
through  the  neighboring  Cordillera.  The  Southern  Railway  also 
has  continued  construction  from  Neuquen  toward  the  Andes,  and 
the  intention  is  to  cross  into  Chile  not  far  from  Valivia. 

The  provinces  of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe  and  Cordoba  excel  in 
the  development  of  their  railway  systems ;  but  each  large  political 
subdivision,  except  Los  Andes  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  has  at  least 
some  line  built  or  building.  The  government  by  its  plan  of  exten- 
sion has  carried  its  own  lines  into  Jujuy,  and  thus  to  the  Bolivian 
frontier,  where  connection  is  to  be  established  with  La  Paz.  Of 
international  interest  also  was  the  inauguration  and  operation 
(1913)  of  a  through  passenger  and  freight  service  between  Buenos 
Aires  and  Asuncion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay.  A  law  passed  by 
the  Argentine  Congress  in  1915  provides  for  the  collection  of  a 
pension  fund  for  railway  employees.  In  1912  a  law  was  passed 
providing  for  the  canalization  of  the  Upper  Uruguay;  the  work 
will  be  carried  out  jointly  by  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Uruguay.  A 
ferry  boat  service  will  also  be  established  between  Paraguay  and 
Argentina  at  Posadas  and  Encarnacion. 

The  so-called  Mitre  law,  which  went  into  effect  1  April  1908, 
is  of  great  importance  to  investors  in  Argentine  railways.  Article 
8  of  that  law  states,  with  regard  to  railways : 

The  materials  and  articles  for  construction  and  operation 
which  are  imported  into  the  country  shall  be  exempt  from  import 
taxes,  and  this   exemption   shall  be   effective  until  1  Jan.   1947. 


ARGENTINA  223 

The  company  shall  pay,  during  the  same  period,  regardless  of  the 
date  of  its  concession,  a  single  contribution  [tax]  equivalent  to 
3  per  cent  of  the  net  earnings  of  its  lines,  being  exempted  during 
same  period  from  all  other  national,  provincial,  or  municipal  taxes. 

In  1906  the  national  Supreme  Court  decided  that  this  law 
exempted  the  railway  companies  from  the  payment  of  any  tax 
except  the  3  per  cent  of  their  net  earning,  the  net  earnings  being 
assumed  to  be  40  per  cent  of  the  gross  earnings ;  but  it  has  recently 
revised  its  decision,  and  the  municipalities  are  now  attempting  to 
compel  the  railway  companies  to  pay  several  years'  back  taxes  for 
paving,  lighting,  etc.  Some  of  the  railway  companies  are  paying 
the  municipal  taxes  under  protest.  The  principal  railway  com- 
panies operating  in  the  Republic  have  asked  Congress  to  pass  a 
resolution  enjoining  the  municipalities  and  provinces  from  collect- 
ing these  taxes,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  present  Congress  will 
decide  definitely  what  interpretation  is  to  be  placed  on  the  law. 

The  3  per  cent  tax  is  expended  on  improvement  to  highways 
leading  to  the  stations  of  the  railway  paying  the  tax. 

The  organization  of  posts  and  telegraphs  was  established  1 
by  law  in  1878.    Argentina  is  a  member  of  the  Universal  Postal  \ 
Union,  and  the  parcel-post  convention  with  the  United  States  was  \ 
signed  in  September  1915.    The  mails  receive  systematic  attention,  ( 
and  delivery  is  made  to  every  place  in  the  country.    The  number    ' 
of  permanent  employees  is  about  13,500  and  about  1,250,000,000   I 
pieces  are  carried  annually  by  railways,  steamers,  stage-coaches, 
and  mounted  messengers.    In  May  1913,  there  were  43,202  miles  of 
telegraph,  with  about  2,600  telegraph  offices,  employing  more  than   \ 
10,000  persons  in  the  service.    The  revenue  of  the  Postal  Depart- 
ment was  $4,967,910  for  1914-15.     The  government  owns  about 
one-half  of  the  telegraph  system  and  the  provinces  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  Entre  Rios  have  lines.    Cable  service  between  Argentina 
and  other  countries  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  private  companies. 
By  agreement  with  Bolivia,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  the  charges 
to  those  countries  are  the  same  as  the  Argentine  inland  rates. 
Argentina  was  the  -first  of  South  American  states  to  adopt  wireless 
telegraphy.     There  are  12  stations  for  wireless  telegraphy.     All   j 
ships  with  a  crew  of  over  50  and  touching  at  Argentine  ports  are  ( 
compelled  by  law  to  be  provided  with  wireless  equipment. 

Consult  Killik,  S.  H.  M.,  Manual  of  Argentine  Railways;  Pan 
American  Union,  Argentine  Republic  (Washington  1916) ;  Mar- 
tinez, A.  B.,  Baedeker  of  the  Argentine  Republic  (4th  ed..  New 
York  and  London  1916).  See  Bibliographies  under  Agric;ulture 
IN  Argentina,  etc. 


224 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 

Military  service  is  compulsory  to  all  Argentine  citizens 
for  the  nominal  term  of  25  years,  between  the  ages  of  20 
and  45.  By  means  of  an  annual  drawing  of  lots  conscripts  of  20 
years  of  age  are  designated  to  serve  for  one  year  (Army)  or  two 
years  (Navy).  Conscripts  who  can  not  read  and  w^rite  are  taught 
during  the  term  of  military  service.  Those  joining  the  Army  are 
also  given  instruction  in  agriculture.  After  the  conscription  ser- 
vice the  citizens  do  not  receive  military  training  although  they 
belong  to  the  Active  Army  (first  10  years),  then  make  up  the 
National  Guard  (following  10  years),  and  lastly  the  Territorial 
Guard  (remaining  five  years).  There  is  also  provision  for  soldiers 
enlisting  under  contract  for  citizens  serving  as  a  punishment  for 
breach  of  the  Military  Law,  and  for  voluntarily  enlisted  musicians. 

The  total  establishment  of  the  standing  army  was  about  22,000 
in  1916.  The  compulsory  service  was  created  in  1901  and  since 
that  time  nearly  200,000  men  have  been  trained.  All  officers  in  the 
Army  are  graduates  from  the  Military  School  at  San  Martin. 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Argentine  Republic  consists  of  14  Pi"ovinces,  10  Tenitories  and  a  Federal 
District.  These,  with  their  areas  and  populations,  capitals  and  populations,  are  as 
follows : 


PROVINCES 

Area 

(in  square 

miles) 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

Buenos  Aires  (Federal  District) 

72 
117,777 
50,713 
66,912 
29,241 
33,535 
29,035 
55,385 
10,422 
56,502 
37,865 
37,839 
36,800 
48,302 
14>8^ 

11,511 
41,402 
52,741 
56,320 
40,530 
79,805 
93,427 
109,142 
8,299 
34,740 

1,594,170 
2,155,118 
922,406 
598,545 
423,100 
365,434 
126,895 
247,004 
348,582 
296,553 
130,412 
104,550 
112,995 
161,150 
73,062 

1,594,170 

Buenos  Aires 

La  Plata 

106,382 

Santa  F6 

Santa  F6                     .    . 

40,000 

C6rdoba 

95,000 

Entre  Rios 

65,000 

Corrientes 

30,000 

San  Luis 

25,000 

Santiago  del  Estero 

12,000 

Tucumdn 

79,000 

Mendoza 

60,000 

San  Juan 

18,000 

La  Rioja 

12,000 

Catamarca 

15.000 

Salta 

Salta                            

38,000 

Jujuy 

10,000 

Territories 

Misiones 

52,603 

27,902 

49,500 

98,841 

30,085 

37,302 

25,143 

8,6,30 

2,420 

2,552 

8,000 

Formosa 

Chaco 

Pampa  Central 

Rio  Negro 

Chubut 

Santa  Cruz 

Tierra  del  Fuego 

Total 

1,153,119 

7,979,259 

ARGENTINA  225 

Buenos  Aires 

The  capital  of  Argentina  is  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
150  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  and  125  miles  west  of  Montevideo.  The  river  here  is 
30  miles  wide,  and  the  city  is  not  more  than  25  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  the 
largest  city  in  South  America  and,  after  Paris,  the  largest  city  of  the  Latin  races 
in  the  world.  It  is  coextensive  with  the  Federal  District  (72.8  square  miles),  has 
considerably  more  than  one-sixth  of  all  the  people  of  Argentina,  and  is  the  centre 
of  the  conmiercial,  political,  social,  and  industrial  life  of  the  Republici/f  Over  80 
per  cent  of  the  country's  imports  and  57  per  cent  of  the  exports  pass  through  it. 
The  temperature  is  moderate,  ranging  between  79°  and  55°  F.  The  tremendous 
amount  of  business  transacted  annually,  the  large  number  of  iinmigrants  of  all 
nationalities  coming  to  it,  the  up-to-date  improvenients,  land  the  general  air  of 
progress  and  business  activity  make  it  distinctly  cosmopolitan  rather  than  Latin 
American  in  character.  The  older  streets  of  the  city  are  narrow  and  on  many 
downtown  business  streets  traffic  is  allowed  to  go  in  only  one  direction.  In  recent 
years  traffic  congestion  has  become  so  pronounced  as  to  be  a  serious  problem,  and 
in  order  to  relieve  it  an  underground  tube  has  been  constructed  for  some  of  the 
street  car  lines.  In  general,  the  streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  cut 
by  avenues  and  boulevards,  some  of  which  are  100  feet  in  width.  The  streets  are 
well  paved  with  asphalt,  wooden  blocks,  granite  blocks,  and  macadam.  There  are  60 
or  70  plazas  and  parks  and  considerable  attention  is  given  to  this  feature  of  the 
city's  growth.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  of  the  city  is  its  extensive 
street  car  service,  the  tracks  running  on  almost  every  street  and  intersecting  each 
other  at  the  street  corners.  The  service  is  good  and  the  fare  is  low.  Over  355,000,000 
passengers  are  carried  annually  and  the  receipts  are  about  $15,000,000.  The  total 
length  of  tracks  is  about  450  miles.  There  are  six  terminal  stations  of  railroads 
connecting  the  city  with  the  north,  south,  and  west.  Numerous  steamers  ply 
between  it  and  Montevideo  and  to  towns  along  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers 
and  affluents  for  a  distance  of  2,250  miles  to  the  borders  of  western  Brazil.  Buenos 
Aires  is  connected  with  foreign  countries  by  cable  and  has  an  extensive  telephone 
and  telegraph  system.  It  is  the  terminal  port  of  12  transatlantic  steamship  lines.  / 
The  city's  only  natural  harbor  is  the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  the  Riachuelo,  but  only 
light  craft  drawing  18  feet  or  less  can  make  use  of  it.  The  principal  harbor  has 
been  constructed  at  enormous  expense.  It  consists  of  two  basins  and  four  docks, 
with  a  water  area  of  788,000  square  yards,  and  with  customs  warehouses  capable 
of  holding  some  400,000  tons.  Four  new  docks,  with  a  water  depth  of  33  feet, 
and  with  accommodations  for  5,000,000  tons  of  shipping  annually,  are  in  course 
of  construction  at  a  cost  of  $23,750,000.  These  docks  will  connect  at  the  water's 
edge  with  the  railway  terminals.  There  are  33  warehouses  with  a  capacity  of^ 
1,100,000  tons,  and  having  a  frontage  of  over  3  miles  on  the  wharves.  There  are 
over  200  hydraulic  cranes,  numerous  elevators,  capstans,  swingbridges,  etc.,  and  a 
floating  crane  of  35  tons.  There  are  over  60  miles  of  railroad  tracks  adjacent 
to  the  port.  Modern  grain  elevators  have  been  installed  with  a  capacity  of  300,000 
tons.  The  live-stock  wharf  can  accommodate  50,000  sheep  and  2,000  cattle.  The 
Central  Produce  Market  is  one  of  the  largest  warehouse  buildings  in  the  world.  It 
covers  an  area  of  over  150,000  square  yards,  has  72  cranes  and  elevators,  44  hydraulic 
presses,  and  a  capacity  for  200,000  tons  of  wool,  hides  and  other  products  of  the 
cattle  raising  industry.  Buenos  Aires  is  also  the  principal  industrial  centre  of  the 
Republic.    There  are  11,400  factories  in  operation.    These  have  a  combined  capital 

16 


226  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  over  $ijO0,000,000  and  150,000  enij^loyees.  The  principal  products  of  these 
establishments  are  machinery,  carriages,  furniture,  flour,  shoes,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, leather,  tobacco,  hats,  textiles,  canned  fruits  and  vegetables,  glass,  and 
liquors.  Buenos  Aires  is  5,220  miles  from  London  and  4,370  miles  from  New  York. 
The  imports  at  Buenos  Aires  in  1915  v.ere  $181,514,180  and  the  exports 
$223,312,256.  It  is  thus  the  second  port  in  America  (New  York  being  the  first) 
and  the  11th  in  the  world.  The  entries  of  forei^  vessels  in  1915  numbered  4,104, 
of  9,986,400  tons.  Home  traffic  entries  amounted  to  23,600  vessels  of  5,780,000 
tons.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  wool,  sheep  and  cattle  products;  grain, 
and  live-stock.  Most  of  the  imports  from  the  United  States  to  Argentina  enter 
through  the  port  of  Buenos  Aires.  Tlie  import  trade  from  the  United  States  in 
1915  amounted  to  $45,180,000  gold,  or  more  than  a  third  of  the  total  export  from 
the  United  States  to  South  American  ports,  which  was  $124,500,000  in  the  same 
year.  During  the  first  nine  months  of  1916  the  movement  of  cars  over  the  rail- 
ways of  the  port  ^totaled  259,392  goods  vans,  carrying  2,372,816  tons  of  cai^o,  and 
1,584  cattle  cars.  These  figures  include  cargo  brought  to  Buenos  Aires  for  embarka- 
tion or  for  storage  in  elevators,  that  discharged  or  imported,  and  that  in  transit 
to  other  lines.  The  figures  are  divided  as  follows :  Coming  into  the  port,  1,613,914 
metric  tons;  leaving  the  port,  363,663  tons;  in  transit,  395,239  tons.  The  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  1,594,170.  According  to  the  1909  census  the  population  of 
the  city  included  670,513  Argentines,  277,041  Italians,  174,291  Spaniards,  25,751 
French,  7,113  English,  and  7,444  Germans.  Of  the  28,632  trading  firms  4,713  were 
Argentine,  10,875  Italian,  6,318  Spanish,  747  English,  and  756  German.  North 
Americ&ns  operate  44  connnercial  establishments  with  a  joint  capital  of  $1,125,000 
gold  and  seven  industrial  establishments  with  a  capital  of  $322,000  gold.  Buenos 
Aires  is  the  official  residence  of  the  Ambassador  of  the  United  States  accredited  to 
Argentina  and  the  seat  of  a  consul  general  of  the  United  States. 

Bahla  Blanca 

I  Bahia  Blanca  is  a  port  of  rapidly  growing  importance,  ranking  next  to  Rosario 

in  volume  of  over-sea  trade.  It  is  situated  in  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  534  miles 
down  the  coast  from  the  capital,  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  this  section  of  the 
coast  with  28  feet  of  water  and  is  connected  with  the  interior  by  four  tracks  of  two 
great  railway  systems.  It  affords  a  convenient  outlet  for  a  lai"ge  section  of  pro- 
ductive country.  There  are  two  grain  elevators  here  with  a  capacity  of  26,000 
tons  and  facilities  for  quick  loading.  The  city  has  three  ports,  and  with  dry  docks, 
fortifications,  etc.,  is  the  home  of  the  Argentine  Navy.  The  leading  articles  of  its 
export  trade  are  wool  and  grain.  About  365,000  tons  of  wheat,  66,000  tons  of 
wool,  9,000  bales  of  sheepskins,  and  18,000  tons  of  frozen  meat  are  shipped  annually 
at  this  port.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent. 

Rosario 

This  city,  the  second  in  commercial  importance  in  Argentina,  is  situated  in 
the  Province  of  Santa  Fe,  214  miles  by  river  and  175  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Buenos  Aires.  It  stands  on  a  high  bluff  on  the  bank  of  the  Parana  River,  has  wide 
streets,  with  electric  street  car  service  and  electric  lights.  It  is  entered  by  five 
railroads  and  is  substantially  built.  Rosario  is  the  principal  port  and  outlet  for 
the  products  of  the  northern  provinces  of  the  Republic.  It  is  also  important  as  an 
importing  port  for  the  same  region  and  its  river  commerce  is  considerable.  Ocean 
steamships  have  access  to  its  wharves.  There  are  numerous  grain  elevators.  The 
principal   articles  of  export   are  wheat,  hides  and  other  agricultural   and  cattle 


ARGENTINA  227 

products,  metals  and  ores.  Its  exports  in  1913  were  valued  at  $87,857,417  and  the 
imports  at  $35,997,341.  It  contains  eight  up-to-date  shoe  factories,  with  good  light- 
ing and  ventilation  and  modern  American  power  equipment.  There  are  also  meat- 
packing establishments,  sawmills,  breweries,  tanneries,  sugar  mills,  soap,  candle  and 
grease  factories,  brick,  tile  and  cement  works,  tailoring  and  dressmaking  establish- 
ments, tobacco  and  cigar  manufactories,  foundries,  paper  and  cardboard  factories. 
Rosario  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the  Republic  with  a  population  of  180,000. 

Cordoba 

This  flourishing  city,  the  capital  ot  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated 
on  the  Rio  Primero,  a  tributary  of  the  Parana.  It  is  246  miles  by  rail  northwest 
of  Rosario  and  535  from  Buenos  Aires.  It  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about 
1,200  feet,  is  regularly  laid  out  and  well-built.  It  contains  many  notable  buildings 
including  the  National  Observatory,  Irrigation  is  practised  in  the  surrounding 
district  and  the  city  is  an  important  commercial  centre.  Calcite  beds  are  worked 
nearby  and  there  are  manufactures  of  building  nuiterial,  lime,  bricks  and  flour. 
Live-stock,  hides  and  wool  are  exported.  A  dam  has  been  built  across  the  Rio 
l*rimero  about  12  miles  above  the  city ;  this  gives  the  city  a  good  water  supply  and 
furnishes  irrigation  and  power  for  an  electric  plant.  The  University  of  Cordoba  is 
the  most  ancient  in  the  Republic. 

Tucuman  or  San  Miguel  de  Tucuman 

The  capital  of  the  province  of  Tucuman  is  situated  on  the  Sali,  720  miles  north- 
west of  Buenos  Aires,  with  whidi  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It  is  well  built  but  the 
streets  are  narrow.  Its  importance  as  a  commercial  centre  is  increasing  in  pro- 
portion to  the  development  of  the  region  it  serves.  Gold,  silver  and  copper  are 
exported  in  small  quantities,  but  agricultural  products  are  the  chief  articles  of 
trade.    The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  university. 

Mendoza 

Mendoza,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Andes,  647  miles  west  of  Buenos  Aires.  Here  connection  is  made  with  a 
narrow-gauge  Chilean  line,  which,  passing  through  the  trans-Andine  tunnel,  gives 
a  coast-to-coast  railway  connection  between  Buenos  Aires  and  Valparaiso,  Chile, 
a  distance  of  888  miles.  The  city  is  well  built  and  has  an  electric  street  railway 
and  an  agricultural  institute.  It  is  the  principal  trade  centre  between  Chile  and 
Argentina. 

La  Plata 

This  city  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires  since  1882,  when  Buenos 
Aires  was  constituted  a  Federal  District.  Being  built  according  to  a  matured  plan 
and  at  great  expenditure  of  money,  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the 
country.  It  is  located  on  the  river  Plata,  30  miles  southeast  of  Buenos  Aires,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  electric  and  steam  railways.  It  contains  a  fine  museum, 
an  observatory.  Government  House,  treasury,  library,  and  various  theatres, 
churches,  etc.,  has  electric  street  cars,  and  is  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity.  It  is 
becoming  more  and  more  prominent  as  a  shipping  port,  as  the  harbor  is  a  good 
one,  being  1,450  yards  long,  150  yards  wide,  and  over  20  feet  deep.  The  port  is 
actually  five  miles  north  of  La  Plata  and  is  called  Ensenada.  La  Plata  is  a  centre 
for  the  meat  trade,  and  to  this  fact  is  to  be  ascribed  in  great  part  its  increasing 
importance  as  a  port  of  export.     There  are  several  factories. 


BOLIVIA 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND   CLIMATE 

BOLIVIA,  bo-lev'ya,  an  inland  republic  of  South  America,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Brazil,  northwest  by  Peru, 
southwest  by  Chile,  south  by  Argentina  and  Paraguay.  It 
extends  from  north  to  south  between  lat.  10°  20'  S.  and  22°  50'  S.  and 
from  east  to  west  between  Ion.  57°  47'  40"  W.  (Compare  treaty 
with  Brazil  17  Nov.  1903)  and  about  72°  W.  According  to  Bolivian 
claims,  asserted  in  1916,  the  limits  should  be  stated  as  follows: 
Ion.  57°  29'  40"  W.  and  69°  33'  35"  W.,  and,  on  the  eastern  side, 
lat.  9°  34'  50"  to  25°  13'  S.  and,  on  the  western  side,  lat.  10° 
56'  40"  S.  to  25°  00'  05"  S.  Area,  exclusive  of  contested  claims, 
estimated  at  560,000  square  miles;  but,  including  the  Bolivian 
claims,  it  is  officially  stated  to  be  597,460  or  708,195  square  miles. 

The  principal  centres  of  population  are  now,  and  apparently, 
have  always  been,  located  in  the  mountainous  region  of  the  west- 
ern half  of  the  country.  The  eastern  districts,  stretching  away 
from  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  far  into  the  torrid  interior  of  the 
continent,  are  but  sparsely  settled.  Running  southeast  through 
the  departments  of  La  Paz,  Cochabamba,  and  Potosi  is  the  princi- 
pal range  of  the  Andes  Mountains,  called  the  Cordillera  Real. 
Here  are  the  rich  mineral  districts  of  Bolivia :  the  Cerro  Rico  de 
Potosi  alone  has  produced  up  to  the  present  time  about  $2,000,- 
000,000  worth  of  silver.  Here  are  some  of  the  highest  mountains 
of  America  and  one  of  the  greatest  continuous  snow-ranges  in  the 
world,  having  an  average  altitude  of  20,000  feet,  with  the  superb 
peaks  of  Illimani,  Sorata,  and  lUampu  lifted  two  or  three  thousand 

[228] 


BOLIVIA 


229 


feet  still  higher  above  their  gigantic  associates.  (Consult  Con- 
way, W.  M.,  The  Bolivian  Andes,  New  York  and  London  1901.) 
The  western  range  of  the  Andes  continues  in  a  line  parallel  with 
the  Pacific  coast,  rejoining  the  Cordillera  Real  near  Bolivia's 
southern  boundary.  Between  these  two  ranges  are  the  high  plains, 
12,000  to  13,000  feet,  and  Lake  Titicaca,  12,488  feet,  above  the  sea- 
level.  This  great  sheet  of  water,  120  miles  long,  and  from  30  to 
50  miles  wide,  has  an  average  depth  of  100  fathoms.  Lying  south- 
east of  Lake  Titicaca  are  the  two  most  famous  cities  of  the 
republic,  La  Paz  and  Sucre.  Three  lines  of  railway  connect  the 
former,  and  the  principal  cities  of  the  high  plateaux,  with  the 
Pacific  ports  Mollendo,  Arica,  and  Antofagasta. 

The  many  different  altitudes  in  Bolivia  make  it  possible  for 
the  settler  to  choose  his  own  climate.  The  tropical  lowlands  are 
practically  the  only  section  at  all  unhealthful.  Residents  of  the 
upper  plateau  regions  who  are  unaccustomed  to  such  high  alti- 
tudes are  in  the  habit  of  spending  a  part  of  each  year  on  the  coast. 
In  the  region  10,000  to  13,000  feet  above  sea  level  the  temperature 
averages  about  r)0°F. ;  between  2,000  and  9,000  feet  altitude  63°F., 
and  74°F.  in  eastern  plains  and  lowlands  near  the  headwaters  of 
the  Amazon. 

In  the  valleys  known  as  Yungas,  and  in  the  regions  of  the 
plains  and  forests  of  the  north  and  northeast,  the  cold  of  winter  is 
unknown.  This,  roughly  speak- 
ing, is  true  of  the  entire  east- 
ern region  which  is  divided 
into  watersheds  —  that  of  the 
Amazon  basin  and  that  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata-Parana-Para- 
guay river-system.  In  the  lat- 
ter are  the  Pilcomayo,  the 
Bermejo,  etc. ;  in  the  former 
the  Beni,  the  Guapore  or 
Itinez,  and  the  Mamore  — 
three  great  rivers  forming,  in 
the  main,  the  Rio  Madeira. 
Really,  there  are  only  two 
seasons  in  these  parts:  the 
summer,  or  rainy  season,  last- 
ing from  December  to  May, 
and  the  winter,  or  dry  season, 
lasting  from  June  to  Novem-  """^"'ttn^T^Zr^T  "' 

ber.      But  on  the  high  table-land       The    Plaza    San    Francisco,    La    Paz,    Bolivia 


230  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

one  finds  four  seasons  —  spring,  which  begins  in  August  and  ends 
in  October,  and  is  characterized  by  gales  of|  wind  with  moderate 
temperature;  summer  (November-February),  at  first  dry  and  hot 
but  in  the  second  period  rainy ;  autumn,  the  season  of  gentle  heat, 
and  here  a  brief  season,  extending  over  the  month  of  March  and 
April  only;  winter,  including  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July, 
the  season  of  low  temperatures,  icy  winds,  and  snow.  In  these 
highlands,  as  at  equal  altitudes  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  a  trav- 
eller must  make  preparation,  by  physical  training,  to  resist  the 
attack  of  soroche  (the  local  name  for  mountain-sickness),  caused 
by  the  diminution  of  oxygen  in  the  air.  The  subject  of  soroche, 
inasmuch  as  it  must  be  considered  in  connection  with  travel  in  at 
least  five  of  the  South  American  Republics,  is  discussed  in  the 
article  Latin  America. 


HISTORY  OF  BOLIVIA 

The  country  was  formed  in  1825  from  the  province  of 
Upper  Peru,  and  named  in  honor  of  the  South  American  Liberator, 
Simon  Bolivar.  Partly  within  Peruvian  and  partly  within  Boli- 
vian territory  are  the  waters  of  Lake  Titicaca,  on  the  shores  of 
which  we  find  monuments  of  semi-civilization  antedating  the  Inca 
conquest  by  more  than  1,000,  perhaps  even  several  thousand,  years. 
From  the  earliest  times,  therefore,  Peru  and  Bolivia  must  have 
been  united.  The  Incas  of  Cuzco  overran  this  district  in  the  14th 
century,  and  200  years  afterward  Hernando  Pizarro  added  it  to 
the  conquest  his  brother  had  made  at  the  heart  of  the  Inca  empire. 
Lender  the  Spaniards,  then,  it  was  known  as  the  district  or  terri- 
tory of  the  high  court  of  Charcasj  and  remained  subject  to  the 
viceroy  of  Peru  until  1776,  when  it  became  a  province  of  the  new 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Aires.  Before  the  coming  of  Pizarro  the 
Sierra  supplied  a  large  part  of  the  gold  used  for  the  decoration 
of  the  temples  and  palaces  of  the  Incas;  after  the  Spanish  con- 
quest the  natives  were  driven  to  work,  to  contiime  or  increase  the 
output  of  precious  metals  for  the  benefit  of  masters  whose  ruth- 
less severity  was  conspicuous  even  in  that  age.  There  is  no 
entirely  trustworthy  record  of  the  numbers  of  those  who  perished 
in  the  mines,  but  w^e  know  that  a  large  Indian  population  was 
reduced  to  its  present  proportions  in  the  course  of  two  centuries. 
Taxation  was  oppressive;  provincial  governors  became  monopo- 
lists, from  whom  the  natives  were  obliged  to  purchase  their  sup- 


BOLIVIA  231 

plies ;  here,  as  elsewhere  in  America,  colonists  were  forbidden  to 
raise  any  crops  or  manufacture  any  articles  which  could  interfere 
with  the  industries  of  the  mother  country.  Commerce  was  so 
strictly  limited  to  Spain  that  even  neighboring  colonies  were  for- 
bidden to  have  commercial  dealings  with  one  another.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  18th  century  the  resentment  of  the  Indians  was 
expressed  in  several  insurrections  (1780-82) ;  early  in  the  19th 
the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Peru  aided  the  Bolivians  in 
their  struggle  for  independence  (July  1809  to  August  1825).  Gen. 
Santa  Cruz  was  in  command  of  the  expeditions  from  Lima  which 
failed  to  drive  out  the  Spanish  troops  in  1823.  But  in  the  follow- 
ing year  General  Sucre,  marching  from  the  same  country  at  the 
head  of  an  army  encouraged  by  the  victory  of  Ayacucho,  was 
favored  by  a  rising  of  patriots  in  all  the  principal  towns.  By 
February  1825  La  Paz  was  in  the  power  of  the  revolutionists,  and 
in  March  the  Spaniards  lost  their  only  remaining  stronghold,  the 
province  of  Potosi. 

Deputies  from  the  various  provinces  met  at  the  capital,  and 
before  the  dissolution  of  this  Assembly  (6  Oct.  1825)  independence 
was  declared.  The  Constitution  adopted  then  (subsequently  modi- 
fied in  important  respects)  was  prepared  by  General  Bolivar,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  views  entertained  by  the  great  Liberator  at 
this  period  in  his  career,  when  he  was  master  of  Colombia  and 
Peru  as  well,  it  vested  the  supreme  authority  in  a  president  chosen 
for  life.  The  first  incumbent  was  General  Sucre,  who  accepted  the 
presidency  for  the  space  of  two  years  only,  and  took  the  further 
precaution  to  retain  2,000  Colombian  soldiers  for  his  protection. 
In  1827  he  and  his  Colombians  were  actually  expelled  from  the 
country. 

Since  1827  Bolivia  has  had  70  presidents  or  dictators.  In 
1828  Santa  Cruz  came  into  power  and  was  confronted  with  a  revo- 
lution the  following  year.  In  1835,  interposing  in  a  quarrel  of 
political  factions  in  Peru,  he  defeated  Gamarra,  and  named  him- 
self Protector  of  that  country.  Chile  refusing  to  consent  to  the 
proposed  union  of  her  neighbors,  three  years  of  fighting  ensued. 
Santa  Cruz  was  defeated  and  exiled  in  1839,  but  his  party  in 
Bolivia  kept  up  the  agitation  and  finally  conferred  the  presidency 
upon  General  Ballivian.  Meanwhile  Gamarra,  who  had  become 
President  of  Peru,  tried  to  annex  the  department  of  La  Paz.  He 
lost  his  life  in  this  attempt,  and  then  the  Bolivians  in  their  turn 
would  have  invaded  Peru  if  Chile  had  not  again  intervened.  Bal- 
livian surrendered  his  thankless  task  in  1848.  The  next  President, 
Belzu,  was  borne  into  office  on  the  crest  of  a  wave  of  revolution; 


232  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

by  a  revolutionary  storm  liis  successor,  Cordova,  was  driven  from 
office  and  from  the  land.  Linares  made  himself  Dictator  in  1858, 
and  was  deposed  in  1861.  President  Acha,  his  successor,  fell 
from  power  when  his  forces  were  defeated  in  battle  by  his  political 
antagonist,  Melgarejo  (February  1865).  The  latter  may  be  char- 
acterized as  a  revolutionist  until  1865 ;  President  from  that  time 
until  1869;  Dictator  from  1869  to  1871.  Morales,  elected  in  the 
year  last  mentioned,  Avas  succeeded  in  1873  by  President  Ballivian, 
who  died  before  a  twelvemonth  had  passed.  Frias,  next  to  take 
office,  was  deposed  two  years  later  by  the  troops,  who  proclaimed 
General  Daza  President. 

In  1879-1883  Bolivia  and  Peru  were  at  war  with  Chile,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  allies  stripped  from  the  weakest  of  the  contestants 
her  only  possessions  on  the  Pacific.  Bolivia  became  a  landlocked 
country.  The  national  anger  vented  itself  first  upon  the  President 
whom  the  army  had  lifted  up,  and  who  now  fled  to  escape  assassi- 
nation. But  Campero,  whom  Congress  chose  to  carry  on  the  war, 
and  who  personally  led  the  Bolivian  troops  in  the  field,  was  wholly 
unable  to  oppose  Chile's  demands  alone,  and  Peru  was  an  ally 
without  power  to  aid.  Bolivia  saw  herself  obliged  to  acquiesce 
in  an  arrangement  which  some  of  her  leaders  hopefully  regarded 
as  provisional  and  temporary.  Her  bit  of  coast  line  and  most  of 
the  coveted  nitrate  of  soda  deposits  in  the  districts  of  Cobija  and 
TarapacR, —  territory  aggregating  70,181  square  miles,  with  about 
6,000  inhabitants, —  passed  into  Chile's  keeping.  (For  an  account 
of  the  War  of  the  Pacific,  see  Chile:  Peru.) 

Coinci dentally,  the  failure  in  1879-80,  after  years  of  effort,  to 
secure  the  opening  of  a  commercial  outlet  for  Bolivian  products 
to  the  Atlantic  through  the  Amazon  River  and  its  great  tributary, 
the  Madeira,  was  a  severe  blow.  The  American  contractors  for 
the  Madeira  and  Mamore  Railway  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil  were 
deprived  of  the  funds  necessary  to  the  prosecution  of  the  enter- 
prise by  the  withdrawal  of  the  loan  that  had  been  placed  in  Eng- 
land in  1872  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  this  much-needed 
road.  The  undertaking  was,  nevertheless,  brought  to  a  successful 
conclusion  35  years  afterward.  (See  below :  Railways,  and  Brazil, 
—  Transportation.  ) 

The  Constitution  of  28  Oct.  1880  vested  the  legislative  power 
in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  and  the  executive 
powder  in  a  president  elected  for  four  years  by  direct  universal 
suffrage.  But  little  or  no  improvement  in  the  political  situation 
was  observed.  President  Campero  was  succeeded  by  Gregorio 
Pacheco,  and  then  came  Aniceto  Arce   (1  Aug.  1888).     It  was 


BOLIVIA  233 

necessary  to  declare  a  state  of  siege  in  all  parts  of  the  republic 
in  the  summer  of  1890.  Attempts  were  made  to  overthrow  the 
government,  and  a  number  of  political  leaders  were  arrested.  The 
election  of  a  successor  to  President  Arce  took  place  3  May  1892. 
Violent  collisions  between  the  rival  factions  again  compelled  the 
authorities  to  proclaim  a  state  of  siege  —  which  was  continued 
even  after  the  inauguration  of  the  new  president,  Baptista,  on 
6  August.  Indian  revolts  also  occurred  in  this  year,  originating  in 
both  the  north  and  the  south,  and  spreading  rapidly  through  the 
entire  country.  The  barbarous  practices  of  the  Indians  were,  as 
is  usual  in  this  most  repulsive  species  of  warfare,  matched  by  the 
repressive  measures  of  the  Bolivian  troops. 

Chile  furnished  arms  and  money  to  uphold  the  Baptista  gov- 
ernment; and  the  dependence  of  the  country  without  sea  coast 
upon  the  country  all  sea  coast  for  a  while  was  painfully  evident. 
Bolivia  had  been  placed  in  a  position  such  that  any  one  of  her 
three  powerful  neighbors, —  Chile,  Argentina,  or  Brazil, —  could 
win  her  allegiance  by  conferring  substantial  favors,  or  even  by  a 
display  of  international  courtesy.  Following  Chile's  diplomatic 
overtures,  Argentina  undertook  to  open  up  a  way  to  the  sea  bj^ 
a  new  railroad  connecting  the  Sierra  with  her  river  system. 
Brazil's  attitude  remained  in  doubt,  until  the  treaty  of  17  Nov. 
1903  showed  that  Acre,  competing  with  Brazil  in  the  production 
of  rubber,  was  demanded  as  the  price  of  any  concession  of  a  right 
of  way. 

When  Fernandez  Alonzo  was  elected  to  the  presidency  in 
1896  his  opponents  protested  that  the  government  had  tampered 
with  the  returns  in  such  a  way  as  to  change  the  expression  of  the 
people's  will  under  the  constitutional  guaranty  of  universal  suf- 
frage, and  an  uprising  was  successful  in  1899.  The  revolutionists, 
under  Col.  Jose  Manuel  Pando,  defeated  the  government  forces 
in  a  pitched  battle;  President  Alonzo  fled  over  the  Andes  into 
Chile,  and  reorganization  of  the  government  was  effected,  with 
Seiior  Pando  at  its  head.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  record  the  new  orien- 
tation of  domestic  politics  beginning  at  that  time.  The  Pando, 
Villazon,  and  Monies  administrations  have  devoted  themselves 
to  the  solution  of  economic  problems,  keeping  the  best  interests 
of  the  country  steadily  in  view  and  endeavoring  with  marked 
success  to  stabilize  the  national  policy.  Bolivia  and  Chile  signed, 
in  1904,  a  treaty  of  amity  that  replaced  the  peace  treaty  dating 
from  1884  and  removed  in  large  measure  Bolivia's  fiscal  and  eco- 
nomic dependence  upon  Peru  and  Chile.  The  able  French  writer, 
M.  P.  Walle,  says  that  when  President  Villazon  «irae  into  power 


234  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  country  was  still  suffering  from  the  effects  of  a  long  economic 
crisis,  the  scarcity  of  capital  being  such  that  the  most  insignificant 
transactions  were  often  paralyzed.  It  was  then  that  Seiior  Vil- 
lazon  conceived  the  idea  of  attracting  European  capital  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  great  bank,  and  thereby  stimulating  the 
industrial  and  commercial  life  of  the  country.  The  loan  of 
$7,5(X),000,  which  was  concluded  in  ]  910  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Credit  Mobilier  Fran^ais,  made  it  possible  to  found  the  Bank  of 
the  Bolivian  Nation,  The  results  obtained  are  encouraging:  in 
1915  and  1916  the  bank  proved  to  be  a  source  of  strength  for  the 
vigorous  Montes  administration. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  Constitution  adopted  28  Oct.  1880  provides  for  a  govern- 
ment embracing  President,  two  Vice-Presidents,  cabinet  of  six 
ministers,  Senate,  and  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  President  and 
Vice-Presidents  are  elected  for  four  years  by  popular  vote.  They 
are  not  eligible  for  reelection  for  the  term  immediately  following. 
All  unmarried  males  over  22,  and  married  men  over  18,  who  can 
read  and  write  and  own  real  estate,  or  have  annual  income  of 
$40,  are  entitled  to  vote.  The  cabinet  is  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. The  Senate  consists  of  16  members  (two  from  each  Depart- 
ment) elected  for  six  years,  one-third  retiring  every  two  years. 
There  are  75  members  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  for 
four  years,  one-half  retiring  every  two  years.  The  Senate  and 
Chamber  meet  annually  for  60  days,  or,  when  public  business 
requires,  for  90  days.  During  the  sessions,  senators  and  deputies 
receive  $200  each  month.  The  army,  trained  by  European  officers, 
numbers  (active  and  first  reserve)  about  52,500  men. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Education  is  state-aided,  compulsory,  and  gratuitous.  Schools 
are  under  the  control  of  municipalities,  except  those,  relatively 
few,  which  the  church  controls.  There  are  universities  at  La  Paz 
and  Sucre;  in  the  former  city,  the  military  academy;  American 
institutes,  under  American  professors,  at  La  Paz  and  Cocha- 
bamba ;  a  mining  and  engineering  school  at  Oruro.  In  1913  there 
were  900  elementary  schools  with  3,960  teachers  and  58,865  pupils. 


BOLIVIA  235 

For  secondary  instruction  there  were  21  colleges,  5  clerical  insti- 
tutions, and  5  private  lyceos,  with  180  teachers  and  2,598  pupils. 
For  superior  education  there  are  19  establishments  with  78  profes- 
sors and  1,291  students. 

According  to  the  Constitution,  only  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  recognized  by  the  State,  but  in  practice  toleration  is 
extended  to  other  forms  of  worship. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  COMMERCE 

Agriculture 

Bolivia  produces  and  contains  in  the  depths  of  its  soil  all  the 
natural  products  of  the  world.  Wheat,  meat,  fuel,  building 
material,  metals  for  the  industries,  gold  and  silver  all  are  pro- 
duced within  its  borders.  The  climate  is  such  that  several  crops  a 
year  nuiy  be  obtained  with  little  effort.  The  country  has  a  varied 
Hora  and  fauna.  The  alimentary  plants  include  wheat,  corn, 
beans,  manioc,  bananas,  potatoes,  barley,  rice,  olives,  almonds, 
peanuts,  cocoa,  coffee,  nutmeg,  besides  rubber  and  cotton.  Peru- 
vian bark,  palm,  cacao,  bamboo  and  vegetable  ivory  are  also  plenti- 
ful. Balsam,  vanilla,  copal,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  sarsaparilla  are 
produced  in  considerable  quantities.  The  forest  growths  include, 
acacias,  myrtles,  mahogany,  rosewood,  vegetable  silk  tree,  Spanish 
cedar,  ligimmvitae,  ebon}',  and  other  woods  suitable  for  various 
industries.  At  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  of  1915  Bolivia 
exhibited  more  than  1,000  different  varieties  of  woods. 

The  views  of  the  Government  of  Bolivia  on  agriculture,  as 
expressed  by  the  Minister  of  Finance  in  a  formal  communication 
to  the  Financial  Conference  held  in  1915  at  Washington,  are  these : 
*'  It  may  readily  be  acknowledged  that  our  agriculture  is  still  in 
an  embryonic  state,  and  that  it  is  being  carried  on  with  no  other 
object  in  view  than  that  of  obtaining  from  nature  what  she  will 
give  readily.  This  applies  not  only  to  foodstuffs  and  cattle-breed- 
ing, but  also  to  the  production  of  rubber  by  a  system  that  abso- 
lutely requires  reorganization,  with  a  view  to  establishing  planta- 
tions that  will  in  future  be  capable  of  competing  against  the  scien- 
tifically devised  East  Indian  rubber  plantations.  The  field  of 
arts  and  manufactures  still  remains  virgin  soil.  The  country  may 
be  said  to  be  devoid  of  manufacturing  enterprises  in  any  of  the 
manifold  and  profitable  lines."  The  distinguished  Government 
Delegate   to    that   conference,    Senor   Ballivian,   writes   that   all 


236  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Bolivia's  energies  have  been  employed  in  establishing  a  ''  com- 
plete railway  net  of  communication  and  developing  her  mineral 
resources.  The  agricultural  products  have  been  insufficient  to 
meet  the  demand  of  her  domestic  consumption."  He  adds: 
^'  Bolivia  and  Brazil  produce  the  best  quality  of  rubber  obtained 
from  the  trees  of  the  Hevea  or  Syphonia  Elastica  known  in  the 
market  as  Para  rubber.  But,  owing  to  the  foresight  and  persever- 
ing endeavors  of  the  English  Government  to  acclimatize  those 
trees  in  their  Asiatic  dominions,  plantations  have  spread  all 
through  the  Orient,  causing  deadly  competition  in  spite  of  the 
superior  quality  of  the  South  American  product.  Nevertheless 
it  would  be  wise  for  capitalists  to  undertake  similar  well  organized 
plantations  in  the  habitat  of  the  rubber  tree  in  Bolivia  and  Brazil 
where  lands  can  be  easily  acquired  as  well  as  estates  where  already 
exist  fully  matured  rubber  trees  ready  for  immediate  exploitation. 
In  Bolivia  there  are  new  opportunities  and  inducements  for  such 
plantations  on  account  of  the  recent  installation  of  the  railway 
built  with  American  capital  in  connection,  at  Porto  Velho,  with 
ocean  steamers  of  4,000  tons,  during  four  months  and  of  2,000 
tons  all  the  year  round."  It  is  true  that  the  vegetation  is  poor  and 
sickly  on  the  lofty  table-lands,  but  in  the  valleys  which  run  from 
the  sides  of  the  eastern  Cordillera  into  El  Beni,  Santa  Cruz,  Gran 
Cliaco  and  the  National  Territory,  it  is  rich  and  varied,  comprising 
rubber,  quinine,  and  other  valuable  products.  The  vast  eastern 
plains  will  be  the  source  of  abundant  agricultural  products  when 
the  rivers  of  the  Amazon  basin  and  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  water- 
shed can  be  fully  utilized  for  transportation  to  the  Atlantic. 

Cacao  and  coffee  are  cultivated  in  the  Departments  of  La  Paz 
and  Cochabamba,  while  other  valuable  vegetable  products  are  pro- 
duced in  El  Beni  and  Santa  Cruz.  Coca,  from  the  leaves  of  which 
the  alkaloid  of  cocaine  is  produced,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
products  of  Bolivia.  A  large  area  of  the  Republic  is  well  suited 
to  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  but  this  crop  has  been  studied  but  little. 
The  government  has  imported  wheat  of  superior  quality  from  the 
United  States  and  Argentina  for  ihe  purpose  of  supplying  a  high 
grade  of  seed  to  home  growers.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  llamas  are 
abundant,  and  the  government  maintains  a  veterinary  institute 
and  agricultural  school. 


'■is' 


Mining 

Tin  and  copper  are  the  two  minerals  most  advantageously 
produced,  according  to  an  authoritative  Bolivian  statement  in 
1915;  and  the  output  of  tin,  given  as  45,000  tons  of  ore  of  60  per 


BOLIVIA  237 

cent  grade,  showed  that  Bolivia  ranked  next  to  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments as  a  source  of  this  metal.  It  is  proper  to  mention  here  the 
high  quality  of  Bolivian  copper-ore,  and  to  note  the  recent  dis- 
covery of  petroleum  fields  of  great  extent  in  the  southern  regions 
of  the  Eepublic.  But  still  more  recent  information  (April  1916) 
calls  attention  to  other  ores  with  special  emphasis.  Heavy 
exportation  is  reported  not  only  of  tin  but  also  of  tungsten  ores, 
which  have  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  various  districts  of 
Bolivia.  Tungsten  ores  averaging  70  per  cent  sold  in  La  Paz  for 
600  bolivianos  ($233.58  at  normal  exchange)  per  quintal  of  100 
pounds;  and  vanadium  and  molybdenum  are  added  to  the  list  of 
mineral  assets.  In  the  Monofjrafia  de  la  Industria  Minera,  which 
President  Villazon  caused  to  be  published,  there  were  registered, 
besides  enormous  tracts  of  argentiferous  deposits,  tin  mines  num- 
bering 126;  copper,  42;  gold,  72;  wolfram,  16;  and  bismuth,  3. 
There  are,  indeed,  some  establishments  already  equipped  with 
modern  machinery;  but  it  is  thought  that,  to  some  extent,  the 
future  prosperity  of  Bolivia  depends  upon  the  granting,  to 
capitalists  of  the  United  States  or  of  other  countries,  of  really 
ample  facilities  for  smelting  (especially  the  tin  ores)  near  the 
mines.  The  better  plan  may  be,  however,  to  establish  smelters  in 
the  United  States,  and  to  import  the  ores  or  concentrates.  Oruro 
is  the  centre  of  the  mining  industry.  Lack  of  water  power  and 
inadequate  transportation  facilities  are  the  chief  factors  hindering 
development  on  a  larger  scale.  Many  mines  send  their  products 
to  the  nearest  railway  by  llamas,  which  carry  but  100  pounds  and 
can  be  successfully  handled  only  by  Indians.  A  few  mines  have 
hydro-electric  plants.  Oil  fields  near  Santa  Cruz  are  being  worked 
at  a  profit  by  the  Sociedad  Petrolifera  de  Bolivia,  a  corporation 
controlled  largely  by  Chilean  capital.  Consult  Pan  American 
Union,  Bolivia  (Washington  1916),  the  BoUiviun  Memorial  and 
Walle's  Bolivia  (see  Bibliography). 

Commerce 

Exports  from  the  United  States  to  Bolivia  were  valued  at 
$960,189  in  1915,  as  compared  with  $805,876  in  1914,  and  with 
$962,459  in  1913.  A  review  of  Bolivia's  foreign  commerce  as  a 
whole  in  1915,  published  2  March  1916,  shows  that  the  imports 
were  less  than  one-half  of  those  of  1914,  while  the  exports  of  1915 
were  nearly  one-third  more  in  value  than  the  1914  exports.  The 
favorable  trade  balance  is  noteworthy,  the  value  of  imports  in 
1915  having  been  only  $7,676,162,  although  exports  in  the  same 


238 


ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


year  were  valued  at  $33,017,691.  The  imports  of  cotton  goods 
average  in  value  about  $1,000,000  a  year.  Tin  is  the  largest  item 
of  export.  The  following  table  shows  the  superiority  in  the  value 
of  exports  of  tin,  copper,  antimony,  bismuth,  rubber,  silver,  and 
wolfram  in  the  year  1915 : 


Articles 


Antimony 
Bismuth . . 
Copper.  .  . 
Rubber . . . 
Silver .  .  . . 

Tin 

Wolfram . , 


1915 


Metric  tons  Value 


13,085 

568 

17,872 

5,488 

77 

39,312 

499 


$4,216,050 
1,071,125 
3,820,821 
4,521,032 
1,092,647 

19,268,862 
293,462 


1914 


Metric  tons 


186 

437 

3,874 

4,485 

72 

37,259 

276 


[Value 


$11,909 
924,649 
921,059 
3,221,063 
984,686 
16,524,656 
166,608 


Careful  study  of  the  development  of  imports  and  exports 
during  the  10  years  immediately  preceding  the  one  last  mentioned 
proves  the  growth  in  the  volume  of  foreign  trade  to  have  been 
during  that  decade  equal  to  an  increase  of  301  per  cent.  It  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  the  increase  in  the  national  revenues 
during  the  same  decade  was  230  per  cent.  Valuable  information 
in  regard  to  foreign  commerce  will  be  round  in  Exporting  to  Latin 
America,  by  E.  B.  Pilsinger  (New  York  1916),  and  Proceedings 
of  the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Conference  (Washington 
1915). 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  principal  banks  are:  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Boliviana 
(already  mentioned).  Banco  Mercantil,  Banco  Nacional  de  Bolivia, 
and  the  Banco  Francisco  Argandoiia.  A  gold  reserve  of  40  per  cent 
is  required  by  law.  Under  an  act  recently  passed  relating  to  the 
organization  of  the  Bank  of  the  Bolivian  Nation,  above  mentioned, 
the  said  bank  has  been  granted  the  exclusive  right  to  issue  notes, 
the  Nacional  de  Bolivia,  Mercantil,  and  F'rancisco  Argandoiia 
banks  having  been  deprived  of  such  right,  and  directed  to  redeem 
the  notes  issued  by  them  within  five  terms  of  six  months  each, 
beginning  1  Jan.  1913.  The  only  foreign  bank  established  in 
Bolivia  is  the  Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico  —  the  German  bank. 
The  annual  dividends  declared  by  the  banks  vary  between  10  and 


BOLIVIA  239 

20  per  cent.  Four  institutions  doing  business  in  the  country  con- 
fine their  operations  to  loans  on  real  estate,  against  which  they 
issue  mortgage  bonds.  They  are :  Credito  Hipotecario  de  Bolivia, 
Banco  Hipotecario  Nacional,  Banco  Hipotecario  Garantizador  de 
Valores,  and  the  Banco  Hipotecario  Mercantil. 

All  banks  are  compelled  by  law  to  issue  half-yearly  statements 
of  their  profit  and  loss.  The  three  principal  banks,  at  the  close  of 
1916  showed  profits  for  the  six  months  preceding  as  follows: 
Banco  de  la  Nacion,  $520,025;  Banco  Nacional,  $116,607,  and  the 
Banco  Argandofia,  $44,860. 

Under  a  law  passed  by  the  Bolivian  Congress  on  27  Oct.  1916, 
the  banks  of  Bolivia  advanced  to  the  Government  the  sum  of 
jt:96,500  sterling  ($469,600),  the  amount  advanced  by  each  bank 
being  in  proportion  to  its  authorized  capital.  The  purpose  of  this 
loan  was  to  assist  the  Government  to  meet  its  internal  obligations, 
and  especially  to  meet  the  interest  due  on  its  foreign  debt.  The 
amount  was  to  be  refunded  to  the  banks  not  later  than  31  Dec. 
1916.  The  31st  having  been  a  holiday,  the  4  Jan.  1917  was  the  first 
day  upon  which  payment  could  be  made  to  the  banks.  On  that  day 
the  National  Treasury  of  Bolivia  transferred  to  the  credit  of  the 
banks  the  sum  of  1,206,250  bolivianos,  which  was  the  full  amount 
due.  The  amounts  advanced  by  the  four  banks  participating  in  the 
loan  were:  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Boliviana,  £45,800  ($222,875); 
Banco  Mercantil,  £22,500  ($109,500);  Banco  Naciopal,  £18,800 
($91,475);  Banco  Argandoiia,  £9,400  ($45,750). 

According  to  a  memorial  of  the  Minister  of  Finance,  the  pub- 
lic debt  of  Bolivia  on  30  June  1916,  totaled  53,211,355  bolivianos 
($20,715,180  at  exchange  of  $0.3893)— 36,340,595  bolivianos  ($14,- 
147,395)  as  external  debt  and  16,870,760  bolivianos  ($6,567,785)  as 
internal  debt.  The  foreign  debt  is  made  up  of  the  following 
items :  Morgan  loan,  existing  balance,  5,124,929  bolivianos  ($1,995,- 
135) ;  French  loan  of  1910,  existing  balance,  17,486,750  bolivianos 
($6,807,590);  French  loan  of  1913,  existing  balance,  12,117,250 
bolivianos  ($4,717,245) ;  value  of  warrants  issued  in  favor  of  the 
J)an]v.  IS  of  the  1910  loan,  337,500  bolivianos  ($131,390) ;  National 
City  Bank  loan,  1,274,166  bolivianos  ($496,035). 

Referring  to  this  last-named  obligation,  the  Minister  of 
Finance  gives  account  of  the  important  operation  effected  by  the 
Government,  which,  taking  advantage  of  the  high  rate  of  inter- 
national exchange,  transferred  the  National  City  Bank  debt  to  the 
Banco  de  la  Nacion  Boliviana.  On  1  June  1916,  the  latter  institu- 
tion paid  the  balance  due  the  former,  1,390,000  bolivianos  ($541,- 
125),  and  the  Government  is  therefore  under  obligation  to  pay  the 


240  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Banco  de  la  Nacion  the  monthly  sum  of  115,833  bolivianos 
($45,095)  in  currency. 

The  internal  debt  on  30  June  1916  comprised  the  following 
items :  Compensacion  Militar  Acre  y  Pacifico,  balance  of  bonds 
in  circulation,  1,902,200  bolivianos  ($740,525) ;  Acre  indemnity, 
177,600  bolivianos  ($69,140) ;  internal  debt,  1,419,100  bolivianos 
($552,455);  1914  bonds,  9,788,000  bolivianos  ($3,810,470);  gold 
banking  loan,  1,206,250  bolivianos  ($469,590) ;  Banco  de  la  Nacion, 
Koening  Bros.,  and  other  obligations,  1,050,000  bolivianos  ($408,- 
765) ;  Banco  de  la  Nacion,  advances  on  customs  warrants,  1,327,- 
610  bolivianos  ($516,840). 

The  National  budget  for  1915  estimated  the  receipts  at 
16,985,000  bolivianos  (say,  $6,607,165)  and  the  expenditures  at 
21,453,938  bolivianos  (say,  $8,345,271.88).  Bolivia  is  ranked 
among  the  gold-standard  countries,  although  no  gold  has  as  yet 
been  actually  coined.  To  the  theoretical  monetary  unit,  the 
boliviano,  are  assigned  100  centavos  representing  0.63904  grammes 
of  gold  .91666  fine,  or  say  .58579  grammes  of  fine  gold  (B12.50  to 
the  £  sterling).  Its  par  value  in  terms  of  currency  of  the  United 
States  is  $0.3893,  and  the  value  therefore  of  $1.00  U.  S.  currency, 
expressed  in  terms  of  Bolivian  currency,  is  Bs  2.5685.  The  normal 
rate  of  exchange  in  Bolivia  for  90-day  drafts  on  London  fluctuates 
around  ISi/^d.  per  boliviano.  This  rate  declined  after  1  Aug.  1915 
to  14%d.  per  boliviano,  with  remittances  scarce  and  difficult  to 
procure  even  on  that  basis.  The  quotations  in  Bolivia  for 
exchange  on  New"  York  are  more  or  less  nominal,  even  under 
normal  conditions,  and  vary  from  Bs  2.60  to  Bs  2.80  per  $1.00 
currency  of  the  United  States.  (Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American 
Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions,  New  York  1915).  In 
May  1915,  the  rate  for  New  York  sight  draft  was  quoted  at 
Bs  3.30  =  $1.00  currency  of  the  United  States. 


RAILWAYS,  POST  AND  TELEGRAPH 

A  plan  of  railway  construction  has  been  adopted,  the  funda- 
mental object  of  which  is  to  facilitate  traffic  toward  both  the  Atlan- 
tic and  the  Pacific  by  means  of  branch  lines  radiating  from 
the  principal  railway  system,  the  Antofagasta-Oruro-La\  Paz 
Railway.  (We  mentioned  above  the  lines  from  Mollendo  and 
Arica).  One  of  the  branch  lines,  running  to  Rio  Mulato  aid 
Potosi,  has  been  inaugurated.    The  Oruro-Cochabamba  branch  is 


BOLIVIA  241 

designed  to  furnish  an  outlet  for  a  department  in  which  the  soil 
is  most  fertile  and  the  climate  commendable.  The  activity  of  the 
Bolivian  Government  at  the  present  time  in  the  construction  of 
railways,  the  establishment  of  automobile  routes,  and  the  building 
of  new  trails  leading  into  the  vast  agricultural  regions  of  Eastern 
Bolivia  is  a  subject  of  much  favorable  comment  both  in  Bolivia 
and  other  South  American  countries.  The  present  Govern- 
ment of  Bolivia  is  deeply  impressed  with  the  fact  that  upon  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  labor  supply  must  depend  the  future 
progress  of  the  mining  industry  of  Bolivia.  The  labor  supply  of 
Bolivia  is  limited  by  the  fact  that  the  conditions  of  life  are 
extremely  difficult  in  the  regions  where  the  mining  centres  are 
located,  due  to  the  high  altitude  of  these  regions  and  to  the  aridity 
which  characterizes  the  highlands  of  Bolivia.  The  purpose  of  the 
Government  at  present  is  to  afford  easy  communication  with  the 
lowlands  of  Eastern  Bolivia,  and  thus  make  available  a  constant 
and  dependable  supply  of  food  to  the  highlands  in  which  the  mines 
are  located. 

The  Atocha-Tupiza  section  of  the  Uyuni-Tupiza  Railway  is  all 
that  remains  to  be  constructed  of  the  line  which  eventually  will 
connect  La  Paz  with  Buenos  Aires,  and  it  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance in  the  development  of  commercial,  political,  and  social  soli- 
darity between  these  two  countries.  It  is  believed  that  this  route 
will  attract  a  great  deal  of  the  business  which  is  at  present  enjoyed 
by  the  Transandine  Railway  connecting  Buenos  Aires  with  San- 
tiago, the  Bolivian  route  having  the  advantage  of  being  open 
throughout  the  year. 

A  South  American  periodical  says  that  the  saving  in  time  by 
the  Bolivian  route  in  comparison  with  the  Transandine  route 
would  be  two  or  three  days  during  the  summer  months,  that  is, 
from  September  to  March  or  April ;  but  in  winter,  when  the  Trans- 
andine road  is  closed,  and  mails  must  go  by  way  of  the  Strait  of 
Magellan,  the  saving  in  time  would  be  about  10  days.  It  is  also 
believed  that  this  through  Bolivian  route  will  become  an  important 
rival  of  the  Panama  Canal,  since  it  will  offer  quicker  and  more 
direct  transportation  from  Europe  to  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  The  completion  of  the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway  prom- 
ises to  be  even  more  important  than  the  other  achievements  we 
have  just  mentioned,  for  this  line  affords  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic 
by  way  of  the  Madeira  and  Amazon  rivers,  for  the  forest  products 
of  an  enormous  region.  ,^ 

17 


242  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Bolivia  forms  a  part  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union.  All  the 
large  towns  are  served.  In  the  interior  the  mail  is  carried  by 
postilions.  Capitals  of  Departments  and  some  of  the  rural  centres 
of  population  are  united  by  telegraph  and  have  telephone  service. 
There  are  317  post  offices  with  732  officials.  In  1914,  5,215,501 
pieces  of  postal  matter  were  handled.  The  extent  of  telegraph 
lines,  both  public  and  private  is  4,259  miles,  operated  by  216 
officers.  Wireless  telegraph  stations  are  authorized  at  La  Paz, 
Riberalta  or  Villa  Bella,  Cobija,  Trinidad,  Santa  Cruz,  Puerto 
Suarez,  and  Gran  Chaco. 

Bibliography 

Adams,  A.  A.,  The  Plateau  Peoples  of  South  Anwrica:  an  essay  in  ethnic 
psychology  (London  1915);  Americas,  The  (published  monthly,  New  York 
1914r-17) ;  Balliyian,  A.,  Bolivia:  Memorial  from  the  Gov't-Delegate,  Pan  American 
Financial  Conference  (conclusion  dated  New  York  1915)  ;  Bandelier,  A.  F., 
The  Islands  of  Titicaca  and  Koati  (New  York  1910)  ;  Bolivia  and  the  Opening 
of  the  Panama  Canal  (New  York  1912);  Brazil  and  Bolivia  Boundary  Settlement 
(New  York  1904) ;  Bulnes,  G.,  Guerra  del  Pacifico  (Valparaiso  1912-14) ;  Fiore,  P., 
Remarks  on  the  Arbitral  Sentence  Pronounced  by  the  President,  etc.  (New  York 
1910) ;  Medina,  E.  Diez  de,  Bolivia  —  Besumen  (La  Paz  1914)  ;  [Monetary  System]  : 
Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New 
York  1915),  and  Gonzales,  V.,  Modern  Foreign  Exchange  (New  York  1914); 
[Travel  and  Description] :  d'  Orbigny,  A.,  Fragments  d'  un  voyage  au  centre  de 
I'  Amerique  Meridionale  (Paris  1845) ;  Peixotto,  E.,  Pacific  Shores  from  Panama 
(New  York  1913) ;  Post,  C.  J.,  Across  the  Andes  (New  York  1912)  ;  AValle,  P.— 
charge  de  missions,  du  Ministre  du  Commerce  —  La  Bolivie  et  ses  Mines  (Paris 
1913).    Other  titles  are  given  in  the  body  of  the  article. 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 


The  Republic  of  Bolivia  has  now  eight  Departments,  and  three  national  Ten-i- 
lories.     They  are  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENT 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

La  Paz 

517,316 
366,395 
395,738 
210,000 
240,720 
102,887 
160,000 
35,816 

La  Paz 

82,000 

Cochabamba 

45.000 

Potosi      

25,092 

22,002 

25,088 

Tarija 

Tarija 

8,. 376 

25,000 

El  Beni    .    

Trinidad 

15,152 

Puerto  Sudrez 

Total 

2,028,872 

BOLIVIA 


243 


La  Paz 

This,  the  most  important  city  of  Bolivia,  lies  in  a  depression  of  the  Bolivian 
liighlands  at  an  elevation  of  about  12,000  feet.  It  is  well-built,  and  contains  many 
notable  buildings.  There  is  a  modern  electric  street-ear  line,  equipped  with 
American  rolling  stock.  The  city  has  seven  daily  newspapers,  breweries,  distilleries, 
candle  factories,  spinning  and  weaving  mills,  a  brick  works,  a  national  match  fac- 
tory with  a  monopoly  for  making  matches  for  the  whole  country,  and  several  good 
banks.  Automobiles  are  now  in  evidence,  modern  dwellings  are  being  erected,  and 
many  civic  improvements  have  been  installed.     Of  the  population  about  30  per 


Street-vendors  in   La  Paz,   Bolivia 


cent  are  Indians,  who  perform  most  of  the  manual  labor,  and  do  most  of  the 
carrying  as  there  are  few  or  no  vehicles  in  the  city.  The  water  supply  is  good, 
but  sanitary  conditions  are  not  of  the  best.  While  Sucre  is  the  legal  capital  of 
the  country,  the  headquarters  of  the  Government  for  many  years  have  been  at 
La  Paz.  La  Paz  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  ports  of  Arica  and  Antofagasta  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  line  to  Arica  is  264  miles  long,  that  to  Antofagasta  is  711 
miles.  Another  route  to  the  Pacific  is  by  rail  to  Guaqui  (59  miles)  on  Lake  Titicaea; 
from  Guaqui  2,000-ton  steamers  cross  the  lake  to  Puno,  Peru,  the  trip  taking  12 
hours,  thence  by  rail  to  the  port  of  Mollendo.  The  whole  distance  to  the  coast  by 
this  route  is  533  miles  and  is  covered  going  down  in  about  30  hours.  All  three 
ports  are  regular  ports  of  call  of  the  steamers  between  Panama  and  Valparaiso. 
Mollendo  is  the  terminal  port  of  the  Peruvian  Steamship  Company,  the  steamers  of 
which  can  be  taken  from  Panama. 

Sucre 

Sucre,  the  legal  capital  of  Bolivia,  is  situated  in  the  south,  about  300  miles  south- 
east of  La  Paz,  and  120  miles  from  Coehabamba.  It  contains  a  university,  several 
theatres  and  numerous  and  fine  public  buildings,  is  the  seat  of  the  supreme  court 
and  of  an  archbishop.  It  is  9,300  feet  above  sea  level.  Its  industries  are  mining 
and  agriculture.    The  city  as  yet  has  no  rail  connection  with  the  other  cities  of  the 


244  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Republic.  An  automobile  service  for  passenjjers  and  freight  is  in  operation  between 
Sucre  and  Potosi,  a  distance  of  about  150  miles.  A  railway  between  these  cities 
will  soon  be  constructed  under  orders  of  the  government. 

Other  Cities 

Other  important  cities  of  Bolivia  are :  Cochabamba,  located  in  a  fine  and  fertile 
valley,  about  8,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  well  laid  out  and  has  manufactories 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  leather,  soap,  and  earthenware.  There  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  grain,  as  the  surrounding  region  is  the  granary  of  Bolivia.  A  railway  is 
being  constructed  connecting  it  with  Oruro,  and  electric  trolley  lines  connect  it  with 
the  more  important  neighboring  towns.  Oruro,  the  centre  of  the  mining  district 
is  also  the  railway  centre  of  Bolivia.  The  richest  tin  deposits  are  about  30  miles 
to  the  south.  A  school  of  mines  is  located  here.  It  has  electric  lights  and  a  street 
railway  system,  and  there  are  numei'ous  industrial  establishments,  including  a  large 
boot  factory.  It  is  a  bare  and  windy  city.  PoTOSt  is  famous  for  its  silver  mines 
since  early  Spanish  days.  One  of  its  principal  buildings  is  the  government  mint. 
It  is  one  of  the  highest  cities  in  the  world,  being  13,600  feet  above  sea  level.  Many 
of  the  mines  have  been  abandoned  and  a  large  part  of  the  city  is  in  ruins.  However, 
railways  and  modern  mining  machinery  are  restoring  its  lost  prestige.  Infant 
mortality  is  so  great,  because  of  the  altitude,  that  the  population  can  only  be  kept 
up  by  immigration.  Tupiza  and  Tarija,  to  the  south,  and  Santa  Cruz,  to  the 
east,  have  a  mild  and  pleasant  climate.  The  last  named  city  has  an  ice  factory, 
tanning  mills,  and  boot  and  shoe  factories,  saddlery  and  blanket  factories.  There 
are  also  cigarette  factories,  distilleries,  saw,  flour,  and  sugar  mills.  There  is  an 
active  trade  with  the  Indians  of  the  plains.  Cotton  and  sugar  cane  are  infant 
industries  here,  but  capable  of  extensive  development. 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE 

BRAZIL  (Estados-LTiiidos  do  Brazil,  the  name,  sigiiifyhig  at 
first  the  land  of  red  dye-wood,  derived  through  the  Portu- 
guese hraza,  burning  coal),  a  republic  bordering  upon  all 
of  the  South  American  countries  except  Chile,  and  bounded  on  the 
east,  northeast  and  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  nearly 
three  times  as  extensive  as  any  other  Latin  American  country, 
and  its  natural  resources  are  very  great;  but  one  lesson  of  the 
crisis  in  1916  was  that,  even  more  than  its  neighbors,  Brazil 
requires,  for  the  development  of  these  resources  on  an  adequate 
scale,  both  immigration  and  new  industrial  enterprises.  The  cen- 
tral fact  concerning  the  vast  equatorial  and  Amazonian  regions 
is  that  their  rank  vegetation  defies  the  efforts  of  casual  settlers, 
and  nothing  less  than  a  teeming  population  could  properly  subdue 
them  to  human  uses.  The  country  extends  between  lat.  4°  22'  N. 
and  33°  45'  S.  and  long.  34°  40'  and  73°  15'  W.  and  the  total  area, 
according  to  the  most  recent  computation,  is  3,292,000  square 
miles;  and  this  includes  the  largest  compact  body  of  fertile  and 
habitable  territory  that  yet  remains  unimproved,  and  even,  in 
part,  unexplored.  Nearly  the  entire  population  of  the  republic  is 
still  found  on  a  comparatively  narrow  strip  of  land  extending 
southward  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Para,  below^  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon,  to  the  line  of  Uruguay,  or  on  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon  aiid  its  chief  northern  and  southern  affluents.  In  other 
words,  the  white  people  have  clung  to  the  fringe  of  the  continent 
which  their  ancestors  took  possession  of  in  the  16th  century  in 

[245] 


246 


ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


the  fashion  we  shall  presently  describe;  and  (except  on  the  south- 
eastern plateau  and  along  the  main  water-courses)  no  civilizing 
conquest  and  occupation  of  the  interior,  such  as  occurred  in  North 
America,  have  been  eifectively  undertaken.  The  two  largest 
Brazilian  states  have  less  than  one  inhabitant  per  square  mile. 
(See  Population). 

Mr.  Denis,  in  a  recent  book  (see  Bibliography),  after  caution- 
ing the  reader  that  great  stretches  of  territory  in  Brazil  are 
still  hardly  known  and  that  the  total  area  of  the  country  is  15 

times  as  great  as  that  of 
Prance,  succeeds  in  giving  a 
description  of  general  physi- 
cal features  which  is  vivid 
and,  within  the  confessed 
limitations,  really  excellent. 
We  should  first  picture  to 
ourselves  a  vast  table-land  of 
irregular  structure,  behind 
the  seaboard  of  the  South 
Atlantic,  running  from  Cape 
S.  Roque  to  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and 
covering  the  eastern  half  of 
the  Republic.  Beyond  this, 
proceeding  toward  the  inte- 
rior across  immense  plains 
of  sandy  soil,  we  reach 
the  central  depression  of 
South  America :  toward  the 
north  [from  a  low,  and  very 
ancient,  nearly  effaced  continental  divide  or  watershed]  extends 
the  basin  of  the  Amazon,  and  toward  the  south  that  of  the  Parana. 
In  the  north  the  Amazon  basin  belongs  to  Brazil;  in  the  south  the 
Paraufi  and  Paraguay  rivers  are  Brazilian  only  in  their  upper 
reaches.  South  Brazil  is  limited  to  the  belt  of  table-land;  and 
thus  we  note  that,  while  in  the  north  the  Amazon,  both  at  its 
mouths  and  along  the  greater  part  of  its  basin,  is  a  Brazilian 
river,  to  the  south  Brazil  does  not  even  reach  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
the  common  estuary  of  the  Uruguay,  the  Parana,  and  the  Para- 
guay. The  high  plains  of  the  interior  have  never  been  of  economic 
importance ;  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  has  been  developed  only  of 
late  years  to  a  very  slight  extent,  and  its  population  is  as  yet 
small.    It  is  therefore  the  table-land  of  the  AtUmtic  seaboard,  from 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks  and 
Brown   &  Dawson,    N.   Y. 

President's    Palace,    Rio    de  Janeiro,   Brazil 


BRAZIL  247 

Ceara  to  Uruguay,  that  constitutes  the  soil  of  historic  Brazil. 
Through  its  length  of  1,800  to  2,200  miles  this  table-land  presents 
the  greatest  variety  of  aspect  and  has  no  hydrographic  unity.  Its 
height  is  greater  in  the  south,  where  it  reaches  3,200  feet ;  and  this 
general  slope  from  south  to  north  is  revealed  by  the  course  of  the 
Sao  Francisco.  In  Brazil  the  name  Borburema  is  employed  to 
denote  the  northern  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  dry  season  there 
is  long :  the  Borburema  gives  a  scant  supply  of  water  to  the  small 
seaboard  rivers  that  flow  fan-wise  into  the  Atlantic  —  the  plateau 
in  that  region  sloping  gently  to  the  ocean.  In  southern  Brazil, 
on  the  contrary,  the  seaward  face  of  the  plateau  is  a  huge  bank 
2,500  to  3,000  feet  in  height,  separating  a  narrow  strip  of  coast 
from  the  inland  regions.  This  long  bank  or  watershed,  the  Serra 
do  Mar  and  Serra  Geral,  is  a  barrier  which,  for  a  great  distance 
below  Sao  Paulo,  no  river  pierces :  the  streams  which  rise  upon 
its  landward  side,  almost  within  sight  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
cross  the  whole  width  of  the  plateau  before  they  join  the  Parana 
or  the  Uruguay.  Thus  the  Serra  do  Mar  is  not  properly  a  moun- 
tain range,  although  from  the  ocean  it  has  the  appearance  of  one. 
Beyond  the  serra  is  Minas,  a  confused  mass  of  mountain  groups 
amon^  which  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  trace  one 's  way,  either  on  the 
map  or  on  the  trail  itself.  The  Mantequeira,  a  colossal  backbone 
of  granite,  crosses  southern  Minas.  We  find  the  plateau  trans- 
formed, so  to  speak,  when  we  pass  the  Sao  Paulo  frontier:  there 
is  no  more  granite,  and  the  landscape  grows  tamer.  Primitive 
measures  of  gneiss  and  granite,  out  of  which  the  Serra  do  Mar  is 
carved,  are  hidden  under  a  bed  of  sedimentary  rocks.  The 
topography  of  the  country  changes  with  the  geologic  structure. 
The  outcrops  of  sandstone  which  one  crosses  in  traveling  west- 
ward cut  the  table-land  into  successive  flats.  Irregular  ranges 
turn  their  abrupter  slopes  toward  the  east;  and  these  cliffs  of 
sandstone,  obviously  not  mountain-chains,  not  serras,  are  locally 
known  as  the  serrinhas.  In  Santa  Catharina  and  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul  great  eruptions  of  basaltic  rocks  cover  a  portion  of  the 
plateau;  the  basalt  has  even  reached  the  seaboard,  and  south  of 
the  island  on  which  Desterro,  or  Florianopolis,  is  built,  it  overlies 
the  granite  of  the  Serra  do  Mar.  The  southern  flank  of  the 
plateau  overlooking  the  prairies  of  Rio  Grande,  where  the  Pampas 
of  Argentina  and  Uruguay  commence,  are  also  basaltic. 

The  various  regions  of  Brazil  owe  their  peculiar  character 
above  all  to  the  vegetation,  as  Mr.  Denis  says;  and  he  mentions 
the  concentration  of  the  forests  in  two  regions  —  the  Amazon 
Valley  and  a  long  strip  of  seaboard  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  from 


248  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Espirito  Santo  southward,  where  the  Serra  do  Mar,  '*  receiving 
the  humidity  of  the  ocean  winds  upon  its  dripping  flanks,  produces 
far  to  the  south  the  conditions  which  have  made  the  Amazonian 
basin  the  home  of  the  equatorial  forest. ' '  The  same  splendid  and 
impenetrable  growth  is  found  everywhere  on  the  slopes  of  the 
serra  for  a  distance  of  1,200  miles:  "  It  encircles  and  embraces 
Rio,  seeming  to  refuse  it  room  for  growth."  Even  far  inland,  or 
at  a  distance  west  of  the  coast  ridge,  the  basins  of  the  Rio  Doce 
and  the  Parahyba,  as  well  as  the  southern  and  western  parts  of 
Minas  Geraes,  are  afforested.  Also  in  Sao  Paulo  and  Parana  (the 
states)  forests  are  found  beyond  the  serra;  and  on  the  plateau 
they  alternate  with  prairies.  Beyond  the  agricultural  regions,  as 
we  advance  toward  the  interior  w^e  enter  a  region  without  house 
or  trail,  the  so-called  Sertao. 

In  his  ancient  but  ever  delightful  Neiv  Discovery  {Nuevo 
Descuhrimiento:  see  BihliograpJiy)  Acuna  wrote  that  the  climate 
on  the  Amazon  itself  and  in  all  the  adjacent  country  is  tem- 
perate: to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  no  heat  to  prove  dis- 
agreeable, no  tiresome  cold  {ni  frio  que  fatigue),  nor  variations 
in  temperature,  to  molest  one.  This  favorable  characterization 
of  course  does  not  apply  to  districts  in  which  the  mitigating 
effects  of  the  trade  winds  are  less  apparent.  It  is  also  neces- 
sary to  remember  that,  although  the  whole  interior  of  Brazil 
has  only  steady  heat,  with  a  very  slight  range  in  temperature 
throughout  the  year,  there  are  well-defined  dry  and  rainy  seasons. 
Mr.  Denis  writes:  ''At  the  first  rains,  which  fall  in  September  or 
October,  the  wearied  vegetation  abruptly  awakens.  Then  comes 
the  time  of  plenty,  when  earth  affords  the  herds  of  cattle  an 
abundant  pasturage.  March  brings  back  the  drought  to  the 
scorching  soil."  The  vast  regions  in  w^hich  the  dry  and  rainy 
seasons  hold  sway  extend  toward  the  south  somewhat  beyond  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn ;  but  as  we  proceed  from  that  line  still  farther 
southward  the  variations  of  the  temperature  become  more  marked. 
In  Brazil's  southernmost  state  frosts  occur  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber; and  here  one  notes  the  re-establishment  of  winter,  as  the 
word  is  understood  in  North  America  and  Europe,  although  of 
course  our  warmest  months  of  summer  become  the  moderately 
cold  months  of  winter  on  the  plains  so  far  below  the  equator.  The 
ocean  side  of  the  serra  has  no  alternation  of  seasons  whatever,  for 
all  the  months  of  the  year  are  alike :  there  are  no  strictly  cool  or 
cold  or  dry  periods. 

It  is  proper  to  revert  now,  after  having  noted  climatic  differ- 
entiations in  the  south  and  the  serra,  to  the  much  larger  and  more 


A. 


13 


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(NORTHERN  PART)  . 

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1'^      '        I  I  I  I ^1 

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[lanue  ^aoies 

Size  of  type  indicates  relative 
importance  of  places 
Principal  water  routes 


B«iiimond*B  8  x  11  Uap  of  South  America  (Northern  Part) 
I  _Co;)yltihtJ)j  C.S.Uammond  fc  Co..y.T. 

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BRAZIL  249 

characteristic  equatorial  region.  Observing  the  action  of  the 
trade  winds  on  the  temperature  of  the  Amazon  Valley,  Mozans 
(see  Bibliography)  writes:  ''Although  our  course  w^as  almost 
directly  under  the  equator  the  thermometer  rarely  rose  above 
75°  F.  One  entry  in  my  diary,  made  near  Tabatinga,  reads  as 
follows:  '  Temperature  at  7  a.m.  68°  F. ;  at  10  a.m.  67°  F.  — cool 
enough  for  a  light  overcoat.'  Another  entry,  made  near  Obidos, 
reads :  '  Very  cool  all  day.  Temperature  from  68°  F.  in  the  morn- 
ing to  66°  F.  in  the  afternoon.'  Still  another  observation  at 
6  o'clock  in  the  evening,  on  board  our  steamer  in  mid-river,  gives 
the  remarkably  low  temperature  of  62°  F.  at  Pani,  which  is  some- 
times supposed  to  be  a  place  where  one  gasps  in  a  fierce,  uninter- 
mitting,  intolerable  heat.  The  maximum  heat  encountered  at  the 
chief  towns  between  Iquitos  and  Para  is  never  so  high  as  it  often 
is  in  New  York  and  Chicago,  notwithstanding  the  difference  in 
latitude  of  nearly  3,000  miles. ' '  Entries  in  the  diary  of  the  author 
of  this  article  give,  for  various  points  in  equatorial  Brazil,  a  some- 
what higher  range  of  temperatures,  with  a  maximum  of  86°  F,  at 
noon  on  a  single  occasion.  The  series  of  temperature  records,  for 
both  Atlantic  and  Pacific  republics,  is  given  in  the  article  Latin 
America. 

Bibliography 

Acufia,  C.  de,  Nuevo  Descubrimiento  Del  Gran  Rio  de  las  Amazonas  (Madrid 
1641) ;  Denis,  P.,  Le  Bresil  au  XX^  Siecle  (Paris  1909)  and  Brazil  (trans.,  with 
historical  chapter  by  Mr.  Miall  and  a  supplementary  chapter  by  Mr.  Vindin, 
London  1911);  Hartt,  C.  F.,  Geology  and  Physical  Geography  of  Brazil  (Boston 
1870) ;  Mello,  H.  de,  and  Mello,  F.  H.  de,  Atlas  do  Brazil  (Rio  de  Janeiro  1909) ; 
Mozans,  H.  J.  (pseud,  for  Zahm,  J.  A.),  Along  the  Andes  and  Down  the  Amazon 
(New  York  and  Ijondon  1911);  Reclus,  E,,  Nouvelle  Geographie  Universelle 
(Vol.  XIX,  Paris  1894);  Roosevelt,  T.,  Through  the  Brazilian  Wilderness  (New 
York  1914).     See  Bibliographies  subjoined  to  other  articles  in  Brazilian  series. 


HISTORY  OF  BRAZIL 


Brazil  was  discovered  in  1500  by  a  companion  of  Columbus, 
Vicente  Pinzon,  who  made  no  settlement,  and,  indeed,  would  not 
have  been  justified  in  doing  so.  The  bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
(4  May  1493)  had  bestowed  upon  Portugal  the  lands  which  should 
be  found  east  of  the  line  of  demarcation,  and  commissioners  of 
Spain  and  Portugal  had  agreed,  on  7  June  1494,  that  the  position 
of  the  line  of  demarcation  should  be  changed  so  that  it  should 
pass,  north  and  south,  370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 


250 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


instead  of  at  a  distance  of  only  100  leagues  west  of  those  islands, 
where  the  Pope  had  established  it.  Accordingly  Spain  was  pre- 
cluded by  her  own  act  from  claiming  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
continent  of  South  America.  A  Portuguese  commander,  Pedro 
Alvarez  Cabral,  when  on  his  way  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  the  Far  East,  in  1500,  encountered  severe  storms  which  drove  his 
vessels  from  their  course ;  and  through  this  mischance  he  reached 
the  Brazilian  coast  in  April.  Mass  was  celebrated  there  on  Easter 
Day;  the  country  was  declared  a  dependency  of  Portugal,  and  a 
stone  cross   was   erected.    There   Cabral  himself   embarked   for 


Avenida  Rio   Branco,  Rio  de  Janeiro,   Brazil 


India,  but  first  sent  a  vessel  to  Lisbon  with  a  report  of  this 
important  discovery.  As  soon  as  practicable  after  receiving  the 
account  of  his  new  possession,  Dom  Manuel  placed  three  vessels 
under  the  command  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  instructing  this  Floren- 
tine to  make  good  Portugal's  claim  to  the  land  which  a  Spaniard 
had  discovered.  Thus,  from  the  beginning,  Brazil  was  marked  out 
as  a  field  for  international  competition.  Vespucci's  first  voyage 
being  unsuccessful,  a  second  was  undertaken  with  better  results. 
He  remained  for  five  months  at  a  point  he  named  "All  Saints," 
and  when  it  became  necessarj^  to  return  left  12  men  as  a  garrison 
in  a  small  fort.  The  impression  created  by  the  experiences  of  the 
early  adventurers  was  not  highly  favorable.  Poor  and  unat- 
tractive, indeed,  did  this  land  seem  in  comparison  with  India  iind 
Africa.  During  the  years  that  followed  Portuguese  merchants 
dispatched  vessels  to  trade  for  Brazil-wood,  and  the  Portuguese 
government  jealously  resisted  French  and  Spanish  attempts  to 
gain  a  foothold  or  carry  on  commerce  eastward  of  the  line  of 


BRAZIL  251 

demarcation;  but  the  court  at  Lisbon  continued  to  prefer  the 
profits  to  be  won  along  the  course  that  Vasco  da  Gama  had  opened 
up.  The  first  settlements,  therefore,  were  not  made  by  the  govern- 
ment, but  by  grantees  whom  the  government  induced  to  colonize 
by  assigning  to  each  leader  a  splendid  possession,  or  "  cap- 
taincy"—  no  less  than  50  leagues  of  coast,  with  feudal  powers 
and  the  privilege  of  extending  his  domain  as  far  inland  as  he 
desired.  Thus  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo  was  settled  by  an  expe- 
dition under  Piratininga ;  next  Affonso  de  Sousa  explored  the  coast 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  (so  called  because  it  was  discovered  1  Jan. 
1531)  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Lopes  de  Sousa  received  two  allot- 
ments of  25  leagues  each,  one  being  near  Pernambuco  and  Para- 
hyba.  Fernandez  Coutinho  and  Pedro  da  Campo  Tourinho  estab- 
lished themselves  near  the  spot  where  Cabral  landed.  Francisco 
Pereiro  Coutinho  received  a  grant  of  a  captaincy,  extending  from 
Rio  Sao  Francisco  to  Bahia.  The  captaincy  of  Pernambuco  was 
given  to  Duarte  Coelho  Pereira;  and  so  the  most  attractive  por- 
tions of  the  coast  were  distributed.  Cattle  and  sugar-cane  being 
introduced  from  Madeira,  the  systematic  cultivation  of  the  latter 
began;  though  some  authorities  maintain  that  both  sugar-cane  and 
coffee  are  indigenous  to  Brazilian  soil.  Enormous  difficulties  were 
encountered  from  the  first  by  proprietors  and  planters.  Only  men 
of  large  means  (including  some  of  those  adventurers  who  had 
amassed  fortunes  in  India),  were  able  to  equip  and  maintain  such 
a  considerable  force  as  was  necessary  if  these  undertakings  were 
to  be  successful.  The  natives  were,  as  a  rule,  extremely  mistrust- 
ful, besides  being  the  most  savage  of  their  kind,  as  Southey  has 
shown  in  his  elaborate  description  of  them.  {History  of  Brazil, 
by  Robert  Southey,  1810.)  In  general,  the  task  of  civilizing  them 
seemed  utterly  hopeless.  Yet  one  striking  exception  to  the  gen- 
eral experience  may  be  noted.  The  first  settler  in  Bahia  was 
Diogo  Alvarez,  a  young  man  of  noble  family,  who  was  wrecked  on 
the  shoals  near  that  port.  *'  Part  of  the  crew,"  says  Southey, 
'*  were  lost,  others  were  eaten  by  the  nativ^es."  Diogo  secured  the 
favor  of  the  Indians  by  recovering  things  from  the  wreck.  After- 
ward he  led  them  in  battle,  using  his  musket  to  such  good  effect 
that  he  became  their  sovereign,  and  took  daughters  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  savages  to  be  his  wives.  ''The  best  families  in  Bahia," 
we  are  told,  "  trace  their  origin  to  him." 

By  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  the  captaincies  of  those 
men  whose  names  have  been  mentioned,  and  still  other  adven- 
turers, were  scattered  along  the  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.     The  great  mineral 


252  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

wealth  of  the  country  had  not  been  discovered  at  that  time,  and 
the  settlements  were  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar. 
What  with  savages  surrounding  these  widely  separated  posts; 
Spaniards  threatening  them  from  the  rear  (the  Spanish  troops 
then  holding  the  regions  afterward  to  be  known  as  Paraguay  and 
Argentina) ;  and  the  French  from  time  to  time  attempting  to 
establish  themselves  on  the  coast ;  it  was  found  necessary  to  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defense  by  concentrating  the  Portuguese 
power  in  the  hands  of  a  governor-general.  The  feudatories  had 
to  submit  to  the  revocation  of  some  of  their  privileges,  though 
they  remained  on  the  soil  which  they  owned. 

The  first  governor-general  w^as  Trome  da  Sousa,  and  his 
capital  was  Bahia.  In  1549  he  was  reinforced  by  a  fleet  of  six  ves- 
sels with  320  soldiers  and  officials,  400  convicts,  300  free  colonists, 
and  6  Jesuits.  At  different  times  wards  of  the  Crown,  female 
orphans  of  good  family,  were  sent  out,  provided  with  portions 
from  the  royal  estates,  and  given  to  the  provincial  officers  in  mar- 
riage. The  establishment  of  the  College  of  Sao  Paulo  in  Piratin- 
inga  followed  hard  upon  the  arrival  of  the  first  bishop  of  Brazil  in 
1552,  and  of  a  number  of  Jesuits  in  1553.  Avowed  friends  and 
protectors  of  the  natives,  these  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
took  upon  themselves  the  pioneers'  task,  and  their  college  became 
a  centre  of  influence.  Intrusive  French  settlers  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
were  driven  out  by  the  governor,  and  a  Portuguese  colony  was 
founded  there  in  1567.  But  the  progress  of  Brazil,  in  so  far  as  it 
was  dependent  upon  the  aid  of  the  mother  country,  was  checked, 
if  not  entirely  arrested,  during  a  period  of  60  years.  Philip  II. 
of  Spain  acquired  the  crown  of  Portugal  in  1578-80,  and  the  union 
of  the  two  countries  —  or  rather,  the  subordination  of  the  weaker 
nation  —  continued  until  1640.  Brazil  received  little  attention 
during  all  these  years,  in  part  because  she  was  identified  with 
Portugal,  but  still  more  for  the  reason  that  her  inferiority  to  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  mineral  wealth  was  taken  for  granted. 
The  transfer  of  allegiance  invited  attack  by  English  fleets.  In 
1586  Witherington  sacked  Bahia ;  Cavendish,  in  1591,  burned  San 
Vicente;  Lancaster,  in  1595,  captured  Olinda.  A  futile  attempt 
to  found  a  permanent  colony  was  made  by  the  French  (1612-18), 
and  the  Dutch  dispatched  a  fleet  against  Bahia  in  1624. 

The  Dutch  in  Brazil 

Most  important  were  the  efforts  made  at  this  time  by  an  asso- 
ciation of  Dutch  merchants,  the  famous  Dutch  West  India  Co., 
which  commissioned  Count  Maurice  of  Nassau  to  promote  the 


BRAZIL 


253 


interests  of  his  countrymen  in  South  America.  The  enormous 
power  of  this  corporate  company,  which,  as  Bancroft  says,  was 
''  given  leave  to  appropriate  continents,"  and,  when  "  invested 
with  a  boundless  liberty  of  choice,  culled  the  rich  territories  of 
Guiana,  Brazil,  and  New  Netherland,"  was  exerted  in  a  large  part 
of  the  region  lying  between  Maranhao  and  Bahia.  After  the  revo- 
lution of  1640,  Brazil  was,  indeed,  no  longer  Spanish,  but  the  new 
Portuguese  executive  of  the  house  of  Bragan^a  was  too  poor  and 
weak  to  adopt  such  vigorous  measures  as  were  required.  Accord- 
ingly a  suggestion  offered  by  a  native  of  Madeira  named  Vieyra 


General    View   of    Rio   de   Janeiro,    Brazil 
(Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Union) 


was  welcomed,  inasmuch  as  this  plan  relieved  the  government  of 
the  obligation  to  fight  the  Dutch  West  India  Co.  Vieyra  proposed 
the  establishment  of  a  commercial  company  at  Lisbon  similar  to 
that  which  had  its  headquarters  at  Amsterdam.  The  Brazil  Co.  of 
Portugal  was  organized,  and  in  1649  sent  out  its  first  fleet.  After 
five  years  of  severe  fighting,  the  Portuguese  merchants  overcame 
the  Dutch  merchants. 

For  half  a  century  Brazil  was  permitted  to  remain  at  peace. 
In  1710,  however,  a  French  squadron  under  Duclerc  attacked  Rio 
de  Janeiro  and  suffered  defeat.  On  12  September  of  the  following 
year  Admiral  Duguay  Trouin  arrived  off  Rio  with  a  new  fleet  and 
6,000  men.  The  governor  was  compelled  to  capitulate  and  to  pay  a 
large  sum  of  money.  A  great  change  in  the  industrial  conditions 
of   the    southern   districts   was    produced   by    the    discovery    of 


254  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

diamonds  at  this  time  (1710-30),  and  by  the  rush  to  the  gold 
regions  opened  up  by  the  enterprise  of  the  colonists  of  8ao  Paulo 
—  a  hardy  race,  doubtless  with  a  large  admixture  of  Indian  blood, 
much  addicted  to  adventurous  raids  into  the  interior.  Their 
explorations  extended  westward  into  Paraguay  and  northward 
into  Minas,  Goyaz,  and  Cuyaba  in  the  state  of  Matto  Grosso.  Gold 
was  discovered  in  the  regions  last  mentioned;  by  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century  there  were  five  towns  of  considerable  importance 
in  Minas  Geraes ;  and  that  state  is  now,  as  we  shall  see,  one  of  the 
most  populous  of  all.  Laborers  were  withdrawn  from  the  sugar 
industry  by  the  superior  attractions  of  mining,  and  Brazil  lost  her 
leading  position  as  a  sugar-producing  country.  The  conspiracy  of 
Minas  in  1789  was  the  first  sympathetic  movement  in  Brazil  occa- 
sioned by  the  Revolutionary  War  in  North  America.  Inspired  by 
the  success  of  the  English  colonies  in  achieving  independence,  the 
inhabitants  of  Minas  formed  a  project  to  throw  off  the  Portuguese 
yoke,  but  the  plot  failed,  the  leader  was  hanged,  and  the  conspira- 
tors were  banished  to  Africa,  from  which  continent  slaves  were 
being  imported  in  large  numbers.  It  was  an  unprofitable  exchange 
for  America.  The  French  Revolution,  among  its  extraordinary 
consequences,  promoted  Brazil  from  the  humble  position  of  a 
colony  to  be  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Portuguese  power,  and 
the  only  American  monarchy.  In  1807  the  threat  of  the  invasion 
of  Portugal  b}^  Napoleon  sent  the  prince  regent,  afterw^ard  King- 
John  or  Dom  Joao  VI,  across  the  ocean  (29  November).  With  him 
went  the  queen,  the  royal  family,  the  great  officers  of  state,  and 
members  of  the  nobility.  He  created  many  new  offices,  and  other- 
wise made  the  machinery  of  government  in  Brazil  much  more 
elaborate  than  it  had  ever  been;  and,  to  meet  the  increased 
expenses  that  these  changes  involved,  at  first  imposed  neW'  taxes, 
and  afterward,  by  debasing  the  money  standard,  inaugurated  the 
long  period  of  financial  error  that  has  impeded  the  advancement 
of  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  Brazilian  ports  were  declared 
open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations  at  peace  with  Portugal.  Thus 
John  favored  industrial  development  and  injured  it  at  the  same 
time.  Numbers  of  artisans  and  manufacturers  from  England, 
Germany,  France,  and  Sweden  came  to  take  advantage  of  the  new^ 
opportunity.  In  1816  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  was  founded  by 
French  painters  and  sculptors.  The  occupation  of  Portugal  by 
French  troops  was  offset  in  the  new  world  by  the  incorporation 
of  French  Guiana  with  Brazil  (1809) ;  but  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in 
1815  restored  Guiana  to  France.  On  W  Jan.  1815,  the  title  of 
kingdom  was  conferred  upon  Brazil ;  and  an  important  extension 


BRAZIL  255 

of  the  domain  of  this  unique  American  monarchy  was  effected  six 
years  afterward,  when  Uruguay  was  united  with  it  under  the  title 
of  the  Cisplatine  State.  But  this  union,  like  the  occupation  of 
French  Guiana,  was  destined  to  be  temporary,  owing  to  the  policy 
adopted  by  Argentina.    See  Argentina. 

Independence  Proclaimed 

The  general  movement  in  favor  of  independence  that  trans- 
formed the  Spanish  colonies  north,  south,  and  west  of  Brazil  into 
republics,  produced  conspiracies  and  plots  in  Bahia  and  Pernam- 
buco.  Troops  were  brought  out  from  Portugal  to  restrain  every 
violent  manifestation  of  the  republican  spirit;  meanwhile,  how^- 
ever,  in  Portugal  itself  the  revolution  of  1820  had  led  to  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  old  autocratic  system,  and  the  f  orcesf  rom  that  country, 
openly  sympathizing  with  the  aspirations  of  the  Brazilian  people, 
compelled  King  John  to  yield.  The  latter  withdrew  from  America 
soon  afterward  (26  April  1821),  leaving  his  son,  Dom  Pedro,  to 
work  out  the  problem  in  Brazil  as  best  he  might.  The  attitude  of 
the  Cortes  of  Portugal  in  this  crisis  was  exceedingly  unwise: 
instead  of  offering  concessions,  it  directed  the  dissolution  of  the 
central  government,  and  ordered  Dom  Pedro  to  return  to  Portugal. 
Assured  of  the  support  of  the  people  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Sao 
Paulo,  who  requested  him  to  disobey  this  command,  Dom  Pedro 
proclaimed  the  independence  of  Brazil,  7  Sept.  1822.  He  became 
constitutional  emperor  the  following  month.  In  the  hostilities 
which  ensued  the  Brazilians  were  so  successful  that  independence 
was  assured  before  the  end  of  1823.  The  constitution  of  the 
empire  was  adopted  on  25  March  1824.  But  a  peculiar  situation 
in  the  ruling  family  remained  to  be  disposed  of.  Since  October 
1822,  Dom  Pedro  had  been  emperor  of  Brazil,  while  his  father  was 
king  of  Portugal.  The  dramatic  climax  occurred  25  Aug.  1825, 
when  a  treaty  was  signed  in  London  by  virtue  of  which  King  John 
first  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  of  Brazil  and  then  immediately 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son.  As  the  popularity  of  Dom  Pedro  I 
was  due  to  the  disposition  he  showed  at  first  to  accede  to  the 
wishes  of  the  liberals,  so  it  is  necessary  to  ascribe  his  loss  of 
popularity  in  the  years  1826-31  to  his  unwillingness  to  trust  the 
people  more  and  more,  as  their  demand  for  participation  in  the 
government  steadily  increased.  The  statement  found  in  some 
recent  histories,  to  the  effect  that  Pedro  I  w^as  a  brutal  tyrant, 
whose  reign  ended  in  public- disgrace,  is  positively  incorrect,  and 
inculcates  false  views  of  this  entire  period.    It  w^as  his  tact  that 


256 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


saved  the  monarcliy  in  1821 ;  but  the  growth  of  republicanism  in 
the  next  decade  was  much  more  rapid  among  the  people  than  at 
his  court,  and  finally  the  breach  became  so  wide  that  no  course  was 
left  to  him  but  to  surrender  his  crown  before  the  succession  of 
his  son,  the  second  Pedro,  should  be  disputed,  and  to  take  ship  for 
Lisbon,  where  it  had  become  a  duty  to  defend  the  claim  of  his 
daughter,  Maria  II,  to  the  throne  of  Portugal.  At  any  time  after 
1810  outrageous  tyranny  on  the  part  of  Portuguese  rulers  would 
have  thrown  Brazil  into  the  advancing  column  of  revolutionary 


Copyright,    Newman  Traveltalks   and  Brown   &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
The    Main   Street  of  Sao   Paulo,    Brazil 

states.  The  significant  facts  are,  that  Pedro  I  was  able  to  post- 
pone the  inevitable  change  for  10  years,  and  that  Pedro  II  (whose 
majority  was  proclaimed  23  July  1840)  succeeded  in  maintaining 
the  monarchical  form  in  America  until  15  Nov.  1889.  The  regency 
by  which  the  affairs  of  Brazil  were  administered  (1831-40)  was 
much  like  a  republican  government,  especially  after  1834.  Prob- 
ably it  would  have  been  impossible  to  revert  to  a  monarcliy  if  the 
weakness  and  misconduct  of  the  regents  had  not  brought  discredit 
upon  everything  savoring  of  democracy. 

The  suppression  of  the  revolution  of  1848;  discontinuance  of 
the  importation  of  slaves,  in  1853;  and  the  creditable  part  taken 
by  Brazil  in  thwarting  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  Argentine 
dictator,  Rosas  (See  Argentina)  —  these  are  the  chief  events 
before  1855.  In  that  year  a  Brazilian  squadron  was  sent  to  settle 
a  dispute  with  Paraguay  as  to  the  right  of  way  for  Brazilian  ves- 
sels on  the  Parana  River,  which,  rising  in  Brazil,  flowing  beside 


BRAZIL  257 

Paraguay,  and  finally  through  the  territory  of  Argentina,  should 
be  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  three  nations  equally.  The  war- 
ships failed  to  accomplish  the  desired  result,  and  for  a  decade 
vexatious  restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  vessels  of  Brazil, 
Argentina,  and  the  United  States.  In  1865  an  outrage  by  Seiior 
Lopez,  the  dictator  of  Paraguaj^,  brought  on  a  war  in  which  Brazil, 
Argentina,  and  Uruguay  were  allied  against  the  oiTending  coun- 
try. (See  Paraguay).  This  bitter  struggle,  protracted  until  1870, 
cost  Brazil  the  lives  of  many  thousands  of  her  citizens,  and  in 
money  about  $300,000,000.  In  the  year  following  the  restoration 
of  peace  a  law  was  enacted  for  the  abolition  of  the  institution  of 
slavery,  the  growth  of  which  had  been  checked,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  1853.  It  was  provided  that  thenceforth  every  child  born  of 
slave  parents  should  be  free. 

Brazil  a  Republic 

A  bloodless  revolution  terminated  the  reign  of  Dom  Pedro  II, 
and  the  Federal  republic  was  proclaimed,  15  Nov.  1889.  A  pro- 
visional government,  instituted  for  this  purpose,  published  (24 
Feb.  1891)  the  constitution  of  '*  The  United  States  of  Brazil," 
resembling  that  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  nearly  every 
respect,  though  Brazilian  senators  serve  for  nine  years,  like 
those  of  Argentina,  while  the  president's  term  of  office  is  but 
four  years.  Marshal  Deodora  da  Fonseca,  head  of  the  pro- 
visional government,  was  confirmed  in  the  presidency  by  the 
constitutional  congress,  and  Gen.  Floriano  Peixotto  was  elected 
vice-president.  The  next  president  (15  Nov.  1894)  was  Prudente 
de  Moraes  Barros.  The  third  president.  Dr.  Manoel  Ferraz 
de  Campos  Salles,  was  elected  for  the  term  beginning  15  Nov. 
1898.  His  successor,  Sefior  Francisco  de  Paula  Rodrigues 
Alves,  inaugurated  15  Nov.  1902,  made  a  statement  of  the  national 
policy  in  his  inaugural  address  which  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows :  A  good  financial  condition  in  the  republic  is  of  prime 
importance;  but  scarcely  less  essential  are  reforms  in  the  laws 
applicable  to  civil  suits  and  elections.  Agricultural  and  commer- 
cial conditions  must  be  improved,  and  endeavors  made  to  attract 
immigration  and  capital.  Modern  systems  of  sanitation  must  be 
installed  at  the  ports,  including  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  augmentation 
of  the  army  and  navy  may  be  undertaken  when  the  condition  of 
the  treasury  warrants  such  expenditures. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  circumstances  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  in  this  sketch  —  such  as  the  issuance  of 
18 


258  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

large  amounts  of  paper  currency,  which  it  was  formerly  the 
fashion  to  call  irredeemable;  the  change  from  the  basis  of  slave 
to  free  labor;  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy;  foreign  wars,  and 
rebellions  in  one  state  after  another — ^have  combined  to  depress 
Brazilian  credit  and  retard  industrial  development.  To  these 
unfavorable  influences  must  be  added  the  decline  in  the  prices  of 
coffee,  Brazil's  staple  product,  and  of  sugar,  her  chief  reliance  in 
times  past.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  observable  a  tendency 
toward  greater  stability  in  the  national  policy ;  a  large  amount  of 
paper  money  was,  before  1903,  called  in  and  destroyed ;  and  inter- 
est has  been  shown  recently  in  efforts  to  develop  the  enormous 
natural  resources  of  the  country  and  to  maintain  standards  of 
health  in  the  chief  ports.  In  November  1903  the  dispute  with 
Bolivia  in  regard  to  the  Acre  region  was  terminated,  Bolivia  sur- 
rendering her  claims  to  73,750  square  miles  on  or  near  the  Acre 
River  in  return  for  886  square  miles  on  the  affluents  of  the 
Madeira  and  Abuna,  335  square  miles  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Paraguay,  and  the  sum  of  $10,000,000  which  Bolivia  has  expended 
with  excellent  results  for  the  construction  of  railways. 

Brazil,  by  virtue  of  the  same  agreement  (Treaty  of  Petropolis, 
Article  7),  was  placed  under  an  obligation  which  has  been  scrupu- 
lously discharged,  namely,  "  to  build  on  Brazilian  territory,  by 
herself  or  by  a  private  company,  a  railway  ' '  which,  in  brief,  sup- 
plies an  outlet  to  the  Madeira  and  Amazon  for  Bolivian  products. 
In  June  1914  the  dispute  with  Great  Britain  over  the  frontier  of 
British  Guiana  was  ended  by  the  award  of  the  arbitrator,  the 
King  of  Italy,  who  gave  14,000  square  miles  to  Brazil  and  about 
19,000  square  miles  to  the  other  contestant.  In  1906  Dr.  Alfonso 
Penna  was  elected  President.  An  International  Conference  was 
held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  23  July  to  27  Aug.  1907.  The  occasion  was 
made  memorable  by  the  formal  visit  of  Elihu  Root,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States.  President  Penna  decreed,  13  Jan. 
1908,  a  reduction  of  the  tariff  duties  on  several  American  products, 
in  return  for  the  favor  shown  by  the  United  States  to  Brazilian 
coffee.  An  arrangement  was  made  with  the  Imperial  Emigration 
Company  of  Tokio  for  bringing  over  3,000  Japanese  colonists 
within  two  years  at  the  expense  of  Brazil.  (See  article  Labor.) 
President  Penna  died  14  June  1909  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice- 
President  PcQanha.  Marshal  Hermes  da  Fonseca  was  elected  to 
the  presidency  1  March  1910.  On  22  November  the  crews  of  the 
warships  Minas  Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo  mutinied  in  the  harbor  of 
Rio.  These  vessels  were  surrendered  to  the  government  27  Novem- 
ber.   Baron  Rio  Branco  died  in  1912,  and  was  succeeded  as  foreign 


BRAZIL  259 

minister  by  General  Lauro  Miiller.  In  1913  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Brazil  were  strained  in  consequence  of  the 
action  filed  by  the  administration  of  the  former  country  against 
the  Brazilian  committee  in  charge  of  the  valorization  of  coffee. 
After  the  dismissal  of  the  valorization  suit,  Brazil  restored  the 
preferential  tariff  on  American  products,  which  had  been  sus- 
pended during  the  dispute,  and  General  Lauro  Miiller  returned 
Secretary  Root's  visit.  In  1914  Vice-President  Wenceslao  Braz 
was  elected  President.  In  May  1915  a  treaty  of  alliance  was 
signed  at  Buenos  Aires  by  representatives  of  Brazil,  Argentina, 
and  Chile.  Three  months  later  Brazil  was  associated  witii  the 
United  States,  Chile,  Argentina,  Uruguay,  Bolivia,  and  Guatemala 
in  efforts  to  restore  law  and  order  in  Mexico.  In  1916  Brazil  con- 
tiimed  to  feel,  more  than  other  Latin  American  countries,  tlie 
extremely  injurious  effect  of  the  scarcity  of  ships,  withdrawal  of 
credits,  soaring  prices  and  declining  rate  of  exchange  which  the 
European  war  occasioned.  This  subject  is  examined  in  its  proper 
connection  and  relations  in  the  articles:  Commerce,  Commerce 
WITH  THE  United  States,  and  Banking  and  Finance. 

Bibliography 

(Early  history,  modern  conditions,  exploration  and  travel,  etc.) 

Aeuna,  C.  de,  Nuevo  Descubrimiento  del  Gran  Rio  de  las  Amazonas  (Madrid 
1641,  reprint,  1891) ;  the  same  in  Voyages  and  Discoveries  in  South  America 
(London  1698) ;  Agassiz,  L.  and  Mrs.  Agassiz,  A  Journey  in  Brazil  (Boston  1896) ; 
Baldaque  da  Silva,  A.  A.,  0  Descohrimento  do  Brazil  por  Pedro  Alvares  Cabral 
(In:  Acad,  real  das  sci.  da  Lisboa. —  com.  portuguesa  da  Exposiguo  Colombina, 
Lisbon  1892) ;  Bates,  H.  W.,  Ihe  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon  (London  1875) ; 
Bennett,  F.,  Forty  Years  in  Brazil  (London  1914) ;  Brazil  and  Bolivia  Boundary 
Settlement:  Treaty  signed  17  Nov.  1903  (New  York  1904);  Brown,  C.  B.,  and 
Lidstone,  W.,  Fifteen  Thousand  Miles  on  the  Amazon  and  its  Tributaries  (London 
1878) ;  Binice,  G.  J.,  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians  (New  York  1914)  ;  Bryce,  Viscount 
James,  South  America;  Observations  and  Impressions  (New  York  1912) ;  Buley, 
E.  C,  North  Brazil  (New  York  1914);  Buley,  South  Brazil  (London  1914); 
Clemenceau,  G.,  Notes  de  Voyage  dans  I'  Amerique  du  Sud  (Paris  1911)  ;  Cook, 
W.  A.,  Through  the  Wilderness  of  Brazil  by  Horse,  Canoe,  and  Float  (New  York 
1909)  ;  Denis,  P.,  Le  Bresil  au  XX'^  Siecle  (Paris  1909),  and  Brazil  (trans.,  with 
historical  chapter  by  Mr.  Miall  and  a  supplementary  chapter  by  Mr.  Vindin, 
London  1911) ;  Fabius,  A,  N.  J.,  Johan  Maurits,  de  Braziliaan  (Utrecht  1914) ; 
Glass,  F.  C,  With  the  Bible  in  Brazil  (London  1914) ;  Grossi,  V.,  Storia  delta 
Colonizzazione  Europea  al  Brasile  e  delta  Emigrazione  Italiana  (Milan  1914)  ; 
Lange,  A.,  In  the  Amazon  Jungle  (New  York  1912),  and  The  Lower  Amazon 
(ib.,  1914) ;  Levasseur,  E.,  avec  la  collaboration  de  MM.  de  Rio  Branco,  E,  Prado. . . 
Le  Bresil  (Paris  1889  [1890])  ;  Oakenfull,  J.  C,  Brazil  in  1913  (Frome,  England 
1914) ;  Pedro  I,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  Corresp.  de  D.  Pedro  Premier  avcc  le  feu 
Roi  de  Portugal  (Paris  1827)  ;  Reyes,  R.,  The  Txco  Americas  (New  York  1914); 


260  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Robinson,  G.  W.,  ed.,  Brazil  and  Portugal  in  1809  (Cambridge  1913);  Roosevelt, 
T.,  Through  the  Brazilian  Wilderness  (New  York  1914)  ;  Southey,  R.,  The  History 
of  Brazil  (3  vols.,  London  1817-22)  ;  Stade,  Captivity  Among  the  Wild  Tribes  of 
Eastern  Brazil  (Hakluyt  Society  1874) ;  Tomlinson,  H.  M.,  The  Sea  and  the 
Jungle  (London  1912)  ;  Vespucci,  Amerigo,  The  First  Four  Voyages  (reprinted 
in  facsimile  and  translated  from  the  rare  original  edition,  Florence  1505-06, 
London  1893);  also  Mundus  Novus:  ein  Bericht  A.  Vespucci's  an  Lorenzo  de 
Medici  iiber  seine  Beise  nach  Brasilien  in  den  Jahren  1501-02  (Strassburg  i  E, 
1913) ;  Wallace,  A.  R.,  A  Narrative  of  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro 
(London  1853) ;  Walle,  P.,  An  Bresil  du  Bio  Sdo  Francisco  a  VAmazone  (Paris 
1910),  and  Au  Pays  de  V  or  noir  (Paris  1909);  Whiffen,  T.  W.,  The  North-West 
Amazons  (London  1915);  Wilberforee,  E.,  Brazil  Viewed  Through  a  Naval  Glass 
(with  notes  on  slavery,  etc.,  London  1856)  ;  Woodroffe,  J.  F.,  The  Upper  Reaches 
of  the  Amazon  (London  1914);  Zahm,  J.  A.  (IL  .7.  Mozans),  Through  South 
America's  Southland  (New  York  and  London  1916). 


GOVERNMENT  OF  BRAZIL 

The  system  of  government  established  after  the  bloodless  revo- 
lution of  1889,  and  under  the  Constitution  of  1891,  has  already 
been  mentioned  and  in  part  characterized  ( See  History  of  Brazil)  . 
The  official  title  of  the  nation,  The  LTnited  States  of  Brazil 
(Estados-Unidos  do  Brazil),  conveys  at  a  glance  the  correct 
impression  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  Federal  rather  than  a 
centralized  Republic;  but  it  is  well  to  repeat  here  the  usual 
characterization,  namely,  that  its  Constitution  resembles  that  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  in  order  to  make  opportunity  for 
saying  that  the  rights  of  the  States  of  Brazil  are  emphasized, 
probably  somewhat  over-emphasized;  and  a  situation  has  been 
created  similar  to  that  which  would  be  found  in  the  United  States 
of  America  if  the  question  of  broad  or  strict  construction  of  the 
Constitution,  that  dividing  line  between  political  parties,  had  been 
determined  chiefly  in  favor  of  the  States'  Rights  or  strict  con- 
struction party.  We  shall  outline  the  Federal  executive,  legis- 
lative, and  judicial  branches,  and  the  organization  of  the  States, 
before  examining  more  closely  the  all-important  subject  of 
governmental  tendencies  and  problems. 

President  and  Vice-President  are  elected  by  direct  vote  for 
a  term  of  four  years,  and  may  not  be  reelected  for  the  term 
immediately  follow^ing.  President's  salary,  120,000  milreis  (or 
about  $38,000).  He  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  seven  ministers 
whom  he  appoints.  The  ministries  or  departments  are :  of  Justice 
Interior  and  Public  Instruction,  Foreign  Relations,  the  Navy,  War, 
Communications  and  Public  Works,  Finance,  and  of  Agriculture, 


BRAZIL  261 

Industry,  and  Commerce.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
National  Congress,  which  embraces  the  Senate  (63  members,  three 
for  each  State  and  three  for  the  Federal  District,  elected  by  district 
vote  for  nine-year  terms:  membership  renewed  by  thirds  every 
three  years)  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (elected  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  senators,  but  for  terms  of  only  three  years,  and  in  the 
proportion  of  one  for  every  70,000  inhabitants  —  no  state,  however, 
being  represented  by  less  than  four  deputies).  Congress  meets 
annually  on  3  May  for  four  months,  but  may  be  prorogued  or 
called  in  extra  session  by  the  President.  The  franchise  extends 
to  all  male  citizens  over  21  years  of  age,  duly  enrolled,  except 
beggars,  illiterates,  soldiers  actually  ■  serving,  and  members  of 
monastic  orders  under  vows  of  obedience.  The  President  must 
be  a  native  of  Brazil  over  35  years  of  age.  In  legislation  relating 
to  taxes,  the  initiative  belongs  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  There 
is  a  Supreme  Federal  Court  of  Justice  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  a 
Federal  judge  in  each  State.  The  former  consists  of  15  justices, 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate;  the  Federal  judges  are  appointed  upon  the  Supreme 
Court's  recommendation  — justices  and  judges  alike  holding  office 
for  life.  There  are  also,  for  purely  local  or  unimportant  matters, 
nmnicipal  magistrates  and  justices  of  the  peace  who  are  elected 
for  four  years. 

State  governments  resemble  the  Federal  in  having  separate 
administrative,  legislative,  and  judicial  branches;  and  the  design 
has  been  to  prevent  loss  of  independence  by  any  one  of  these,  or 
the  subordination  of  all  to  the  national  executive.  The  latter, 
accordingly,  has  not  the  extensive  powers  of  appointment  and 
control  which  are  exercised  by  Presidents  of  some  of  the  more 
centralized  South  American  republics.  Governors  of  States,  as 
well  as  members  of  State  Legislatures,  hold  elective  offices,  and  to 
the  former  is  assigned  the  appointment  of  magistrates  who  are 
not  removable  from  office  save  by  judicial  sentence.  Each  State 
is  governed  in  accordance  with  its  own  Constitution  and  laws. 
These  must,  of  course,  never  conflict  with  the  constitutional  prin- 
ciples of  the  Union;  and  it  is  provided  that,  in  case  of  such 
infringement  by  State  authorities,  the  Federal  government  shall, 
by  force  of  arms  if  necessary,  intervene  to  control  the  offending 
State.  But  not  otherwise  is  intervention  conceded  as  a  Federal 
right.  The  Federal  District  is  administered  by  a  council  elected 
by  qualified  voters,  and  the  municipal  executive  authority  there 
is  exercised  by  a  Prefect  appointed  for  four  years  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic. 


262  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  tendencies  to  which  we  referred  receive  considerate 
treatment  at  the  hands  of  M.  Denis  {Le  Bresil,  etc.).  ^'  The  States 
—  the  one-time  Provinces"  he  writes,  ^' enjoy  a  very  large 
degree  of  independence.  Each  of  them  forms  an  actual  nation, 
with  its  elected  authorities  and  its  autonomous  administration," 
He  finds  that  individual  States  ''  freely  negotiate  contracts  with 
foreign  companies  or  syndicates  for  the  execution  of  public  works 
or  raising  loans.  They  have  their  systems  of  justice,  their  sys- 
tems of  public  education.  Some  of  them  have  representatives  in 
Europe  who  play  the  part  almost  of  diplomatists ;  who  have  been 
known  to  hold  conferences  and  to  sign  conventions  without  the 
intervention  of  any  Federal  authority.  The  Constitution  has 
afforded  them  an  important  source  of  revenue  in  allowing  them  to 
establish  export  duties.  I  believe  there  is  no  State  budget  which 
does  not  place  export  duties  in  the  first  rank  among  its  receipts. 
The  export  duty  on  coffee  swells  the  budget  of  Sao  Paulo,  as  the 
export  duty  on  mate  swells  that  of  Parana.  Thus  Brazil  has  a 
double  line  of  custom-houses,  one  facing  outwards,  one  inwards. 
The  duties  collected  upon  foreign  merchandise  entering  the  coun- 
try are  a  Federal  matter,  and  depend  upon  the  central  govern- 
ment; but  the  export  duties  are  State  property.  In  equilibrium 
with  the  States  the  Constituti(m  erects  the  Federal  government." 
Now,  the  Union  (if  we  adopt  the  shorter  name,  preferred  by  the 
people  themselves),  by  the  regulation  of  monetary  questions  and 
by  the  settlement  of  the  customs  tariff,  exercises  a  deeply  felt 
influence  over  the  national  life;  and  although  at  first  very  nar- 
rowly confined  to  specified  functions,  a  tendency  has  become  mani- 
fest to  exalt  its  authority  and  dignity.  ''  In  the  first  place  the 
Union  acquired  its  own  territory  —  the  Territory  of  Acre,  which 
was  ceded  by  Bolivia  (q.v.)  by  the  treaty  of  Petropolis.  This 
territory  is  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Amazonian  plain,  and 
one  of  the  chief  rubber-producing  countries.  Instead  of  making  a 
new  State  of  Acre,  it  has  been  kept  by  the  Union  as  a  kind  of 
dower.  The  Union  collects  the  export  duties  on  rubber,  which 
duties,  except  in  this  Federal  Territory,  go  to  the  treasuries  of 
the  States.  The  revenues  of  Acre  were  sufficient  in  three  years  to 
pay  off  the  indemnity  to  Bolivia.  To-day  they  are  added  to  the 
other  sources  of  Federal  revenue,  and  form  a  notable  addition  to 
the  Union's  budget,"  An  indication  that  the  Union  has  begun  to 
'*  find  itself  "  is  this:  it  decided  to  intervene,  or  to  impose  its 
will  upon  the  more  shiftless  States,  in  respect  to  education  and 
the  colonization  of  immigrants.  Viscount  James  Bryce  (see 
Bibliography)  writes  that  "  the  immense  size  of  the  countrv  and 


BEAZIL  263 

its  want  of  homogeneity  suggested  a  federal  system,  the  basis  for 
which  already  existed  in  the  legislative  assemblies  of  the  prov- 
inces. Since  then  Brazil  has  had  its  full  share  of  armed  risings 
and  civil  wars.  At  first  the  States  were  allowed  the  full  exercise 
of  the  large  functions  which  the  constitution  allotted  to  them, 
including  the  raising  of  revenue  by  duties  on  exports  and  the 
maintenance  of  a  police  force  which  in  some  States  was  undis- 
tinguishable  from  an  army.  Presently  attempts  were  made  to 
draw  the  reins  tighter,  and  these  attempts  have  continued  till 
now."  His  observations  and  impressions  in  this  field  are  to  the 
effect  that  the  national  government  ^'  has  latterly  endeavoured  to 
exert  over  the  States  a  greater  control  than  some  of  them  seem 
willing  to  accept.  Nor  is  this  the  only  difficulty.  While  some  of 
the  States,  and  especially  the  southern,  have  an  intelligent  and 
energetic  population,  others  remain  far  behind,  their  citizens  too 
ignorant  and  lazy,  or  too  unstable  and  emotional,  to  be  fit  for  self- 
government.  Universal  suffrage  in  districts  where  the  majority 
of  the  voters  are  illiterate  persons  of  colour  suggests,  if  it  does 
not  justify,  extra-legal  methods  of  handling  elections.  One  illegal- 
ity breeds  another,  and  there  is  perpetuated  a  distrust  of  authority 
and  a  resort  to  violence."  In  many  regions  it  is  quite  true  that 
the  Brazilian  Constitution,  as  M.  Georges  Ck'menceau  writes  in 
his  South  America  of  To-day,  *'  enjoys  a  chiefly  theoretic 
authority."  Viscount  James  Bryce  continues:  *'  In  the  Brazilian 
politics  of  to-day  there  are  many  factions,  but  no  organized  parties 
nor  any  definite  principles  or  policies  advocated  by  any  group  or 
groups  of  men.  Federal  issues  are  crossed  and  warped  by  State 
issues,  State  issues  confused  by  Federal  issues,  and  both  sets  of 
issues  turn  rather  on  persons  than  on  general  doctrines  or  specific 
practical  proposals.  One  source  of  dissension  is,  however,  absent 
—  that  struggle  of  the  church  and  clericalism  against  the  prin- 
ciples of  religious  equality  which  has  distracted  the  Spanish- 
American  republics.  In  Brazil  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
is  complete,  and  though  the  diplomatic  corps  enjoys  the  presence 
of  a  papal  Nuncio  as  one  of  its  members,  this  adherence  to  tradi- 
tion has  no  present  political  significance.  The  absence  or  the 
fluidity  of  parties  makes  the  executive  stronger  than  the  legisla- 
ture both  in  National  and  State  politics.  There  are  many  men  of 
talent,  especially  oratorical  talent,  and  many  men  of  force,  but 
not  enough  who  show  constructive  power  and  the  grasp  of  mind 
needed  to  handle  the  enormous  economic  problems  which  a  country 
so  vast,  so  rich,  and  so  various  presents. "  He  concludes,  however, 
that  it  is  too  soon  to  be  despondent,  inasmuch  as  the  country  has 


264  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

been  free  from  the  taint  of  slavery  only  since  1888,  and  has  been 
a  republic  only  since  1891.  Consult  Bryce,  J.,  South  America 
(New  York  1912).  See  Bibliographies  under  History  and  other 
titles  in  the  Brazilian  series. 


5 


EDUCATION  AND   RELIGION  IN   BRAZIL 


The  centra]  government  has  been  hitherto  prevented  by  the 
constitutional  restrictions  mentioned  above  from  making  educa- 
tion compulsory  in  the  States ;  but  some  of  the  latter  have  them- 
selves taken  this  step,  and  wherever  the  government  can  offer  it 
at  all  and  make  it  free,  education  is  free.  Distributed  unevenly 
throughout  the  States  are  more  than  13,000  schools.  Brazil  has 
no  university.  The  excellent  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  engi- 
neering in  several  of  the  large  cities  do  not  supply  this  deficiency. 
But  all  advocates  of  the  establishment  of  a  national  university 
have  encountered  the  opposition  of  leaders  who  represent  the 
States'  Rights  doctrine.  The  founding  and  maintenance  of  a 
great  national  university,  such  as  the  country  needs  and  would 
appreciate,  are  steps  toward  centralization  which  State  politicians 
are  wholly  unprepared  to  take.  The  Union,  however,  occasionally 
extends  pecuniary  assistance  to  States,  municipalities,  or  individ- 
uals by  way  of  co-operation  in  the  maintenance  of  industrial  schools, 
or  colleges  of  agriculture.  Sao  Paulo  leads  among  the  States  in 
educational  progress :  its  Faculty  of  Law  and  Polytechnic  College 
are  both  praiseworthy ;  and  the  range  of  scientific  courses  carried 
on  at  its  museum  is  striking.  However,  M.  Denis  says  that  this 
State  does  little  for  secondary  education.  "  The  State  of  Sao 
Paulo  contains  three  public  secondary  schools :  one  in  the  capital, 
one  at  Campinas,  and  one  at  Ribeiraon  Preto ;  but  the  pupils  are 
few  in  number.  The  fact  is  that  this  State  by  no  means  has  the 
monopoly  of  secondary  education.  There  is  a  host  of  private 
schools,  many  of  which  are  kept  by  religious  orders.  The  private 
schools  are  for  the  most  part  boarding-schools  " — as  a  matter 
of  fact,  many  of  them  are  situated  in  the  country.  '^  The  educa- 
tion given  in  such  schools  is  very  unequal  and  usually  second-rate. 
Not  only  in  Sao  Paulo  but  throughout  Brazil  the  question  of 
secondary  education  is  to-day  one  of  extreme  gravity.  It  is  to 
primary  education  that  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo  devotes  its 
resources.  The  budget  appropriation  is  liberal,  amounting  to 
$2,000,000,   and   some   of   the   schools   have   the   appearance   of 


BEAZIL  265 

palaces."  Mackenzie  College  at  Sao  Paulo  has  an  excellent  stand- 
ing among  foreign  institutions  which  supplement  by  their  work  the 
State  and  National  systems  of  instruction;  and  there  are  many 
foreign  schools  in  the  Republic.  The  very  great  educational  value 
of  free  libraries  has  not  been  overlooked :  there  are,  indeed,  many 
small  collections  of  books;  and  the  National  Library  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  containing  certainly  several  hundred  thousand  items  — 
perhaps  nearly  half  of  a  million  manuscripts  and  printed  works  — 
is  the  most  interesting  large  collection  that  the  writer  has  visited 
in  any  part  of  Latin  America.  Finally,  as  a  field  for  educational 
endeavors,  Brazil  has  elements  of  exceptional  promise.  "  The 
Brazilians,  who  never  forget  that  they  were  for  a  time,  during  the 
French  invasion  of  Portugal,  their  own  mother  country,  and  head 
of  the  whole  Portuguese  people,  cherish  their  national  literary 
traditions  with  more  warmth  than  do  the  Spaniards  of  the  New 
World,  and  produce  quite  as  much  in  the  way  of  poetry  and  belles 
left  res  as  do  the  writers  of  Portugal,  They  have  a  quick  suscepti- 
bility to  ideas,  like  that  of  Frenchmen  or  Russians."  Such  is  the 
tribute  in  Bryce's  South  America;  but  it  is  promptly  qualified 
as  follows:  ''  One  can  hardly  be  surprised  that  learning  and  the 
abstract  side  of  natural  science  are  undervalued  in  a  country 
which  has  no  university,  nothing  more  than  faculties  for  teaching 
the  practical  subjects  of  law,  medicine,  engineering,  and  agricul- 
ture." In  view  of  the  enormous  mass  and  weight  of  practical 
difficulties  and  problems  which  we  have  indicated  in  preceding 
pages,  we  think  that  a  taste  for  and  interest  in  branches  of  knowl- 
edge not  directly  practical  will  be  extended,  not  very  rapidly,  but 
little  by  little,  as  the  problems  of  an  oppressively  and  intensely 
practical  nature  are  gradually  solved. 

Steps  taken  in  recent  years  are  (I)  The  decree  of  5  April 
1911,  which  conferred  upon  a  Federal  Board  of  Education  author- 
ity to  establish  primary  schools  in  the  various  States;  (2)  The 
inauguration,  on  4  July  1913  of  a  superior  school  of  agriculture 
and  veterinary  medicine  at  Rio  de  Janeiro;  and  (3)  The  decree  of 
15  April  1914,  which  created  a  class  of  practical  schools  of  agri- 
culture and  which  was  followed  by  other  decrees  establishing 
preparatory  schools  of  agriculture  and  experiment  stations. 
Thus  legal  provision  was  made  for  a  great  system  of  agricultural 
education  under  the  control  of  the  central  government.  In  10 
different,  widely  separated  localities,  this  pacific  invasion  of  the 
states  by  a  movement  unquestionably  beneficial,  though  also 
unquestionably  in  contravention  of  strict-constructionist  theories 
(see  Government)  has  already  taken  plac^. 


266  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

To  the  subject  of  religion  we  do  not  give  prominence  here, 
because  in  Brazil  it  has  been,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  subordinated 
during  so  long  a  period  that  to-day  the  Churcli  and  religion  exert 
little  influence  upon  the  thought  and  conduct  of  laymen.  Colonel 
Roosevelt  writes  {Through  the  Brazilian  Wilderness)  that 
"  the  Positivists  are  a  really  strong  body  in  Brazil,  as  they  are 
in  France  ";  and  again:  '*  Brazil  possesses  the  same  complete 
liberty  in  matters  religious,  spiritual,  and  intellectual  as  we  do." 
But  of  course  laymen  in  Brazil  had  never,  in  the  manner  of  the 
Puritans,  adopted  an  independent  (Congregational)  form  of 
church  government.  The  latter  were  free  to  exercise  their  own 
chosen  form  of  worship ;  the  former,  when  the  connection  between 
Church  and  State  was  abolished,  and  absolute  equality  declared 
among  all  forms  of  religion,  quite  naturally  were  freed  from  the 
restraints  and  the  inspiration  of  religion  to  a  very  much  greater 
extent.  The  Church  has  retained  its  buildings,  properties,  and 
income;  religious  orders  share  fully  in  the  general  toleration; 
the  Brazilian  men  as  a  rule  are  still  nominally  —  and  Brazilian 
^^  omen  as  a  rule  are  devoutly  —  Catholics.  High  officials  of  the 
Catholic  Church  are :  The  Cardinal,  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  archbishops 
at  Bahia,  Rio,  Sao  Paulo,  Para,  and  Mariana,  and  25  suffragan 
bishops.  Consult  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
(Dept.  of  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education,  Vol.  1,  Washington 
1915),  and  works  by  Bryce,  Clemenceau,  Denis,  and  others,  in 
which  are  chapters  dealing  with  present  educational  conditions. 
See  Bibliography  under  History. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FOREST  PRODUCTS  IN   BRAZIL 

Cotfee,  rubber,  herva  matte,  sugar  and  mandioca  receive 
special  mention  on  account  of  the  importance  of  these  Brazilian 
products ;  but  the  fact  is  that  the  southern  plateau,  in  the  States 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Santa  Catharina,  and  Parana,  produces 
all  the  cereals  and  fruits  of  temperate  zones  and  many  of  those 
of  the  tropics  as  well.  We  find  here  wheat,  Indian  corn,  rye, 
potatoes,  and  such  vegetables  as  are  grown  in  the  United  States ; 
while  rice,  coffee,  oranges,  bananas,  and  pineapples  thrive  in  the 
lowlands  along  the  coast.  In  many  places  grapes  are  grown,  and 
attention  is  given  in  the  south  to  the  production  of  native  wines. 


BRAZIL  267 


Coffee 


The  great  coffee-producers  of  the  world  are  the  Paulistas  — 
the  people  of  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo.  The  celebrated  terra  roxa 
—  red  earth  —  in  which  the  coffee-trees  flourish  especially  is 
found,  as  the  author  of  Through  South  America's  Southland 
writes,  in  other  parts  of  the  Republic,  but  the  Paulistas  were  the 
first  to  demonstrate  its  extraordinary  value  for  coffee-culture. 
''  The  history  of  what  Linnaeus  named  Coffea  Arabica,  in  its  long 
migrations  from  the  wild  forests  of  Abyssinia  and  Mozambique 
to  the  carefully  cultivated  fazendas  of  Sao  Paulo,  is  a  most  inter- 
esting one.  It  is  a  far  cry  from  its  first  restricted  use  as  a  drug 
in  the  East  to  its  present  status  as  one  of  the  world's  most  popu- 
lar beverages ;  from  the  time  when  its  production  in  the  West  was 
prohibited,  and  gave  rise  to  as  absurd  conflicts  as  attended  the 
introduction  of  tobacco  into  Europe.  .  .  .  It  is  scarcely  80  years 
since  the  production  of  coffee  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo  received 
its  first  impetus.  Before  that  time  it  was  rarely  found  outside 
of  a  drug  store.  But  after  that  the  development  of  the  industry 
was  so  rapid  and  so  extraordinary  in  its  proportions  that  it  stands 
forth  as  one  of  the  marvels  of  economic  history."  Of  course  the 
circumstance  that  in  Sao  Paulo  the  coff'ee-trees  do  not  recjuire 
shading  (that  is,  are  not,  as  in  Porto  Kico,  Mexico,  etc.,  grown  and 
cultivated  under  the  protecting  shade  of  larger  trees)  contributes 
to  this  ''  marvellous  "  success.  ''  In  1851  the  amount  of  coffee 
exported  from  Sao  Paulo  was  something  more  than  100,000  sacks 
of  132  pounds  each.  Thenceforth  the  export  of  this  staple 
increased  with  amazing  rapidity  until,  in  1896-97,  the  amount 
produced  reached  the  stupendous  figure  of  more  than  15,000,000 
sacks.  This,  with  what  was  collected  in  other  parts  of  the  Repub- 
lic, gave  Brazil  85  per  cent  of  the  world's  total  production. 
That  year  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  produced  fully  three  times  as 
much  coffee  as  all  the  other  States  of  Brazil  combined.  But  this 
enormous  crop  was  more  than  the  market  could  bear.  The  supply 
had  gone  beyond  the  demand.  The  price  of  coffee  fell  until  it 
threatened  coffee-growers  and  the  State  itself  with  financial  dis- 
aster. But  the  shrewd  Paulistas  were  equal  to  the  emergency. 
For  it  was  then,  in  order  to  support  the  market  and  to  protect 
the  coffee  industry,  that  they  had  recourse  to  that  much  criticized 
measure  known  as  coffee  valorization.  The  operation  seemed  like 
a  gambler's  risk,  but  there  was  so  much  at  stake  that  the  govern- 
ment of  Sao  Paulo  did  not  hesitate  to  act.  This  measure,  which 
achieved  the  end  in  view,  was  only  another  illustration  of  that 


•~7 

1 


268  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

quick  initiative  and  sturdiness  of  character  which  have  always 
distinguished  the  Paulistas."  It  is  also  to  be  recalled  that  they 
began  to  direct  their  surplus  energy  into  other  channels,  culti- 
vating rice,  cotton,  etc.,  and  planting  such  rubber-producing  trees 
as  manicoba  and  mangabeira;  establishing  new  industries  and 
devoting  more  attention  to  manufactures.  The  average  annual 
coffee  crop  of  Brazil  is  about  12,000,000  sacks  of  132  pounds  each. 
In  1915  the  estimated  produce  was  9,497,553  sacks. 

Cattle  Raising 

Cattle-raising  in  Sao  Paulo  is  commented  upon  by  Mr.  Ling, 
in  The  Americas,  November  1915:  "  From  the  time  of  leaving 
Sao  Paulo  city  we  passed  through  a  gently  rolling  country; 
the  characteristics  are  pastoral  and  agricultural.  In  the  pastoral 
section  fine  bunches  of  native  cattle  and  of  cross-breeds  between 
native  and  Hereford  were  seen  in  such  quantities  as  to  give  the 
impression  that  the  number  far  exceeds  the  generally  accepted 
statement.  Statistics  show  that  the  number  of  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  etc.,  has  more  than  doubled  in  the  past  ten  years."  Mr. 
Ling  was  informed  by  the  large  fazenda  managers  that  increased 
interest  was  being  given  to  cattle-raising.  In  1913  there  were  in 
Brazil  30,705,080  cattle,  1 8,399,000  swine,  10,653,000  sheep, 
7,289,050  horses,  and  3,208,000  mules. 

Rubber 

Among  forest-products,  the  first  to  be  mentioned  is  rubber, — 
with  respect  to  which  the  recent  publication  of  the  Pan  American 
Union  (see  Bibliography:  Brazil,  etc.)  has  this  to  say:  "  India 
rubber,  as  it  is  generally  called  in  textbooks  and  official  reports, 
is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  grows  wild  there.  Although  efforts  at 
cultivation  have  been  successful  with  the  seed  in  other  countries, 
and  even  in  Brazil,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  rubber  exported 
from  the  Republic  is  gathered  from  the  forests  of  the  northern 
interior  of  the  country;  no  systematic  preparation  of  the  ground 
has  ever  been  necessary,  and  the  entire  care  of  the  rubber  gath- 
erers has  been  given  only  to  obtaining  the  juice  from  the  rubber 
trees  and  getting  it  to  market.  This  essential  factor  of  modern 
industrial  life  was  utilized  first  by  the  natives  of  America,  and 
they  found  some  place  for  it  in  their  domestic  economy  as  a  water- 
proof covering  for  clothing,  boats,  and  their  kind  of  bottles. 
Caucho,  or,  in  the  aboriginal,  cahuchu,  from  which  comes  the  cor- 
ruption caoutchouc,  is  the  earliest  word  applied  to  rubber.     The 


BRAZIL  269 

Brazilian  speaks  of  borracha,  and  this  refers  particularly  to  the 
product  of  the  hevea,  the  rubber  tree  par  excellence.  It  is  indige- 
nous to  the  region  of  the  river  Amazon  and  in  the  tributary  areas 
of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela.  Hevea  is 
a  large  tree,  of  slow  growth  and  long  life.  It  has  been  found 
12  feet  in  circumference.  It  requires  low-lying,  rich,  deep  soil, 
and  abundant  moisture.  It  grows  wild  in  Brazil,  but  not  in 
clumps,  being  found  rather  scattered  through  the  tropical  forest, 
but  it  is  well  adapted  to  cultivation  and  has  been  planted  in  the 
East  Indian  Islands  with  success.  Manihot  produces  the  Ceani 
rubber  of  commerce,  but  its  habitat  is  a  high,  stony,  and  arid 
country.  This  also  is  native  to  Brazil,  but  in  the  region  south  of 
the  Amazon.  ( Castilloa,  next  to  Hevea  the  best  known  rubber 
producer,  has  its  principal  range  in  Central  America  and  southern 
Mexico].  Other  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines  (lianas)  yield  rubber." 
The  writer  at  this  point  adds  that  rubber  is  not  the  sap  but  the 
"  cream  from  the  juice,  the  milk  or  latex  of  these  trees,  shrubs, 
and  vines."  In  1915  the  rubber  crop  was  36,750  tons,  and  about 
37,000  tons  in  1916.  The  total  exports  of  crude  rubber  from  Para, 
Manaos  and  Itacoatiara  during  1916  amounted  to  72,836,393 
pounds.  Shipments  to  the  United  States  aggregated  48,874,578 
pounds  and  to  Europe  23,961,815  pounds. 


Mate 

Another  forest  product  is  the  mate  which  to  Brazilians  is 
known  as  herva  matte  or  mate,  to  other  South  Americans  as  yerha 
or  yerha  mate,  and  to  foreigners  as  Brazil  or  Paraguay  tea.  The 
chief  mate-producing  state,  that  of  Parana,  adjoins  the  great 
coffee  producing  state,  Sao  Paulo,  and  exports  many  million 
pounds  of  this  Brazilian  ''  tea  "  annually.  The  mate  tree  (in 
appearance  not  unlike  a  small  evergreen  oak  or  ilex  with  a  heavy 
and  fleshy  leaf)  grows  freely  in  the  forest,  entirely  without  cul- 
tivation ;  and  in  the  forest  the  leaves  undergo,  as  soon  as  they  are 
plucked,  a  first  preparation  which  both  diminishes  their  weight 
before  transportation  and  also  keeps  them  from  fermenting.  They 
are  dried  at  a  fire,  and  then  packed  in  sacks  which  are  sent  to  the 
mills  at  Curitiba  which  reduce  the  leaves  to  powder  and  separate 
the  various  qualities.  Aromatic  properties  retained  in  the  dried 
and  powdered  leaves  are  extracted  by  means  of  infusion.  As  a 
stimulating  and  wholesome  beverage  habitually  used  throughout 
a  large  part  —  especially  the  southern  part  —  of  the  continent, 
mate  might  well  be  called,  not  by  the  competing  names  Brazilian 


270  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

or  Paraguayan,  but  more  simply  the  South  American  tea.  The 
exportation  of  this  South  American  tea,  then,  is  to  the  State  of 
Parana  what  the  exportation  of  coffee  is  to  the  vastly  more 
important  neighbor-State:  the  basis,  practically,  of  economic 
achievement.  In  1915  yerba  mate  was  exported  to  the  extent  of 
75,885  metric  tons. 

Sugar 

But  the  basis  of  economic  achievement  in  Brazil  was  formerly 
the  exportation  of  a  product  the  cultivation  of  which,  on  a  large 
scale,  was  dependent  upon  slave-labor.  Sugar,  during  a  long 
period,  held  the  position  in  the  country's  economic  life  now  occu- 
pied by  coffee,  rubber,  and  South  American  tea.  At  the  present 
time,  the  sugar-cane,  beside  being  grown  in  the  chief  sugar  cen- 
tres, is  indeed  a  staple  crop,  commonly  used  for  the  production  of 
an  alcohol,  or  sometimes  the  crude  variety  of  sugar  called  rapa 
dura.  We  no  longer  find  sugar  in  the  first  rank  of  exports,  how- 
ever; and  a  study  of  its  decline  brings  to  our  attention  the  most 
interesting  phase  of  the  story  of  the  manumission  of  slaves. 
Denis  reminds  us  that  the  planting  of  sugar  created,  as  early  as  the 
17th  century,  not  only  a  long-enduring  industry  but  also  long- 
enduring  wealth ;  and  all  over  Brazil  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
cane was  connected  with  slave-labor.  As  early  as  1875  the  decay 
of  the  sugar  industry  had  become  manifest  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  a  severe  drought  hastened  its  downfall.  Naturally 
there  was  a  rapid  fall  in  the  market  value  of  slaves.  "At  the  same 
time  the  provinces  of  the  south,  which  were  then  nearing  the 
height  of  their  development,  could  not  obtain  sufficient  labor,  and, 
while  recruiting  the  first  white  immigrants,  they  made  a  last  eifort 
to  renew  their  staff  of  slaves.  There  was  thus  a  heavy  exporta- 
tion of  slaves  from  the  north  to  the  south."  Now,  "  as  has  often 
happened,  the  institution  of  slavery,  made  less  harsh  by  custom, 
did  not  arouse  public  opinion ;  but  the  spectacle  of  a  commerce  in 
slaves  did  violently  arouse  it.  The  departure  of  these  human  car- 
goes for  the  south  was  regarded  with  indignation."  The  abolition- 
ists succeeded  in  rendering  such  shipments  impossible;  and  then 
the  value  of  the  slaves,  for  whom  there  was  no  longer  adequate 
employment,  decreased  rapidly.  "  When  their  enfranchisement 
was  determined  upon  it  was  possible  to  buy  them  out  at  reduced 
prices ;  less  on  account  of  the  violent  propaganda  of  the  abolition- 
ists than  because  [so  many  of]  the  sugar  plantations  had  disap- 
peared." In  1915,  59,074  metric  tons  (2,204.6  lbs.)  of  sugar  were 
exported  from  Brazil. 


BRAZIL  271 

Other  Important  Crops 

The  cultivation  of  cotton,  cacao,  and  tobacco  may  be  said  to 
increase  very  gradually,  in  view  of  the  extent  of  the  country  and 
the  excellence  of  the  products.  The  wool  crop  exported  reached 
4,198,630  pounds  in  1912  and  was  valued  at  $571,276.  In  1915  it 
fell  to  997,630  pounds  valued  at  $193,065.  Cotton  is  grown  prin- 
cipally in  Pernambuco,  Parahyba,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Ceara, 
Alagoas,  Maranhao,  Sergipe,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Minas  Geraes.  The 
average  cotton  crop  in  recent  years  is  close  to  1,000,000  bales  of  176 
l)ounds  each.  Exports  of  cotton  have  decreased  as  the  home  con- 
sumption has  increased.  ( See  Cotton  Industry,  p.  694.)  Mandioca, 
or  farhina  de  mandioca,  primarily  the  food  of  aboriginal  tribes, 
has  been  to  such  an  extent  cultivated  that  mandioca  flour 
has  become  actually  the  staple  food  of  Brazilians.  In  the 
Pan  American  Union's  Brazil,  mentioned  above,  we  read: 
"It  is  a  shrub  about  four  feet  high  which  has  been  induced  to 
change  its  root  into  a  veritable  tuber.  In  its  raw  state  mandioca 
is  an  irritant,  not  infrequently  a  deadly  poison,  but  properly 
prepared  it  becomes  a  richly  nutritive  food,  esteemed  by  Bra- 
zilians high  and  low,  and  forms  a  staple  for  bread  throughout  the 
country.  All  Brazil  grows  the  plant,  but  it  is  used  chiefly  along 
the  littoral  and  on  the  lower  plateaus.  From  June  to  September 
is  the  best  planting  season,  the  root  being  gathered  eight  months 
to  two  years  afterwards."  Great  care  is  exercised  in  treating  the 
root  in  such  a  way  that  the  poisonous  starchy  contents  shall  be 
changed  into  healthful  and  edible  starch.  The  natives  are  most 
expert  in  their  methods  of  doing  this ;  and  they  can  not  be  regarded 
as  procrastinating  workers,  inasmuch  as  in  the  course  of  a  single 
day  —  the  day  on  which  the  tubers  are  gathered  —  all  the  various 
processes  of  grating,  desiccation,  and  roasting  must  be  completed. 

The  question  of  labor,  which  affects  agriculture  and  the 
manufacturing  industries  alike,  will  be  briefly  discussed  as  we 
pass  from  the  former  subject  to  the  latter.  Before  leaving  the 
subject  of  agriculture,  however,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  say 
that  Brazil's  achievements,  commendable  though  they  seem  in 
certain  respects,  are  still  almost  as  nothing  compared  with  agri- 
cultural possibilities  in  a  region  so  vast  and  singularly  favored 
by  nature.  The  Brazilians  realize  and  repentantly  admit  their 
long  continued  neglect  of  wholly  exceptional  opportunities ;  and  in 
1916  the  people  showed  unmistakably  that  they  had  been  stimu- 
lated to  renewed  efforts  by  the  withdrawal  of  food  supplies  for- 
merly received  from  Europe  and  by  oth^er  war  conditions. 


\ 


272  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Bibliography 

Americas,  The  (New  York,  published  monthly,  1914-17) ;  Grossi,  V.,  Storia 
della  Colonizzazioue  Europea  al  Brasile  e  deUci  Emigrazione  Italiana  nello  Stato 
di  S.  Paulo  (Milano-Ronia-Napoli  1914);  Pan  American  Union,  Brazil:  General 
Descriptive  Data  (Washington  1915);  Tear  Book,  Brazilian  (Rio  de  Janeiro). 
See  also  studies  of  this  subject  in  the  books  by  Denis  and  Walle  mentioned  in 
other  articles  of  the  Brazilian  series. 


MANUFACTURING  AND  MINING  INDUSTRIES 

7 


^  Labor 


Labor  problems,  with  good  reason  and  in  a  very  special  sense, 
claim  the  attention  of  all  those  who  study  intelligently  the  present 
conditions  of  Brazilian  agriculture  and  manufacturing  industries. 
The  government,  in  order  to  encourage  immigration  from  Europe, 
guarantees  free  passage  and  a  homestead  to  bona  fide  settlers,  the 
ultimate  aim  being  to  build  up  a  class  of  peasant  proprietors 
whose  services  may,  at  least  in  part,  replace  the  migrating  hordes 
of  landless  workingmen.  Summarizing  the  supply  at  present, 
The  Americas  (Vol.  1,  No.  10)  says  that  in  the  northern  States  of 
Amazonas,  Para,  Maranhao,  Piauhy,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Para- 
hyba,  Pernambuco,  Alagoas,  and  parts  of  Matto  Grosso  and 
Goyaz,  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  food  must  be  imported  from 
abroad  or  brought  up  from  the  southern  States,  paying  high 
freight  rates:  the  cost  of  living  is  therefore  high  and  labor  cor- 
respondingly expensive.  In  the  central  States  labor  is  more 
abundant,  the  cost  of  living  is  not  so  high,  and  naturally  there  is 
a  lower  rate  of  usages.  In  the  three  southernmost  States  the 
lowest  rate  of  w^ages  prevails;  labor  there  is  both  plentiful  and 
satisfactory;  a  large  part  of  the  working  class  is  of  Italian  or 
German  origin.  In  Brazil,  as  in  Latin  America  generally  (and 
there  are  very  few  exceptions),  skilled  labor,  workmen  of  expe- 
rience in  mechanical  industries,  are  scarce.  *■ '  New  industries  are 
nearly  alw^ays  started  by  means  of  imported  labor  under  contract, 
the  foreign  foreman  having  to  train  men  for  the  work  which 
they  are  expected  to  do.  This  is  noticeably  the  case  in  the  textile 
industry,  which  to  the  present  day  is  largely  manned  by  English 
or  other  contracted  foremen  and  headweavers.  The  lighter  work 
of  these  factories  is  carried  on  by  women  to  a  large  extent. ' '  For 
the  erection  of  large  machinery  '^  it  has  always  been  the  practice 
for   the   contractors   to    send    their    own    engineers    and   skilled 


BRAZIL  273 

mechanics ;  in  most  cases  the  buyer  contracts  with  the  machinery- 
maker  for  the  permanent  service  of  one  or  more  competent 
mechanics."  Graduates  of  those  public  institutions  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  and  other  large  Brazilian  cities  in  which  the 
skilled  trades  are  taught  have  seldom  been  appointed  to  the  high- 
est positions  in  the  factories.  ' '  The  Brazilian  agricultural  laborer 
is  generally  the  descendant  of  slaves  or  an  Indian  half-breed,  and 
although  ignorant  is  a  fairly  good  worker. ' '  Our  own  impression 
of  the  disposition  and  natural  capacity  of  the  Brazilian  laboring 
classes  is  favorable ;  but  within  the  limits  of  such  natural  capacity 
we  must  not  place  the  ability  to  control  machinery,  and  in  general 
the  mechanical  arift  or  talent.    . 


&' 


Manufacturing  Industries 

The  restrictions  indicated  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  are,  to 
some  extent,  offset  by  the  determined  efforts  of  national  and  state 
governments,  with  the  co-operation  of  foreign  investors.  Resultant 
achievements,  although  actually  small  for  a  land  so  great  and 
naturally  so  rich,  have  nevertheless  attained  proportions  which 
surprise  visitors  from  the  north.  It  is  already  true  that  the  manu- 
facturing industries  of  the  country  as  a  whole  are  varied  and 
constantly  increasing ;  that  every  city  of  importance  in  Brazil  has 
its  manufacturing  plant  of  one  kind  or  another.  It  is  only  20 
years  since  the  first  textile  mill  was  started.  That  industry  has 
increased  remarkably  in  the  two  decades,  owing  to  improvement 
in  machinery  and  to  new  transportation  facilities  which  bring  the 
mills,  the  cotton^fields,  and  the  consumers  much  closer  together. 
**  In  most  of  the  large  cities  the  necessaries  of  domestic  life  are 
made  in  factories,  and  foundries  for  simple  metalwork  exist,  but, 
as  a  rule,  complicated  machinery,  preserved  foods,  and  the 
so-called  luxuries  are  still  impor4:ed.  The  textile  industry  is  per- 
haps making  greater  progress  than  any  other.  Five  of  the  larger 
cotton  mills  in  the  Federal  District  employ  8,000  operatives  and 
have  an  output  of  over  80,000,000  yards.  Another  mill  employs 
1,500  operatives  and  utilizes  1,500  horsepower.  Four  mills  in 
Petropolis  manufacture  an  average  of  18,000,000  to  19,000,000 
yards,  while  24  mills  in  Sao  Paulo  produce  83,000,000  to  84,000,000 
yards.  In  the  district  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  establishment  of  new, 
and  the  enlargement  of  existing  factories  has  caused  the  Rio  de 
Janeiro  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Company  to  enlarge  its  plant 
from  50,000  to  80,000  horsepower  to  meet  the  increasing  demand. ' ' 

10 


274  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

(Pan  American  Union,  Brazil:  General  Descriptive  Data,  Wash- 
ington 1915).  And  further,  "  Sao  Paulo  is  to  be  compared,  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro  in  industrial  importance.  In  addition  to  the  power 
plant  of  the  Sao  Paulo  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Company  at 
Parahyba,  which  has  a  capacity  of  32,000  horsepower,  a  new  plant 
is  being  constructed  by  the  company  at  Sorocabo,  for  the  supply 
of  additional  powder  to  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo  and  neighboring 
cities  and  towns.  The  capacity  of  this  plant  is  to  be  62,500  horse- 
power. In  the  State  of  Parana  the  lumber  industry,  while  still  in 
its  infancy,  is  making  rapid  progress:"  the  explanation  of  this 
being  the  use  of  modern  American  machinery  in  the  large  sawmills 
which  have  been  erected  recently.  Consult  Brazilian  Year  Book 
and  statistical  publications  already  mentioned. 

Mineral  Resources 

Brazil's  mineral  resources  have  from  the  first  been  ques- 
tioned, doubted.  Amerigo  Vespucci  navigated  in  the  course  of  his 
third  voyage  from  5°  below  the  equator  to  a  region  well  south  of 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  practically  from  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  to 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  as  the  regions  are  now  called.  He  wrote  as 
follows :  '^  On  this  coast  we  saw  nothing  of  value  except  an  infinite 
number  of  dye-wood  and  cassia  trees,  and  those  which  beget  myrrh, 
and  other  wonders  of  nature  which  cannot  be  recounted.  .  . 
And  seeing  that  in  this  land  we  found  nothing  whatever  of  mineral 
wealth  (no  trouavamo  cosa  di  minero  alcuno)  we  decided  to  hasten 
away."  We  have  shown  above  (see  History)  that  better  luck  in 
this  respect  attended  the  efforts  of  18th  century  explorers ;  but  such 
thorough  exploration  and  exploitation  as  took  place  in  the  Span- 
ish South  American  holdings  was  impossible  in  the  Portuguese; 
and  regions  most  shrewdly  suspected  of  concealing  mineral  treas- 
ure have  remained  in  a  measure  to  this  day  Mineral  Regions  "  of 
Doubt."  The  best  statement  of  present  phases  of  this  question  is 
made  by  Mr.  D.  A.  Vindin  (in  Denis's  Brazil,  English  version, 
supplementary  ehapter),  who  writes  that,  although  there  is  official 
record  of  the  production  of  gold  valued  at  more  than  $500,000,000 
and  of  diamonds  to  the  value  of  many  millions;  and  although 
Brazil  also  produces  silver,  platinum,  lead,  copper,  iron,  man- 
ganese, mercury,  coal,  monazite,  graphite,  and  very  many  varieties 
of  precious  stones  and  rare  marbles;  nevertheless  the  mining 
industry  adds  very  little  to  the  country's  wealth  just  at  present. 
''  I  have  no  doubt,"  he  says  thoughtfully,  ''  after  having  made  a 
visit  of  inquiry  and  looked  up  all  available  information,  but  that 


BRAZIL  275 

Brazil  will  within  a  few  years  demand  considerable  attention  from 
mining  men,  as  there  are  few  countries  in  which  there  are  greater 
opportunities  for  profitable  investment.  Hitherto  very  little  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  mining  by  either  the  Federal  or  State 
governments,  with  the  exception  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  the 
result  being  an  absence  of  much-needed  mining  laws  for  the 
guidance  of  those  wishing  to  engage  in  mining  on  business  lines.  I 
understand  that  there  is  a  likelihood  of  the  States  waking  up  to 
the  importance  of  encouraging  the  development  of  their  latent 
mineral  wealth.  Most  of  the  gold  won  by  the  early  settlers  in 
Brazil  came  from  the  banks  of  rivers  or  from  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  The  amount  of  development  of  reefs  at  any  [consider- 
able] depth  has  been  very  slight,  and  it  is  this  work  in  the  future 
that  promises  well.  It  is  the  need  of  capital  and  the  necessity  of 
waiting  for  returns  that  disinclines  the  Brazilians  to  undertake 
mining  operations :  it  is  consequently  to  European  and  American 
investors  that  the  work  will  fall.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  mining 
lands  are  the  property  of  private  owners,  and  that  under  the 
Federal  and  State  constitutions  all  minerals  are  the  property  of 
the  freeholders  and  not  liable  to  any  government  tax,  renders  any 
systematic  searching  or  prospecting  for  minerals  almost  of  no 
avail.  The  owners  of  these  lands  are  not  sympathetic  toward 
mining  at  the  present  time;  they  will  not  themselves  mine,  and 
they  will  offer  no  aid  to  others ;  in  fact,  in  most  cases,  mining  pros- 
pectors would  be  warned  off  the  ground  as  trespassers.  There 
appears  to  be  an  almost  unlimited  scope  for  profitable  mining  in 
Minas  Geraes,  but  it  is  at  all  times  difficult  to  obtain  the  right 
class  of  men  to  conduct  operations;  and  in  a  country  like  Brazil 
the  success  or  failure  of  any  mining  venture  largely  depends  upon 
the  type  of  man  in  charge  of  affairs.  Apart  from  technical  ability, 
a  knowledge  of  the  language  and  the  people  and  unfailing  patience 
and  tact  are  necessary."  The  circumstances  that  in  Minas  Geraes 
gold  has  been  mined  profitably  since  1830,  and  that  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul  is  the  scene  of  recent  gold-mining  enterprises  are  men- 
tioned ;  then  the  account  deals  with  iron  in  the  following  terms : 
''A  number  of  eminent  mining  engineers  from  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  Europe  have  visited  Brazil  in  order  to  examine  and 
report  upon  the  iron  deposits  of  the  country,  which  are  considered 
to  be  the  richest  and  greatest  in  the  world.  The  ores  are  mostly 
oxides;  the  carbonates  are  rare  and  usually  associated  with  car- 
bonate of  calcium. ' '  They  occur  in  * '  practically  all  that  portion 
of  Brazil  lying  south  of  15°  S.  In  Minas  the  ore  is  in  some  cases 
found  in  actual  mountains,  the  analyses  of  which  have  yielded 


276  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP^  LATIN  AMERICA 

extraordinarily  high  percentages.  Coal  exists  in  Santa  Catharina 
and  Eio  Grande  do  Sul  at  various  places."  Deposits  of  talc  and 
kaolin  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  crystalline  rocks,  which  are  of 
wide  distribution  in  Brazil.  Some  of  these,  more  favorably  situ- 
ated in  relation  to  transportation  and  markets,  are  now  being 
worked.    Of  these  the  following  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  Near  Rezende,  State  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  a  pure  white 
talc  is  produced,  requiring  little  treatment  before  being  available 
as  a  cosmetic.  2.  Near  Lorena,  State  of  Sao  Paulo.  3.  Near 
Santo  Amaro,  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Sao 
Paulo. 

Massive  talc,  or  steatite,  occurs  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, as  near  Itaberaba,  municipio  de  Ouro  Preto,  Varzea  near 
Dores  de  Boa  Esperanga,  and  near  Jacuhy  in  the  western  part  of 
Minas  Geraes.  At  these  places  its  principal  use  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cooking  utensils,  which  are  turned  out  on  the  lathe  from 
the  solid  block  of  soapstone.  Pans  and  pots  of  this  material  are 
specially  prized  in  Brazil  for  cooking  rice.  It  also  occurs  in  Ceara 
and  Goyaz. 

Classed  between  common  bituminous  and  the  lignite  of  Ger- 
many, Brazilian  coal  contains  ash  and  impurities  (20  per  cent)  and 
in  specimens  we  have  examined,  sulphur.  "  Reports  on  different 
samples  show  that  this  coal,  when  made  into  briquettes,  is  little 
inferior  to  Cardiff  coal  in  the  same  form."  Since  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Kimberley  mines  in  South  Africa,  diamond-mining  in 
Brazil  has  received  comparatively  little  attention;  nevertheless 
valuable  stones  are  often  found,  and  "  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  Brazilian  diamonds  are  considered  to  be  of  much  finer  grade 
than  those  produced  from  South  Africa."  Brazil  produces  some 
of  the  finest  specimens  of  beryl;  amethysts  and  agates  are  also 
plentiful.  Consult  Brazilian  Year  Book  (Rio  de  Janeiro)  and 
Denis,  P.,  Brazil  (trans.  Miall,  liondon  1911).  See  general 
Bibliography  under  History. 


COMMERCE  OF  BRAZIL 

The  new  civil  code  of  Brazil  which  went  into  effect  on  1  Jan. 
1917  contains  numerous  provisions  favoring  certain  classes  of 
American  business.  The  situation  deserves  thorough  study.  Mr. 
0.  P.  Austin,  after  referring  to  improved  commercial  conditions 
in  South  America  generally  in  1915,  writes  (in  The  Americas,  Vol. 


BRAZIL  277 

II,  No.  2)  that  the  improvement  was  less  sharply  marked  in  Brazil 
than  in  Argentina  "by  reason  of  the  fact  that  prices  of  the  articles 
which  form  Brazil's  chief  exports,  coffee  and  rubber,"  were  lower 
in  1915  than  in  1914.  Reports  covering  the  seven  months  ending 
with  July  1915,  showed,  as  the  total  value  of  the  exports  for  those 
months,  $132,800,000  against  $149,500,000  in  the  same  months  of 
1914.  Imports  for  the  seven  months  amounted*  to  but  $81,000,000 
against  $130,000,000  in  the  corresponding  period  of  1914,  and 
$199,000,000  in  the  same  months  of  1913.  "  Details  of  the  trade 
of  Brazil,  like  those  of  Argentina,"  Mr.  Austin  continues,  "  are 
more  favorable  to  the  United  States  than  to  the  other  countries, 
especially  in  imports.  The  United  States  is,  in  fact,  the  chief 
country  from  which  the  imports  show  an  increase.  The  total  value 
of  imports  from  the  principal  countries  for  the  six  months'  period 
ending  with  June  1915,  are  from  Great  Britain,  $15,375,000  against 
$25,850,000  in  the  same  months  of  1914;  from  Germany,  $1,875,000 
against  $23,700,000;  from  France,  $3,230,000  against  $10,123,000, 
while  from  the  United  States  the  total  for  the  six  months  of  1915 
was  $18,250,000  against  $16,300,000  in  the  corresponding  period  in 

1914.  Exports  in  the  six  months  ending  with  June,  1915,  are  to 
Great  Britain,  $17,957,000  against  $21,500,000  in  the  same  months 
of  last  year;  to  France,  $13,180,000  against  $11,970,000;  to  Hol- 
land, $11,290,000  against  $7,100,000;  and  to  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  $13,400,000  against  $1,400,000.  To  the  United  States, 
the  exports  of  the  six  months  of  1915  are  $44,500,000  against 
$49,500,000."  The  total  value  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Brazil 
was,  for  1912:  $671,038,586  (imports,  $308,243,736  and  exports 
$362,794,846) ;  for  1913,  $641,593,196  (imports,  $326,428,509  and 
exports,  $315,164,687) ;  for  1914,  $387,026,430  (imports,  $165,556,- 
950  and  exports,  $221,469,480) ;  and  the  tendencies  of  the  country's 
foreign  trade  when  effects  of  the  European  war  were  most  keenly 
felt  are  seen  when  we  place  these  figures  in  immediate  connection 
with  those  relating  to  1915,  as  given  above.  The  depression  and 
the  reasonably  prompt  reaction  are  full  of  interest.  We  add  now 
observations  made  during  a  longer  period,  namely,  ten  months,  in 

1915,  which  show  a  large  increase  in  the  proportion  of  Brazilian 
trade  held  by  the  United  States : 

In  1913,  1914  and  1915,  respectively,  the  United  States  took 
32  per  cent,  40  per  cent,  and  41  per  cent  (in  value)  of  Brazil's 
exports.  In  the  same  years  16  per  cent,  15  per  cent,  and  29  per 
cent,  respectively,  of  Brazil's  imports  were  drawn  from  the  United 
States.  Thus,  the  share  of  the  United  States  in  Brazil's  total 
purchases  nearly  doubled  in  1915. 


278  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Official  statistics  of  Brazil's  foreign  trade  for  January- 
September  1916,  give  the  value  of  the  imports  during  that  period  as 
$137,858,200,  contrasted  \\dth  $106,683,400  for  the  first  nine  months 
of  1915  and  $149,542,675  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1914. 
Exports  totaled  $187,160,725  in  January-September  1916,  against 
$173,446,925  and  $168,726,425  for  the 'same  period  in  1915  and 
1914  respectively.  The  principal  exports  for  the  1916  period  were : 
coffee,  $96,035,50'0;  rubber,  $26,507,825;  hides,  $12,570,175;  cocoa, 
$9,041,950 ;  tobacco,  $6,822,825 ;  yerba  mate,  $6,686,575 ;  manganese, 
$5,664,600 ;  frozen  meats,  $5,275,275 ;  and  sugar,  $4,019,725. 

The  total  imports  of  wheat  flour  into  Brazil  for  the  first  six 
months  of  the  calendar  year  1916  were  143,104,300  pounds,  valued 
at  ports  of  shipment  at  the  equivalent  of  $4,155,743  United  States 
gold.  Of  this  total  quantity  Argentina  and  Uruguay  supplied 
81,754,134  pounds,  value  $2,123,205,  and  the  United  States  59,783,- 
684  pounds,  value  $1,967,317. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  frozen-meat  industry  and  the  perma- 
nent character  of  this  development  are  clearly  shown  by  the 
following  figures  of  exports  for  the  first  11  months  of  1916  as  com- 
pared with  the  corresponding  months  of  1915  : 

In  1915,  14,686,280  pounds,  valued  at  $1,159,291,  were 
exported;  in  1916,  71,268,556  pounds  valued  at  $6,606,732.  Of  this 
total  of  71,268,566  pounds  30,832,904  pounds  were  exported  from 
the  port  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  40,435,662  pounds  from  the  port  of 
Santos.  The  destination  of  this  meat  was:  To  United  States, 
5,469,220  pounds;  France,  9,779,853;  Great  Britain,  11,935,748; 
Italy,  33,446,732;  Gibraltar  (to  order)  10,637,013  pounds. 

Preliminary  data  of  the  Republic's  commerce  for  1916, 
recently  issued  by  the  Brazilian  Statistical  Bureau,  give  the  value 
of  the  exports  as  $267,706,000  (United  States  currency)  and  that 
of  the  imports  as  $196,057,000,  making  a  total  foreign  trade  of 
$463,376,000,  which  is  larger  than  in  either  of  the  two  preceding 
''  war  years."  The  balance  of  trade  ($71,649,000),  however,  is 
lower  than  in  1915,  because  of  increased  importations  during  the 
year  just  ended. 

We  can  advance  at  present  only  one  step  farther  in  the 
explication  of  the  somewhat  involved  commercial  factors  or 
tangled  commercial  strands  of  the  period  we  are  examining,  and 
this  advance  we  make  by  inviting  attention  to  the  full  statistical 
details  of  the  trade  of  Brazil  during  1915.  These  complete  details 
for  the  entire  year  show  the  change  in  proportional  repre- 
sentation of  the  United  States,  England,  and  Germany  in  Brazil's 
inbound  and  outbound  commerce: 


BRAZIL  279 

Imports                    1914  1915 

United  States 17.5  per  cent  32.1  per  cent 

England 23.7  per  cent  21.9  per  cent 

Germany 16.1  per  cent  1.5  per  cent 

Exports  1914  1915 

United  States 40 . 9  per  cent  41 . 7  per  cent 

England 14.4  per  cent  12.1  per  cent 

Germany 9.9  per  cent     

The  exports  of  the  chief  products  of  Brazil  were : 

1913  1914  1915 

Cotton,  tons  37,424  30,434  5,228 

Sugar,  tons 5,367  31,860  59,074 

Rubber,  tons 36,232  33,531  35,165 

Cocoa,  tons 29,759  40,767  44,980 

Coffee,  1,000  bags 13,267  11,270  17,061 

Hides,  tons 35,075  31,442  38,324 

Tobacco,  tons 29,338  26,980  27,096 

Herva  matte,  tons 65,415  59,354  75,885 

The  adverse  exchange  situation  cut  down  Brazil's  receipts 
for  her  commodities.  The  value  of  her  money,  in  commerce, 
decreased.  Her  exports,  measured  by  quantity,  were  larger  than 
those  of  1913,  but  she  got  only  $265,000,000  (round)  for  all  of 
them,  against  $320,000,000  in  1913,  although,  in  her  own  markets, 
commodities  ruled  generally  higher,  and  she  paid  much  higher 
prices  for  what  she  imported. 

The  export  of  meat  increased  in  value  from  $456,463  for  the 
first  eight  months  of  1915  to  $3,905,562  for  the  corresponding 
period  in  1916.  Consult  The  Americas  (New  York  1914-17) ; 
Brazilian  Year  Book  (Rio  de  Janeiro) ;  Pan  American  Union, 
Brazil  (Washington  1915) ;  Filsinger,  E.  B.,  Exporting  to  Latin 
America  (New  York  1916).  See  general  Bibliography  under 
History. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  principal  banks  in  Brazil  are:  Banco  do  Brazil,  Banco 
Nacional  Braziliero,  Branch  of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New 
York,  British  Bank  of  South  America,  Limited,  Brasiliansche 
Bank  fiir  Deutschland,  London  &  Brazilian  Bank,  Limited,  London 
&  River  Plate  Bank,  Limited,  Banco  Espanol,  del  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
Banco  Commercial  do  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Banco  Allemao  Trans- 
atlantico.   Banco  do   Commercio,   Banco   do   Estado   do   Rio   de 


280  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Janeiro,  Banco  Nacional  Ultramarino.  All  of  the  foregoing  are 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro;  the  Banco  Francesca  e  Italiana  per  1 'America 
del  Sud  is  in  Sao  Paulo.  The  monetary  system  is  nominally  based 
on  the  gold  standard.  The  milreis,  the  gold  unit,  which  is  divided 
into  1,000  reis,  weighs  0.89645  grammes  of  gold  .917  fine,  or  say, 
.82207  grammes  of  fine  gold,  and  its  par  value  in  terms  of  the  cur- 
rency of  the  United  States  is'  $0.5463.  One  dollar,  currency  of  the 
United  States,  is  therefore  the  equivalent  of  1$831  gold  milreis. 
The  reader  will  notice  that  the  sign  .$  for  milreis  is  placed  after 
the  units  and  before  the  decimals.  The  circulating  medium,  and 
the  only  legal  money  in  Brazil,  consists  of  Government  notes  guar- 
anteed redeemable  at  the  rate  of  16d.  per  milreis.  This  rate  is 
maintained  through  a  conversion  fund  known  as  the  Caixa  de  Con- 
versao  (Compare:  Argentina  —  Banking).  The  theoretical  unit 
of  the  paper  circulation  represents  0.48816  grammes  of  fine  gold, 
and  its  equivalent  in  terms  of  the  currency  of  the  United  States 
is  $0.32444.  The  par  value  of  $1,  currency  of  the  United  States, 
is  therefore  3$08226  expressed  in  terms  of  Brazilian  paper  cur- 
rency. The  method  of  quoting  exchange  rates  in  Brazil  under 
normal  conditions  (see  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and 
Exchange  Conditions,  by  Joseph  T.  Cosby)  is  the  following: 

90  D/S  Sight 

London    16-3/32d.=l$000         London    lo-7/8d.=l$000 

Berlin    1   Mark=    .730  Berlin    1   Mark=    .740 

Paris    1  Pranc=    .  593  Paris    1   France    .  600 

New  York $1.00  U.  S.  Cy.=3pll3 

Exchange  fell  to  14d.  on  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  war.  A  bank  holiday  (actually  15  consecutive 
days)  was  declared,  specie  payment  was  suspended  by  the  Caixa 
de  Conversao,  and  the  rate  of  exchange  remained  at  14d.  (more  or 
less  nominal)  until  the  banks  reopened  on  August  18.  After  that 
date  the  rate  declined  steadily  until  early  in  October,  when  a  low 
point  of  lOd.  was  reached.  The  principal  factors  in  bringing  about 
this  heavy  decline  were:  First,  the  action  to  which  we  have 
referred,  taken  by  the  Caixa  de  Conversao,  second,  the  closing  of 
London  credits  in  favor  of  Brazil,  and,  third,  the  fact  that  the 
Government  authorized  an  issue  of  treasury  notes  amounting  to 
$81,120,000  or  250,000  contos  (one  conto  =  1,000  milreis;  1,000 
milreis  =  $324.44  currency  of  the  United  States).  During  Feb- 
ruary 1916,  the  rate  for  bankers'  90  days'  sight  drafts  on  London 
varied  from  ll/ird.  to  lliifd.,  the  closing  rate  on  29  Feb.  1916 
being  ll%d.,  as  compared  with  lli/od.  on  31  January.  The  rate 
for  90  days'  sight  commercial  bills  was  ll<%d.  on  24  April  1916. 

By  executive  decree,  promulgated  23  Dec.  1916,  the  exchange 
of  the  notes  of  the  Caixa  de  Conversao  (Conversion  Office)  for 


BRAZIL  281 

gold  continues  suspended  until  31  Dec.  1917.  Exception  is  made 
of  the  exchange  of  notes  by  order  of  the  Government  to  attend 
only  to  the  service  of  the  external  debt  of  the  Union. 

The  aggregate  cash  balances  of  the  principal  banks  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  at  the  end  of  February  1916,  showed  a  decrease  of  about 
$1,325,000  as  compared  with  those  at  the  end  of  January.  Dis- 
counts during  February  in  the  same  year  showed  an  increase  of 
$265,000,  approximately.  The  rate  obtainable  for  first  class  paper 
was  about  7i/^  per  cent.  The  Federal  Treasury  6  per  cent  (paper) 
bills,  commonly  called  ''  sabinas, "  issued  in  1915,  commenced  to 
fall  due.  The  Government  availed  itself  of  its  option  of  renewing 
the  bills  for  one  year,  paying  interest  in  cash.  Custom  House 
receipts,  both  at  Rio  and  at  Santos  showed  an  increase  for  the 
first  two  months  of  1916  as  compared  with  the  same  period  in 
1915.  The  commercial  situation  in  Sao  Paulo,  15  Mar.  1916,  was 
reported  to  be  very  sound.  The  large  commercial  houses  in 
England  and  the  United  States  who  send  out  agents  discovered 
that  the  difficulty  was  rather  in  the  execution  than  in  the  obtaining 
of  orders.  Credits  of  three  or  four  months  were  given,  whereas, 
a  year  before,  practically  all  business  was  done  on  a  cash  basis. 
The  question  of  tonnage  continued  to  absorb  attention,  freights 
remaining  very  high.  The  greater  part  of  the  shipments  went  to 
the  United  States.  Cotton  mills  reported  progress,  several  com- 
panies showing  comparatively  prosperous  situations. 

Brazil  in  1915  confronted  the  absolute  necessity  of  mending 
the  national  finances,  but  declined  to  make  the  mistake  of  marking 
up  taxes  and  imposts  on  the  supposition  that  higher  charges  would 
necessarily  produce  greater  revenue.  The  fact  is  that,  during  the 
five  years,  1910  to  1914,  inclusive,  every  year  brought  a  deficit  of 
increasing  size.  Excellent  judgment  was  shown  by  those  who 
favored  the  lowering  of  export  duties  and  the  reduction  of  the 
rate  of  port-charges  exacted  by  companies  that  have  concessions 
for  operating  port- works ;  the  very  reasonable  position  being  taken 
that  Brazil's  products  should  be  allowed  to  compete  effectively  in 
foreign  markets  with  those  of  other  lands.  At  this  time  it  was 
stated  that  the  general  expenses  of  moving  goods  through  certain 
Brazilian  ports  were  five  times  to  twenty  times  greater  than  the 
expenses  of  moving  goods  through  North  American  or  European 
ports.  ' 

The  Brazilian  budget  law  for  1917  estimates  the  general 
receipts  at  116,310,204  gold  milreis  ($62,807,510)  and  327,300,333 
paper  milreis  ($78,552,080) ;  the  revenue  with  special  application 
is  placed  at  12,025,000  gold  milreis   ($6,493,500)   and  12,838,000 


282  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

paper  milreis  ($3,081,120).  The  total  revenue,  when  expressed 
in  American  currency,  shows  an  increase  of  $7,365,839  over  1916. 
The  budget  law^  fixes  the  expenses  for  1917  at  98,532,945  gold 
milreis  ($53,207,790)  and  407,426,730  paper  milreis  ($97,782,408), 
showing  a  deficit  of  $55,995  for  the  year,  and  an  increase  of 
$8,169,205  over  the  expenses  of  1916. 

In  order  to  point  the  way  (and  we  can  do  no  more  than  that 
at  present)  to  a  thorough  comprehension  of  this  part  of  our  sub- 
ject, w^e  must  show  that  the  European  war  did  not  by  any  means 
originate  the  critical  depression.  The  withdrawal  from  Brazil  of 
British  supplies  of  capital  in  the  Balkan  money  stringency 
(1913-14)  had  occasioned  a  financial  revulsion  before  the  shock 
of  war  was  added.  ''  Brazil  was  feeling  the  depression  badly  in 
the  first  six  months  of  1914,"  says  a  writer  in  The  Americas  (Vol. 
I,  No.  8,  page  33).  ''  The  foreign  trade  of  Santos  port,  which  is 
typical  of  all  Brazil,  showed  a  decline  of  44V1>  per  cent  in  imports 
for  those  months  as  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  of 
1913,  and  the  second  half  of  the  year  showed  a  drop  of  601/3  per 
cent  as  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  of  1913.  In 
exports,  the  decline  of  the  first  half  of  the  year  had  been  only 
614  per  cent.  The  drop  in  the  second  half  —  the  war  period  —  was 
48.2  per  cent.  Very  heavy  declines  in  the  imports  of  machinery 
of  all  kinds  (60  per  cent)  show  the  effect  of  the  cutting  off  of  the 
European  capital  supply  ' ' —  that  is,  continental  as  w^ell  as  British. 
Moreover,  Brazil's  chief  commodities  held  a  less  controlling  posi- 
tion in  the  markets  of  the  world  at  that  time.  ' '  Plantation  rubber 
undercut  in  price  the  wild  rubber  of  the  Amazon.  Coffee  dropped 
sharply  in  export  price  from  1912  on.  In  1914  it  was  nearly  40  per 
cent  below  the  1912  price. ' '  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  violent 
swing  of  exchanges  against  Brazil;  we  now  add  that,  in  view  of 
the  hard  facts  that  the  Federal  Government  had  large  debt 
maturities  and  that  its  revenues  (chiefly  derived  from  imports) 
had  fallen  off  nearly  one-half  owing  to  the  derangement  of  trade 
resulting  from  the  war,  there  was  nothing  to  occasion  surprise  in 
the  circumstance  that  a  settlement  was  made  with  the  holders  of 
Brazilian  securities,  by  which  the  maturities  were  extended  for  13 
years. 

Authoritative  opinions  from  The  Americas  (Vol.  I,  No.  12), 
give  features  of  the  financial  situation  in  September  1915.  Credit 
was  then  granted  only  with  the  greatest  reserve.  * '  The  Federal, 
State,  and  Municipal  governments  figured  in  the  mercantile  credit 
situation  very  gravely  because  it  w^as  necessary  during  the  most 
critical  part  of  the  months  just  subsequent  to  the  declarations  of 


BRAZIL  283 

war  for  these  to  extend  official  help  to  the  general  situation  and  to 
finance  the  orderly  continuation  of  their  [own]  necessary  activi- 
ties through  reciprocal  mercantile  credits.  The  Government  was 
said  to  owe  about  $75,000,000  among  leading  business  houses  over 
the  country,  and  these  were  severely  handicapped  by  its  [the 
Government's]  inability  to  settle  accounts  in  a  way  to  permit  them 
to  realize  without  some  loss  of  principal.  The  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Chamber  of  Commerce  held  several  largely  attended  meetings  in 
which  protesting  resolutions  were  sent  to  the  Government,  against 
the  latter 's  payment  of  local  accounts  for  supplies  in  Treasury 
notes  at  face  value  when  these  could  not  be  disposed  of  at  more 

than  75  per  cent  of  face  value Professional  and  party 

politics  were  as  active  in  Brazil,  and  with  the  same  effects,  as  they 
have  been  during  like  trying  times  in  the  United  States.  It  was, 
however,  gratifying  to  note  a  distinctively  forward  movement  in 
which  '  measures,  not  men  '  were  increasingly  sought  for  by  a 
very  important  section  of  the  population.  Production,  with  a  view 
to  export,  was  the  problem  toward  which  all  eyes  were  turned,  as 
being  the  chief  hope  of  the  Republic.  The  remarkable  part  which 
Argentina  has  been  called  upon  to  play  since  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  as  a  supplier  of  wheat  and  frozen  meat  to  the  rest  of  the 
world,  has  not  been  without  its  lesson."  Of  course  the  deprecia- 
tion of  Brazilian  paper  money  in  exchange  transactions  has 
proved  to  be  highly  disadvantageous  to  her.  Thus,  the  official 
statement  of  the  Republic's  imports  and  exports  during  the  first 
five  months  of  1915,  issued  by  the  Director  of  Commercial  Sta;tis- 
tics,  Ministry  of  Finance,  shows  the  largest  credit  balance  Brazil 
has  had  in  foreign  commerce  in  five  years.  But  although  7,095,000 
bags  of  coffee  were  exported,  as  against  4,643,000  in  the  corre- 
sponding period  of  1914,  and  in  paper  currency  of  the  locality  the 
total  value  was  253,657  contos,  as  against  190,328  contos,  the  real 
and  actual  value  when  converted  into  dollars  (currency  of  the 
United  States)  was  only  $68,155,000  as  against  $63,445,000  the 
year  before.  The  domestic  price  of  rubber  was  higher,  indeed,  in 
terms  of  the  paper  currency,  but  the  amount  credited  in  exchange 
was  only  $15,665,000  against  $20,720,000,  a  drop  of  25  per  cent. 
We  read  in  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  Finan- 
cial Conference  (Washington  1915),  the  summary  by  Hon.  John 
Bassett  IVIoore  of  a  very  full  Brazilian  report  that  dealt  with  the 
financing  of  transactions  involving  the  importation  and  exporta- 
tion of  goods,  with  questions  of  local  and  commercial  banking, 
and  with  the  various  questions  of  trade  and  of  commerce.     It 


284  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

recommended  in  particular,  first,  that  greater  prominence  should 
be  given  in  the  public  schools  and  other  educational  institutions  of 
the  United  States  to  the  study  of  the  Central  and  South  American 
countries,  their  geographical  location,  natural  resources,  govern- 
ment, and  languages;  second,  that  emphasis  should  be  given  to 
the  necessity  of  greater  liberality  being  exercised  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  customs  regulations  by  the  United  States  and  Latin 
America ;  third,  the  need  of  more  effective  protection  of  trade- 
marks; fourth,  the  facilitation  of  reciprocal  business  relations 
between  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  the  L^nited  States  and  of 
Latin  America,  the  grant  of  such  reasonable  credits  and  business 
information  in  both  directions  as  may  be  safe  and  desirable; 
fifth,  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  direct  exchange  between  the 
United  States  and  Latin  American  countries  based  on  the  dollar 
unit  of  the  United  States;  sixth  (in  order  to  facilitate  the  inter- 
change of  products  adapted  to  the  needs  of  American  countries), 
the  formation  of  bureaus  of  standards  of  the  respective  countries, 
to  standardize,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  requirements  of  each 
country;  seventh,  the  extension  of  reciprocal  tariff  concessions 
between  the  United  States  and  Latin  American  countries  (such 
concessions  as  characterized  the  famous  Cuban  reciprocity 
treaty) ;  eighth,  the  inauguration  of  a  rapid,  frequent,  and  depend- 
able marine  transportation  service,  to  provide  adequately  for  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  commerce  between  the  countries 
of  North,  Central,  and  South  America  ;  ninth,  that  the  postal  rates 
now  existing  within  the  United  States  should  be  extended  to 
include  the  Latin  American  countries  and  made  reciprocal,  and 
that  a  parcels  post  and  money-order  system  should  be  generally 
established;  tenth,  the  extension  of  direct  telegraphic  service, 
either  wireless  or  cable,  between  all  parts  of  North,  Central,  and 
South  America,  to  be  owned,  controlled,  and  operated  by  American 
interests  exclusively;  and,  eleventh,  to  the  press  of  all  the  inter- 
ested countries,  the  establishment  of  a  more  comprehensive  and 
reliable  system  for  the  exchange  of  important  news  items. 

Bibliography 

Americas,  The  (New  York,  published  monthly,  1914r-17)  ;  Financial  Con- 
ference, Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915)  ;  Long 
Credits  and  the  New  Banking  Act  (reprinted  from  Bulletin  Pan  American  Union, 
Washington  n.d.)  ;  Lough,  W.  H,,  Financial  Developments  in  South  American 
Countries  (Washington  1915)  and  Banking  Opportunities  in  South  American 
Countries  (Dept.  of  Conunerce,  Washington  1915).  For  currency,  etc.,  consult 
Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetarg  Si/sfems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New 
York  1915),  and  Gonzales,  V.,  Modern  Foreign  Exchange  (New  York  1914). 


BRAZIL  285 

THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY 

Army 

Military  service  is  obligatory  on  all  male  citizens  from  the 
21st  3^ear  to  the  44th,  inclusive,  with  numerous  exceptions,  such  as 
that  made  in  favor  of  men  who  demonstrate  skill  in  marksmanship. 
Instruction  by  French  officers  has  produced  excellent  results  for 
the  military  police  of  Sao  Paulo.  Terms  of  service  are :  two  years 
in  the  ranks,  seven  in  the  reserve  —  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  active 
reserve,  seven  in  the  Territorial  Army,  and  the  remaining  years 
in  the  National  Guard.  The  country  is  divided  into  military  zones, 
embracing  21  districts.  Reservists  are  called  out  for  one  month 
of  training  each  year;  Territorialists  for  two  weeks  or  more 
annually.  Units  of  the  active  army  are :  fifteen  regiments  of 
infantry;  twelve  of  cavalry  (of  four  squadrons)  and  five  of  two 
squadrons  besides  the  cazadores;  five  regiments  of  field  artillery 
(nine  batteries,  each  with  four  guns);  nine  horse  artillery,  five 
howitzer,  and  six  mountain  batteries;  five  battalions  of  engineers 
and  nine  of  garrison  artillery.  Total  in  the  service,  94  batteries, 
of  which  3(i  are  in  fortifications.  The  Brazilian  artillery  owes  the 
beginning  of  its  organization  to  the  Conde  de  Eu,  a  brilliant  officer 
in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Dom  Pedro.  Of  more  practical 
and  modern  seeming,  in  the  engineers'  class,  are  the  17  sections 
of  men  skilled  in  telegraphy,  construction  of  bridges,  railways, 
and  aeronautics.  The  military  zones  or  territorial  districts  supply 
men  for  five  strategical  and  three  cavalry  brigades  which  are 
stationed  near  the  frontiers  of  Argentina,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay. 
The  total  peace  strength  of  Brazil's  land  forces  is  about  32,000,  to 
which  may  be  added  a  gendarmerie  of  20,000.  In  time  of  war  the 
number  may  (it  is  sometimes  asserted)  be  increased  to  60,000  or 
even  five  times  that  number  if  ecjuipment  can  be  found. 

Navy 

The  naval  contingent  is  com])osed  of  7,500  to  8,000  men  in  all, 
and  the  squadron  of  the  following  units :  The  Dreadnoughts 
Minas  Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo  (each  having  displacement  19,281, 
principal  arm.  12  guns  of  12  in.  and  22  of  4.7  in.,  H.P.  23,500, 
and  nominal  speed  21) ;  the  old  battleships  Dcodoro  and  Fionano 
(each  with  disp.  3,200,  prin.  arm.  2  guns  of  9.2  in.  and  4  of  4.7  in., 
H.P.  3,400,  and  nom.  speed  14) ;  protected  cruisers  Bahia,  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  and  Ceard  (each  having  disp,  3,500,  prin.  arm.  10 
guns  of  4.7  in.,  and  H.P.  18,000) ;  the  old  Barrozo  (disp.  3,450,  6 


286  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

guns  of  6  in.,  4  of  4.7  in.,  and  2  torpedo  tubes)  and  Tammandare 
(disp.  4,500,  10  guns  of  6  in.,  2  of  4.7  in.,  and  2  torpedo  tubes) ; 
also  5  torpedo  gunboats  and  4  first-class  torpedo  boats,  10  Yarrow 
destroyers  and  4  destroyers,  a  mine  ship  of  1,500  tons,  a  small 
vessel  (1,200  tons)  for  hydrograpliic  service,  3  submarines  and 
other  vessels,  the  total  number  being  52.  The  naval  school  is  at 
Eio  de  Janeiro.  Ladario,  in  Matto  Grosso,  has  a  river  arsenal; 
other  arsenals  are  at  Rio  and  Para. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

Railways  have  a  total  length  of  15,248  miles  open  to  traffic. 
The  Government  owns  and  administers  2,188  miles;  5,716  miles 
are  privately  leased;  3,447  miles  are,  by  government  concessions, 
granted  to  various  enterprises;  and  3,897  miles  operated  by 
private  corporations  under  State  concessions.  The  design  of  the 
entire  system  is  such  that,  when  completed,  the  Brazilian  lines 
will  connect  with  the  very  important  railway  system  of  Argen- 
tina (q.v.),  and  those  of  Paraguay  and  Uruguay. 

The  chief  Atlantic  ports  are:  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Per- 
nambuco,  Bahia,  Puerto  Alegre,  Rio  Grande,  Ceara,  and  Parana- 
gua;  the  most  important  Amazonian  jjorts  being  Manaos  (strictly 
on  the  Rio  Negro  near  its  confluence  with  the  great  river)  and 
Para.  At  these  ports  are  registered  many  transatlantic  lines  — 
about  50  in  all ;  and  the  merchant  navy  of  Brazil  consists,  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  reports  available,  of  238  steamers  of  130,582  tons 
net,  and  290  sailing  vessels  of  60,728  tons  net.  Coasting  and  river 
vessels  must  be  Brazilian.  The  Brazilian  Lloyd,  that  has  long 
maintained  a  monthly  service  between  Rio  and  New  York,  has  also 
established  a  line  connecting  Portuguese,  Brazilian  and  English 
ports.  State  aid  has  been  granted  liberally  to  river  and  coasting 
enterprises.  Privately  owned  telegraph  lines  have  a  very  large 
mileage.  The  system  under  control  of  the  Government  comprises 
21,393  miles,  with  270  offices.  Post-offices  in  1917  numbered  3,587. 
The  systems  of  wireless  telegraphy  have  been  extended  by  the 
addition  of  five  new  stations  erected  on  the  coast  and  15  along  the 
Amazon  and  Paraguay  rivers. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  transportation,  we  desire  to 
quote  a  paragraph  from  The  Americas  (VoL  I,  No.  12).  It  invites 
consideration  of  the  inadequacy  of  existing  means  of  transpor- 
tation, in  the  following  terms:    "  Railway  development  is  at  an 


BRAZIL  287 

absolute  standstill  at  the  moment,  owing  to  the  financial  stagnation 
consequent  on  overspending,  accentuated,  of  course,  by  the  effects 
of  the  war.  This  is,  however,  but  temporary,  and  with  a  return  to 
normal  conditions  the  forward  movement  of  railway  policy  in 
Brazil,  which  has  always  been  a  prominent  one,  will  be  resumed. 
Many  immense  districts  are  still  without  sufficient  and  some  with- 
out any  communication  with  outlets  for  pastoral  and  agricultural 
products.  The  development  of  these  districts  will  make  Brazil  one 
of  the  most  prolific  exporters  in  the  world;  climate,  soil,  rainfall, 
and  freedom  from  some  of  the  more  noxious  cattle  pests  encoun- 
tered elsewhere  make  the  country  especiallj^  suited  to  pastoral 
pursuits,  while  there  is  waiting  for  the  plough  and  harrow  a  large 
extent  of  country,  owing  to  its  vastness  scarcely  valued  at  its  true 
worth  by  Brazilians  themselves." 


POPULATION 'AND  ITS  DISTRIBUTION 

The  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  entire  country  is  approxi- 
mately 24,600,000,  the  increment  being  therefore,  10,000,000  in  26 
years,  the  population  in  1890  having  been  14,333,915  according  to 
calculations  and  estimates  generally  accepted  as  correct.  The  rate 
of  growth  in  Sao  Paulo  is  noteworthy.  That  State  had  837,000 
inhabitants  in  1872;  in  1890  it  had  1,384,000;  in  1900  it  had  2,280,- 
000 ;  and  during  the  next  16  years  the  increase  was  over  2,000,000. 
The  State  capital,  also  called  Sao  Paulo,  with  only  35,000  inhabi- 
tants in  1883,  grew  with  the  growth  of  the  coffee-trade  and  the 
general  prosperity  of  the  State;  and  so  rapidly  that  in  1907  the 
number  of  its  inhabitants  was  340,000,  and  in  1916  about  400,000. 
The  growth  of  population  in  Acre  Territory's  seringa  forests  is 
also  rapid.  But  such  increment  as  is  noted  seems  slight  in  view  of 
the  fact,  emphasized  in  Bryce's  South  America,  that  '^  taking 
Brazil  as  a  whole,  no  great  country  in  the  world  owned  by  a 
European  race  possesses  so  large  a  proportion  of  land  available 
for  the  support  of  human  life  and  productive  industry."  The 
same  observer  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  one  can  hardly 
reckon  the  true  Brazilian  white  nation  at  more  than  7,000,000,  the 
other  elements  being  negro,  colored,  aborigines  of  the  Amazonian 
forests,  half-breeds,  etc.;  and,  finally,  the  foreign  element,  more 
important  by  reason  of  its  energy  and  industry  than  on  account 
of  numbers,  since  it  probably  little  exceeds  1,000,000  all  told.  Sub- 
stantial increase  may  be  anticipated  at  Porto  Alegre,  Pelotas, 


288 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


and  the  city  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  the  three  gateways  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  giving  access  to  the  rich  agricultural  plateau  of  the 
southernmost  Brazilian  state. 

For  abstracts  of  census  reports  of  population,  consult  the 
Brazilian  Year  Book  and  publications  of  the  Pan  American  Union 
—  Brazil,  Bulletin,  Latin  America,  etc.;  for  descriptions  of  the 
inhabitants  of  large  cities  and  towns,  and  for  studies  of  native 
races,  the  accounts  of  travel  or  exploration  mentioned  in  Bibliog- 
raphy under  History. 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 


The  Federation  of  Brazil  consists  of  20  States,  the  Federal  District  and  the 
Territory  of  the  Acre.  In  alphabetical  order,  with  their  areas  and  populations, 
capitals  and  populations,  they  are  as  follows : 


STAl'E 


Population 


Area 

(in  square 

miles) 


Capital 


Population  of 
capital 


Alago.is 

Amazonas 

Bahia 

CearA 

Espirito  Santo 

Goyaz 

Maranhao 

Matto  Grosso 

Minas  Geraea 

Pari 

Parahyba 

Parand 

Pernambuco 

Piauhy 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul . . . 

Santa  Catharina 

S5o  Paulo 

Sergipe 

Acre  Territory 

Federal  District 


785,000 
387,000 

,000.000 
886,000 
297,000 
280,000 
562,000 
142,000 

,500,000 
568,000 
520,000 
406,000 

,000,000 
400,000 
968,000 
279,000 

,400,000 
353,000 

,500,000 
413,000 


154,000 
1,500,000 


22,583 

732,439 

164,643 

40,247 

17,312 

288,536 

177,561 

532 , 683 

221,951 

443,903 

28,854 

85,451 

49,573 

116,523 

26,634 

22,193 

91,333 

28,632 

112,307 

15,093 


73,009 
538 


Macei6 

Mandos 

Bahfa,  or  Sao  Salvador.  .  . 

Fortaleza 

Victoria 

Goyaz 

Sao  Luiz 

Cuyabd 

Bello  Horizonte 

Belem  do  Pard 

Parahyba 

Curitiija 

Recife,  or  Pernambuco.  .  . 

Therezina 

Nictheroy 

Natal 

Po  to  Alegre 

Florianapolis,  or  Desterro 

Sao  Paulo 

Aracajli 

Rio   Branco,   or   Senna 

Madureira 

Rio  de  Janeiro 


40,000 
60,000 

280,000 
50,000 
20,000 
16,000 
50,000 
20,000 
50,000 

200,000 
20,000 
50,000 

250,000 
50,000 
50,000 
20,000 
100,000-150,000 
30,000 

400,000 
30,000 


5,000 
*1, 500, 000 


*  If  the  entire  District  is  included:  otherwise  about  1,000,000. 


Rio  de  Janeiro 

'  The  capital  of  the  Republic,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  is  the  largest  and  best-known  city 

of  the  country  and  the  second  city  of  South  America.  It  is  located  in  a  Federal 
district  of  538  square  miles,  on  the  shore  of  a  bay  which  runs  17  miles  inland  from 
the  Atlantic,  and  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  mountains  of  the  Brazilian  coast 
range.  In  the  older  portion  of  the  city  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  and 
are  lined  by  low  buildings.  In  the  new  poi'tion,  however,  the  structures  and  facili- 
ties are  modern.  Street  railway  service  is  well  organized,  all  kinds  of  vehicles  are 
found  on  the  streets,  including  a  great  many  automobiles,  but  a  larg-e  part  of  the 
carrying  is  still  performed  by  porters,  and  food  supplies  are  sold  from  house  to 

,  house.  Recently  very  extensive  quays  have  been  built  and  equipped  with  cranes, 
warehouses,  and  railway  tracks,  and  the  harbor  has  been  dredged,  so  that  vessels 


BRAZIL  289 

can  load  and  unload  without  the  aid  of  lighters.  Kio  de  Janeiro  is  the  chief  indus- 
trial centre  of  the  country.  The  textile  industry  is  perhaps  making  greater  progress 
than  any  other.  Five  of  the  larger  cotton  mills  in  the  Federal  District  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  employ  8,000  operatives  and  have  an  output  of  75,500,000  meters  ( meter  = 
about  1.09  yards).  Another  mill  employs  1,500  operatives  and  utilizes  15,000  horse- 
power. Rio  also  has  flour  mills,  shoe,  shirt,  collar  and  stocking  factories,  a  plant 
for  the  manufacture  of  hydrogen  gas  to  be  used  in  welding  and  cutting  iron,  a  rail- 
way car  assembling  works,  a  fibre  plant,  steam  laundry,  furniture,  lumber  and  cabi- 
net works,  hat,  umbrella,  soap,  candle  and  cocoanut-oil  factories,  chemical  products, 
rubber,  preserved  food,  beer,  chocolate,  biscuits,  glass,  paper,  and  leather  goods 
works.  There  are  altogether  in  the  Federal  District  584  manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  operation,  with  a  combined  capital  of  $42,582,000,  an  annual  output  valued 
at  $61,598,700  and  employing  30,490  operatives.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal markets  for  the  coast  fishing  industry.  It  takes  35  to  40  i)er  cent  of  all 
imports  into  the  country,  and  19  per  cent  of  the  coffee  shipped  from  the  country 
passes  through  it.  It  is  also  the  official  residence  of  the  United  States  ambassador 
to  Brazil  and  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul-general.  From  New  York  there 
is  a  departure  once  a  week  of  passenger  steamers,  with  modern  express  servJce 
every  14  days,  the  schedule  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  being  about  16  days,  with'a  stop  at 
Bahia.  Between  Rio  and  Europe  steamers  two  or  three  times  a  wook  are  available, 
the  time  to  or  from  Lisbon  being  from  11  to  16  days. 

Sao  Paulo 

The  second  city  of  importance  in  Brazil,  Sao  Paulo,  is  situated  210  miles  south- 
west of  Rio  Janeiro,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail,  at  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet, 
about  40  miles  from  the  sea,  its  port  being  Santos,  45  miles  distant.  It  is  the  coffee 
mart  of  Brazil  and,  in  a  sense,  of  the  world.  It  is  a  modern  city,  with  a  crowded 
centre,  recently  improved  by  new  and  straight  streets  and  the  activities  of  the  State  , 
of  which  it  is  the  capital  give  it  rather  a  North  American  character.  There  are  14 
banks  of  importance  in  the  city,  with  aggregate  deposits  of  $60,000,000.  Of  these 
four  are  Brazilian,  three  English,  two  (Jennan,  one  American,  one  Argentine,  one 
French  and  Italian,  one  French  and  one  Italian.  The  most  important  is  the  Banco 
de  Commercio  e  Industria  do  Estado  de  SJio  Paulo,  with  $18,500,000  deposits  and 
about  $11,000,000  cash  reserve.  The  city  contains  several  buildings  of  great  archi- 
tectural merit.  The  Municipal  Theatre,  recently  constructed,  is  one  of  the  finest 
of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  Ypiranga  Museum  and  La  Luz  station  of  the  Sao 
Paulo  Railway  are  modern  palatial  structures.  The  government  buildings  are  also 
noteworthy  and  there  are  many  palatial'  residences.  In  the  whole  State  of  Sao 
Paulo,  there  are  over  300  large  factories,  with  a  capital  of  $50,000,000  and  a  work- 
ing force  of  30,000,  and  most  of  these  factories  are  in  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo.  These 
include  iron  foundries,  bivweines,  flour  mills,  chemical  works,  cotton  mills,  jute 
mill,  silk  and  linen  factories,  cotton-seed  oil  mills,  etc.  Extensive  city  improvements 
are  under  way  or  planned,  including  paving,  building  of  viaducts  between  the  two 
sections  of  the  city,  construction  of  boulevards,  etc.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  interest 
manifested  in  the  methods  and  products  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
State  railway  system  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent.  Sao  Paulo 
deserves  the  close  attention  of  the  United  States  manufacturers  looking  into  the 
export  trade  with  Brazil,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  up-to-date  and  thriving  cities  of 
the  continent,  is  growing  rapidly,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  most  enterprising  of 
Brazilian  States. 

20 


290  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Bahia  or  Sao  Salvador  de  la  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos 

This  city,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Bahia  and  the  oldest  city  of  Brazil,  is 
situated  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  All  Saints,  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 
It  is  440  miles  southwest  of  Pernambuco  and  738  northeast  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  with 
both  of  which  cities  it  has  steamship  and  cable  connections.  The  city  is  divided  into 
the  lower  and  upper  cities,  the  former  is  the  business  quarter,  and  until  recently 
had  narrow,  close,  ill-paved  streets.  It  has  recently  entered  into  a  comprehensive 
scheme  of  reconstruction,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  city,  state,  and  nation,  the 
city  having  authorized  a  loan  of  $7,790,000  and  the  State  one  of  $4,860,000  to  be 
applied  in  part  to  this  purpose.  Old  buildin.^s  are  being  torn  down  and  new  ones, 
including  five  and  six  story  concrete  office  buildings  and  several  thousand  houses 
for  workingmen,  constructed  in  their  i)lace;  new  streets  and  boulevards  are  being 
laid  out;  and  the  water  and  sewerage  systems  are  being  modernized.  The  upper 
part  is  clean  and  cool  and  commands  a  splendid  yiew.  Hydraulic  elevators  connect 
the  two  parts  of  the  city.  Electric  railways  traverse  the  city  and  connect  it  with 
the  suburbs.  It  is  also  the  coast  terminal  of  a  railway  to  the  interior.  Electric 
light  and  power  are  obtained  from  a  plant  across  the  bay  from  Bahia,  the  power  for 
which  is  generated  at  a  near-by  waterfall.  One  of  the  principal  improvements  is 
the  construction  of  new  docks,  which  was  begun  in  1909  and  finished  in  1915.  They 
cover  1.33  miles,  cost  $22,500,000,  and  provide  one  of  the  best  ports  in  South 
America.  Bahia  is  the  port  of  entry  for  over  6  per  cent  of  all  Brazilian  imports. 
The  water  alongside  is  deep  enough  to  accommodate  all  ocean  steamers,  and 
the  expense  of  unloading  by  means  of  lighters  is  avoided.  The  island  of  Ita- 
parica  forms  a  natural  breakwater  for  the  harbor.  Bahia  has  numerous  indus- 
tries. It  has  long  been  one  of  the  largest  producers  of  cotton  cloth,  and  also  a 
supply  centre  for  shoes,  boots  and  hats.  There  are  also  manufactories  of  furniture, 
white  clothing,  chemical  products,  glass,  leather  goods,  wax,  sugar,  tobacco,  lime 
and  cement,  and  foundry  products.  It  has  a  large  coast  trade,  the  chief  exports 
being  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  hides,  dyewoods,  jute  wares,  and  tobacco.  Bahia  ranks 
third  among  the  ports  of  Brazil  in  value  of  imports,  and  trade  with  the  United 
States  in  both  directions  is  important.  The  chief  articles  of  import  from  the 
United  States  are  machinery,  tools,  electrical  equipment,  typewriters,  shoes,  office 
furniture,  sewing  machines,  telephone  and  electric  railway  equipment,  printing 
presses,  etc.  Cacao  to  the  value  of  $1,500,000  is  exported  annually  to  the  United 
States,  rubber  to  the  value  of  $1,000,000,  and  hides  and  skins  to  the  value  of 
$600,000.  The  total  import  trade  of  Bahia  is  about  $17,000,000  annually.  It  is 
also  the  chief  whaling  port  of  Brazil,  the  catch  in  1912  being  the  largest  for  many 
years  because  of  the  use  of  whaling  steamers  and  harjioon  guns.  Steam  trawlers  for 
ordinary  fishing  are  also  used  with  success.  A  United  States  consulate  is  established 
here.  There  is  a  departure  of  passenger  steamers  once  a  week,  with  an  express 
service  every  two  weeks  from  New  York  to  Bahia,  the  schedule  being  about  13  days. 

Para  or  Belem 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  Para.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  Para  River,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  and  55  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  The  city  presents  a 
picturesque  appearance  from  the  harbor.  The  streets  are  paved  with  Belgian  block 
imported  from  Portugal,  and  there  is  a  good  electric-tramway  system,  electric  and 
gas  lighting,  waterworks,  and  a  sewerage  system.  All  ships  going  to  or  from  the 
Amazon  must  enter  or  clear  at  Para.  The  city  has  a  fine  concrete  quay,  4,000  feet 
long  and  the  river  has  been  dredged  so  that  ocean  steamers  can  load  and  unload 


BRAZIL  291 

alongside.  The  Port  of  Para  Company  is  American,  and  holds  a  lease  until  1973,  or 
until  1996  if  certain  conditions  are  fulfilled,  with  a  guarantee  of  6  per  cent  on  its 
capital.  Para  is  the  port  of  outlet  for  all  the  pi'oducts  of  the  vast  Amazon 
territory,  mostly  nibber,  cacao,  Brazil  nuts  and  hides.  It  is  one  of  the  leading 
ports  of  the  world  in  rubber  export,  and  controls  about  one-half  the  supply  of 
Brazil,  amounting  to  about  20,000,000  kilos  annually,  valued  approximately  $35,- 
000,000.  The  total  exports  reach  an  approximate  annual  value  of  $39,000,000  and 
the  imports  $16,000,000.  Para  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  As  the  city 
depends  for  its  prosperity  on  international  commerce  it  is  cosmopolitan  in  character, 
with  most  of  the  whites  Portuguese.  It  is  almost  on  the  Equator  and  the  climate 
is  of  course  hot.  The  city  is  growing  rapidly  and  will  continue  to  increase  in 
importance  as  the  thinly  settled  territory  behind  it  is  opened  up. 

Pernambuco  or  Recife 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name,  situate  on  the  Atlantic  coast  at  the 
easternmost  point  of  the  continent.  It  is  3,982  miles  from  New  York  and  4,065 
miles  from  Liverpool.  This  port  serves  the  cotton  and  sugar  district  of  Brazil. 
There  are  about  60  sugar  mills  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  and  within  it  are  cotton 
mills  turning  out  fustians,  drills,  fancy  oxfords,  and  other  cloth.  Pernambuco,  like 
other  large  Brazilian  cities,  is  in  process  of  reconstruction  and  development,  old 
streets  being  widened  and  straightened  and  many  new  houses  being  built.  A  new 
drainage  system  has  also  been  laid.  The  city  has  electric  railways,  electric  and  gas 
lighting.  The  harbor  is  undergoing  extensive  improvements  which  include  a  break- 
water, a  stone  jetty  and  a  long  quay  wall  bounding  an  area  of  reclaimed  land  at 
a  total  cost  of  $16,000,000.  When  these  are  completed  the  inner  harbor  will  be 
accessible  to  ocean  steamers.  The  imports  at  this  port  average  about  $15,000,000 
annually,  and  the  exports  $5,000,000.  A  United  States  consulate  is  located  here. 
Pernambuco  has  rail  connection  with  Parahyba  in  the  north,  and  in  the  south  with 
Maceio. 

Santos 

This  prosperous  city  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
200  miles  southwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  45  miles  from  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo. 
The  immense  export  and  import  trade  of  the  interior  region  which  it  serves  has 
made  it  the  second  port  of  the  Republic,  the  total  value  of  its  trade  reaching  about 
$251,000,000  annually.  The  harbor  is  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.  Santos  is 
the  largest  coffee  exporting  port  in  the  world,  being  the  outlet  for  the  great  coffee- 
producing  state  of  Sao  Paulo.  Coft'ee  to  the  value  of  about  $65,000,000  is  shipped 
annually  from  this  port  to  the  United  States.  The  annual  export  of  coffee  to  all 
countries  from  this  port  has  averaged  over  $120,000,000  for  the  last  ten  years.  The 
chief  exports  from  Santos  to  foreign  countries  in  1915  were  coffee,  valued  at  $113,- 
424,679;  hides,  $539,275;  cacao,  $289,340;  bran,  $69,754;  and  tobacco,  $24,254. 
Exports  to  the  United  States  in  the  same  year  totaled  $63,055,465,  of  which  coffee 
represented  $62,431,991;  hides,  $318,817;  and  cacao,  $292,500.  Frozen  meat  is 
fast  becoming  an  important  export,  the  value  now  exceeding  $2,000,000  annually, 
Great  Britain,  Italy  and  the  United  States  being  the  chief  purchasers.  Bananas 
rank  third  in  the  list  of  exports,  being  valued  at  $500,000  annually  and  going  to 
Argentina.  Santos  is  situated  on  an  island,  protected  from  the  ocean  by  a  larger 
island,  with  a  channel  six  miles  long  between  the  two.  A  sea  wall,  three  miles  long, 
has  been  constructed  on  the  side  of  the  city.  This  made  possible  the  reclaiming  of 
much  pestilential  and  malaria-breeding  swamp  land  and  the  city's  healthfulness 
has  been  increased  in  consequence.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 


292  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Maceio  or  Magayo 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  Alagoas.  Situated  on  the  Atlantic  co<ast,  130  miles 
southwest  of  Pernambuco.  Cotton  goods  and  machinery  are  manufaetui*ed  here 
and  it  is  the  centre  of  an  active  trade  through  its  port  Jaraguii.  Shipyards  are 
provided  in  the  harbor.  A  breakwater  is  under  construction  in  the  south  harbor 
where  there  are  sandbanks.  The  coral  reef  protecting  the  northern  hai'bor  is  to 
be  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  trellis  bridge.  About  $6,000,000  are  being 
expended  on  these  improvements.  Cotton,  corn,  and  hides  are  the  principal  items 
of  export.    A  consular  agent  of  the  United  States  is  located  here. 

Manaos 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Amazonns.  Situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Negro, 
10  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Amazon  and  1,000  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It 
has  a  good  harbor  to  which  ocean  steamers  ascend,  and  is  an  important  commercial 
centre.  There  is  a  nourishing  trade  in  the  forest  products  of  the  Amazon  and 
rubber  is  exported  in  large  quantities.  Manaos  is  a  well-built  city  and  is  lighted 
by  electricity.  There  is  cable  connection  with  Para.  A  United  States  consular 
agent  is  located  here.  In  one  year  Manaos  has  impoi'ted  as  much  as  $1,000,000 
worth  of  cotton  goods,  and  other  articles  such  as  matches,  groceries,  hardware, 
firearms,  and  clothing  are  in  demand.  Fine  floating  docks  were  completed  in  1910, 
at  a  cost  of  over  $5,000,000.  The  equipment  includes  a  stone  wall,  1,500  feet  long, 
and  connected  with  the  floating  docks  by  a  bridge  550  feet  long.  There  are  16 
warehouses  and  the  most  modern  electric  machinery. 

Maranhao  or  Sao  Luiz 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Maranhao.  Situated  on  an  island  between  the  bays  of  Siio 
Marcos  and  Sao  Jose,  280  miles  east  southeast  of  Para.  It  is  well-built  and  clean 
and  the  climate,  though  hot,  is  not  unhealthful.  The  harbor  suffers  from  silting 
but  extensive  port  works  recently  constructed  have  improved  this  condition.  The 
city  carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  Its  imports  amount  annually  to  about  $260,003 
and  the  exports  exceed  $300,000  annually.  A  United  States  consular  agent  is 
located  here. 

Porto  Alegre 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Situated  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Lagoa  dos  Patos,  100  miles  north  of  Rio  Grande.  It  is  one  of  the  best  built  and 
cleanest  cities  of  Brazil,  has  a  delightful  climate,  and  is  the  chief  outlet  for  the 
products  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  It  has  railway  connections  with  the 
interior.  The  chief  articles  of  its  export  trade  are  beef,  salt  pork,  lard,  hides,  and 
flour.  Its  export  trade  exceeds  $1,250,000  annually,  while  its  imports  are  valued 
at  approximately  $11,500,000  annually.  Near  the  city  there  is  a  coal  mine  with  a 
yearly  output  of  16,000  tons.  New  docks  are  being  installed  here  at  a  cost  of 
$12,000,000. 

Natal 

Capital  and  chief  port  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  Situated  on  the 
Potengy  River,  near  the  Atlantic,  140  miles  north  of  Pernambuco.  The  harbor  has 
numerous  sand  bars,  but  dredging  has  opened  the  port  to  vessels  of  22  feet  draught. 
With  the  removal  of  these  bars  Natal  will  become  one  of  the  best  ports  of  North 
Brazil.  The  city  is  the  chief  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  State.  The  principal 
articles  of  export  are  cotton,  leather,  rubber,  cabinet  woods,  and  sugar.  It  is  the 
residence  of  a  United  States  consular  agent.  It  is  connected  with  Pernambuco  by 
rail  and  is  the  terminus  of  another  railwav  to  the  interior  of  the  State. 


BRAZIL  293 

Fortaleza  or  Ceara 

Capital  of  Ceara.  Situated  on  an  ojjen  bay  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ceara. 
It  is  well-built,  has  broad,  well-paved  streets,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities 
of  Brazil.  The  surrounding  region  is  sterile,  but  there  is  rail  eonneetion  with  the 
fertile  lands  of  the  interior.  Extensive  harbor  improvements  have  been  made 
recently.  Fortaleza  is  the  chief  port  of  the  State,  the  trade  in  rubber,  cotton,  coffee, 
sugar,  animal  products  and  drugs  being  considerable.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consul.     The  city  is  350  miles  northeast  of  Pernambuco. 

Florianopolis  (formerly  Desterro) 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Santa  Catharina.  Situated  on  Santa  Catharina  Island, 
485  miles  southwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  has  a  picturesqu?  site  and  is  well  built. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor  defended  by  fortifications.  The  exports  consist  of 
manioc  flour,  coffeo,  sugar,  rice,  fish,  hides,  earthenware,  and  meat  i^roducts.  Coast 
fishing  is  an  important  industry. 

Victoria 

Capital  of  the  Stat<?  of  Espirito  Santo.  Situated  on  the  Island  of  Espirito  Santo, 
270  miles  northeast  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the  State  and 
exports  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  and  manioc  flour.  Like  Rio,  Victoria  has  practically 
wiped  out  yellow  fever  and  has  a  good  sanitary  service,  water  system,  and  electric 
light  and  power,  with  a  recently  built  electric  street-car  system.  Ocean-going  ves- 
sels can  enter  the  port,  and  quay  extensions  of  3,500  feet  with  dock  facilities  have 
been  constructed  recently.  About  ^4,000,000  are  being  expended  on  harbor  facilities. 

Parahyba 

Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name.  Situated  on  the  Parahyba  River,  10 
miles  from  the  sea  and  50  miles  north  of  Peniambueo  (Recife).  It  has  rail  com- 
nmnication  with  the  latter  and  also  with  Natal.  It  is  the  principal  outlet  for  the 
products  of  the  State,  the  principal  exports  being  cxjtton  and  sugar. 

Curitiba 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Parana.  Situated  on  the  Iguazii  River,  about  3,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  well  builit,  has  a  street  railway,  and  railway  connections 
with  the  interior  and  the  coast.  Paraguay  tea  (yerba  mate),  corn,  beef,  fruit,  and 
tobacco  are  exported  from  here.    Gold  has  been  found  in  the  vicinity. 

Therezina 

Capital  of  Piauhy.  Situated  on  the  Pai-ahyba  River,  220  miles  south  of  the 
city  of  Parnahyba  on  the  coast,  with  which  it  has  rail  connection.  It  is  an  important 
commercial  centre.     Cotton  cloth  is  manufactured  here. 

Cuyaba 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Matto  G rosso.  Situated  on  the  Cuyaba  River,  was 
formerly  an  important  diamond  and  gold  mining  centre.  It  has  broad,  well-paved 
streets  and  is  an  important  commercial  centre.  It  has  a  steamship  service  to 
Montevideo,  a  distance  of  2,500  miles. 

Nictheroy 

Capital  of  the  State  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  entrance 
to  the  bay,  opposite  the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  contains  a  number  of  textile, 
shoe,  and  furniture  factories,  and  it  is  surrounded  by  handsome  suburbs. 


CHILE 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

CHILE,  chel'a,  or  Chili,  cliil'i  (the  Republic  of),  situated  on 
the  western  coast  of  South  America,  between  the  Andes 
Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Argentina  and  Bolivia,  and  on  the  north  by  Peru.  In  length  it 
surpasses  even  the  Argentine  Republic  (q.v.),  for  it  extends  from 
lat.  55°  59'  S.  to  17°  57'  S.  in  a  curving  line,  the  total  length  of 
which  is  nearly  2,700  miles,  but  its  greatest  width  is  only  248 
miles,  and  in  the  narrowest  part  the  measurement  from  west  to 
east  is  less  than  70  miles.  The  total  area  is  292,419  square  miles. 
Beside  the  Andean  Cordillera  on  the  east,  there  is  a  parallel  west- 
ern coast  ridge  or  cordillera  with  moderate  elevations,  and  in  the 
valley  between  the  two,  from  Santiago,  the  capital,  to  the  south, 
are  found  the  best  agricultural  districts  and  many  towns.  Com- 
pared with  the  other  South  American  countries,  Chile  ranks  as  the 
seventh  in  size. 

The  northern  part  of  Chile  is  a  hot  desert ;  the  southern  part, 
a  cold  region  of  almost  incessant  rains;  but  between  these 
extremes  lies  a  great  extent  of  territory  blest  with  a  temperate 
^nd  healthful  climate.  Dividing  the  Republic,  for  convenience  of 
characterization,  into  five  zones,  we  may  say  that  in  the  northern- 
most zone,  despite  its  nearly  absolute  lack  of  vegetation,  we  find 
the  chief  sources  of  the  national  wealth  —  the  deposits  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  mines,  etc.  The  second  zone,  continuing  toward  the 
south,  is  less  torrid.    Rain  falls  several  times  in  the  year;  and 

[294] 


CHILE  295 

though  mining  is  the  chief  industry,  small  areas  are  also  devoted 
to  agriculture.  The  third  zone,  in  the  centre  of  the  country,  has 
a  temperate  climate  and  fairly  abundant  rains.  Cattle-raising, 
mining,  and  the  cultivation  of  cereals,  vines,  and  fruits  are  the 
leading  industries.  In  the  fourth  zone,  where  rains  are  more  abund- 
ant and  the  climate  cooler,  the  chief  products  are  wheat,  cattle, 
lumber,  etc.  The  fifth  and  most  southerly  zone,  extending  to  Cape 
Horn,  is  a  land  with  a  cold  and  rainy  climate  —  strictly  antitheti- 
cal to  the  northermost  zone,  since  it  is  not  without  hope  of  acquir- 
ing w^ealth  despite  its  confessed  lack  of  mineral  resources,  as  we 
shall  show.  Mr.  Mills  (see  Bibliography)  prefers  a  division  of 
Chile,  physically,  into  four  zones  only,  as  follows:  The  arid 
northern,  from  the  Peruvian  boundary  to  27°  S.  lat. ;  the  semi- 
northern,  less  arid,  from  27°  to  32° ;  the  semi-southern,  from 
32°  to  43°  30',  fertile  and  agricultural;  and  the  southern,  from 
43°  .30'  southward,  about  1,150  miles,  a  district  of  islands,  and 
uplands,  rich  in  forests,  fisheries,  and  lands  suitable  for  stock- 
raising. 

A  striking  characteristic,  never  to  be  disregarded,  is  a  longi- 
tudinal valley.  '*  The  country  is  in  essence  a  valley  enclosed 
between  two  lines  of  mountains,"  Mr.  Mills  writes.  "  On  the 
east  runs  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  diminishing  in  height  to  the 
south,  where  its  line  is  crossed  by  various  rivers  and  lakes.  On 
the  west  runs  a  parallel  but  lower  range,  the  coast  Cordillera, 
interrupted  from  about  42°  S.  lat.  by  many  arms  of  the  sea,  but 
containing  the  long  line  of  islands  that  fringe  the  mainland." 
Chilean  geographical  contrasts  and  extremes  are  here  illustrated 
almost  dramatically:  The  Longitudinal  Valley,  admirably  fer- 
tile between  30°  and  42°  S.  lat.,  is  prolonged  in  the  arid  desert  of 
the  north,  but  in  the  south  is  submerged  beneath  the  ocean,  becom- 
ing a  drowned  valley.  *'  The  Cordillera  of  the  coast  is,  geologi- 
cally, older  than  that  of  the  Andes.  It  is,  of  course,  lower  and  less 
continuous,  but  so  far  resembles  it  that  it  presents,  generally 
speaking,  an  abrupt  slope  to  the  west,  while  sinking  much  more 
gradually  to  the  east.  In  Tarapaca  it  rises,  almost  from  the  sea, 
to  heights  varying  from  1,000  to  7,000  feet.  In  Atacama  it  aver- 
ages 3,000  feet,  culminating  in  Penarave  (7,300  feet).  Farther 
south  it  recedes  from  the  sea  and  sinks  in  height  till  it  disappears 
below  Tres  Puntas.  It  rises  again  to  some  7,000  feet  in  the  cen- 
tral provinces,  notably  in  Roble  and  Campana,  near  Valparaiso. 
South  of  the  river  Ropel  the  range  becomes  lower  and  more  com- 
plicated. Further  south  it  splits  into  two  parallel  low  ranges. 
South  of  the  Bio-bfo  it  is  known  as  the  Cordillera  of  Nahuelfuta." 


296  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Still  further  toward  the  south  it  shares  with  the  valley,  its  com- 
panion throughout,  that  plunge  which  we  have  mentioned;  but  its 
peaks  and  high  plains  form  the  line  of  islands  clinging  to  the 
curved  shore-line,  though  only  at  one  point,  the  peninsula  of 
Taitao  or  Taytao,  united  to  the  continent  visibly. 

Rivers  that  rise  on  the  western  side  of  the  coast  Cordillera 
form  the  smaller  hydrog^'aphic  system  of  the  country,  and  the 
larger  hydrographic  system,  especially  interesting  as  the  obvious 
and  at  any  future  time  available  source  of  unlimited  power  for 
industrial  uses,  includes  rivers  which  have  their  source  in  the 
Andes  and  flow  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  North  of  lat.  28°  S.  all  the 
rivers,  except  the  Azufre  of  Tacna  and  the  Loa,  carry  their  waters 
to  the  sea  only  during  a  portion  of  the  year.  In  the  region  just 
below  this,  or  until  we  reach  lat.  35°  S., —  and  particularly  in  the 
Valparaiso-Santiago  section  —  we  find  rivers  which  are  swollen 
by  the  melting  of  snow  on  the  mountains  in  November,  December, 
January,  and  February,  and  by  the  rains  that  fall  on  their  water- 
sheds at  another  period.  The  more  important  of  these  two  annual 
floods  is  the  former,  which  brings  down  into  the  agricultural  val- 
leys alluvial  silt  to  renew  their  fertility.  But  below  lat.  85°  S. 
the  rivers  are  subject  to  floods  especially  in  June  and  July  — 
rather  then  than  in  the  season  November  to  February  —  simply 
because  the  melting  of  snow  on  the  mountains  affects  the  total 
volume  of  water  much  less  in  these  latitudes.  Navigable  rivers 
are  comparatively  few,  and  in  any  event  they  would  be  called  upon 
to  play  a  less  important  role  here  than  that  assigned  to  the  great 
inland  waterways  of  Argentina  and  Brazil,  since  the  ocean  itself 
facilitates  communication  with,  or  between,  the  different  parts  of 
this  narrow  country.  The  Andean  rivers  of  Chile  offer,  as  we 
have  said  above,  practically  unlimited  sources  of  hydraulic  power 
available  at  any  future  time,  because  they  rise  at  great  altitudes 
and  accomplish  their  descent  to  the  coast  by  a  series  of  cascades 
and  great  waterfalls,  not  at  a  single  point  or  two  but  in  many 
widely  separated  regions. 

As  the  foregoing  statements  would  lead  the  reader  to  assume, 
we  find  above  the  southern  limits  of  the  arid  zones  saline  depres- 
sions in  lieu  of  lakes,  although  in  remote  ages,  before  radical 
changes  of  climatic  conditions  had  occurred,  the  lake  region  cer- 
tainly embraced  these  northern  districts.  Lakes  are  still  numer- 
ous in  the  south  and  are  often  found  at  imposing  elevations. 

It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  observation  of  the  characteristics 
of  rivers  and  of  lakes  emphasizes  again  the  contrast  between  the 
rainless    and    at    inland    points    often    extremely    hot    northern 


CHILE  297 

provinces  and  those  regions  of  the  south  in  which  the  rainfall  is 
excessive.  We  add  that  there  are  almost  startling  variations  of 
temperature  as  between  the  hours  of  sunlight  and  those  of  dark- 
ness, both  at  high  places  among  the  mountains  and  in  the  northern 
zones  generally ;  and  that  the  severity  of  winter 's  cold  is  confined 
to  the  Far  South  and  the  high  Andes,  snow  never  falling  on  valley 
or  foothill  north  of  lat.  36°  S.  Moreover,  in  order  to  appreciate 
truly  the  constant  influence  of  cold  currents,  atmospheric  and 
marine,  and  of  the  Andean  barrier,  it  is  most  necessary  that  we 
should  take  the  broader  view  which  includes  facts  relating  to  the 
climate  of  the  east  coast  of  South  America  as  well  as  to  that  of 
the  west  coast.  The  difference  occasioned,  for  example,  by  the 
cold  current  from  the  south  that  flows  northward  along  the  west 
coast  is  noteworthy.  The  mean  annual  temperature  on  the  west 
coast,  wherever  the  influence  of  this  current  (the  so-called  Hum- 
boldt current)  is  felt,  is  6°  to  7°  Fahr.  lower  than  that  of  places  in 
the  same  latitude  on  the  east  coast.  The  interest  of  this  subject 
can  be  merely  suggested  in  an  article  devoted  to  a  single  country. 
A  somewhat  more  comprehensive  account  of  temperatures,  etc., 
will  be  found  in  the  article  Latin  America.  But  we  note  here  that 
the  Humboldt  current  reaches  Chiloo  Island  first,  and  thence  flows 
northward  to  the  equator.  South  of  Chiloe,  therefore  —  or,  more 
exactly,  from  Taytao  Peninsula  southward  —  we  find  other 
climatic  influences  and  conditions;  and  this  statement  applies  to 
the  entire  Territory  of  Magellan  (Territorio  de  Magallanes)  which 
embracing  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  total  area  of  the  Republic, 
extends  along  the  Pacific  coast  from  lat.  47°  S.  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  South  America.  On  the  southeast  it  is,  indeed,  sepa- 
rated from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  outlying  portions  of  Argentina ; 
nevertheless  the  most  important  eastern  outlet  is  secured  to  it  by 
Chilean  control  of  both  sides  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  It  has 
thus  practically  an  outlook  upon  both  oceans;  and  the  main  divi- 
sions of  the  Territory  are:  the  islands  and  channels  north  of  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  up  to  the  Peninsula  of  Taytao;  north  conti- 
nental section,  central  continental  section  —  region  of  Ultima 
Esperanza ;  south  continental  section  —  Chilean  Patagonia  — 
Peninsula  of  Brunswick;  western  islands  and  channels  of  Pata- 
gonia; islands  and  channels  south  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan; 
Tierra  del  Fuego  (Chilean  portion) ;  and  the  islands  and  channels 
south  and  west  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  The  total  area  of  the  Terri- 
torio de  Magallanes  (66,861  square  miles,  almost  equally  divided 
between  the  continental  part  and  the  islands)  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  Rumania  and  only  a  bit  less  than  that  of  Uruguay.    In  the 


298  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Censo  Jeneral  del  Territorio  de  Magallanes,  by  Lautaro  Navarro 
Avaria  (see  Bibliography),  we  read  that  the  territory  has 
received  a  current  of  immigration  much  greater,  during  recent 
years,  than  that  which  has  been  available  for  the  development  of 
other  portions  of  Chile;  and  a  great  majoritj^  of  the  immigrants 
have  been  men  who  came  to  take  part  in  sheep-raising  and  various 
industries,  or  who  were  attracted  by  not  wholly  trustworthy 
reports  of  the  discovery  of  gold.  The  inhabitants  at  the  date  of 
the  last  census  numbered  only  23,650,  with  80  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  the  Territory  concentrated  in  the  city  of  Punta 
Arenas  and  the  town  (officially  designated  as  a  "  city  ")  of  Por- 
venir;  only  about  20  per  cent  in  those  portions  of  the  rural  dis- 
tricts which  are  dedicated  to  stock-farming.  The  climatic 
conditions  are  admittedly  unfavorable  to  agriculture  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  term,  but  sheep  thrive  uncommonly  well  on  the 
immense  pastures.  (See  also  below:  Mineral  Resources  and  Min- 
ing, and  Education).  Naturalh^  the  maritime  traffic  of  Punta 
Arenas,  despite  its  geographical  remoteness,  is  very  little  inferior 
to  that  of  Valparaiso,  because  its  position  on  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  makes  it  quite  inevitably  the  port  at  which  a  thousand 
vessels  —  warships,  merchant  steamers,  sailing  vessels  —  call  each 
year,  to  renew  provisions  or  effect  repairs  of  their  engines,  or 
perhaps  only  to  spend  a  few  hours  while  waiting  a  favorable 
moment  for  passing  the  more  or  less  dangerous  points. 

The  Juan  Fernandez  Islands,  discovered  in  1563,  but,  accord- 
ing to  the  historian  Barros  Arana  (see  Bibliography),  probably 
not  by  the  Spanish  pilot  whose  name  they  bear,  are  of  volcanic 
origin  and  were  formed  in  the  epoch  of  the  principal  uplift  of  the 
Chilean  Cordillera.  They  are  three  in  number:  the  island  of 
Masatierra  and  its  small  neighbor,  the  islet  of  Santa  Clara,  at  a 
distance  of  360  miles  west  of  Valparaiso,  and,  92  miles  west  of 
these  again,  the  island  of  Masafuera.  Masatierra  has  the  form 
of  an  isosceles  triangle  whose  base  measures  13  miles.  The 
distance  across  it,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  five  miles  and  its 
highest  peak  3,300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  most 
important  part  of  its  coast  is  the  northeastern  side  of  the  island, 
where  we  find  three  ports:  that  of  San  Juan  Bautista,  better 
known  as  Cumberland  Bay,  and  the  still  smaller  Puerto  Frances 
and  Puerto  Ingles.  Near  the  shore  of  Puerto  Ingles  is  found  the 
famous  cavern  in  which  Alexander  Selkirk  is  supposed  to  have 
dwelt  and  which  for  that  reason  is  called  Robinson  Crusoe 's  Cave. 
The  few  colonists  on  the  island  (only  60  or  80  in  recent  years)  culti- 
vate the  fields  of  a  valley  striking  inward  from  Cumberland  Bay. 


CHILE  299 

On  this  island  is  the  Pass  of  Villagra,  generally  called  Selkirk's 
Lookout, —  a  point  commanding  splendid  views  of  the  ocean  and 
of  the  deep  ravines  between  sharp-crested  mountains  whose  flanks 
are  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation;  and  one's  attention  is 
drawn  to  the  commemorative  tablet  placed  here  in  1868  by  British 
officers  in  honor  of  the  hermit  of  Juan  Fernandez,  the  Scotch 
seaman,  Alexander  Selkirk.  Santa  Clara  is  about  four  miles  in 
circumference;  Masafuera,  uninhabited  and  without  good  ports, 
virtually  a  mountain  rising  out  of  the  ocean  to  the  height  of  5,940 
feet,  has  a  superficial  area  (estimated)  of  33  square  miles.  The 
circumstance  that  these  islands  have  never  been  united  with  the 
continent  is  clearly  shown  by  the  composition  of  the  fauna,  which 
lacks  reptiles  absolutely  and  does  not  include  any  indigenous 
species  of  terrestrial  mammals.  There  are  great  numbers  of  goats 
on  all  three  islands ;  and  these  have  been  compared  to  the  chamois 
of  the  Alps,  so  completely  have  they  reverted  to  the  savage  state. 
Johow  and  Pohlmann,  in  Estudios,  etc.  (see  Bibliography)  are 
authorities  for  the  statement  that  wild  asses  of  extraordinary 
size  and  strength,  as  well  as  wild  horses,  pigs,  dogs,  cats,  and 
rats  —  all  illustrate  the  facility  and  rapidity  with  which  such 
reversions  to  savagery  proceed  on  Juan  Fernandez.  According  to 
ancient  accounts,  the  flocks  of  goats  all  proceed  from  four  which 
were  left  there  at  the  period  of  discovery.  These  multiplied  so 
enormously  that  in  the  17th  century  British  pirates  made  a  prac- 
tice of  resorting  to  the  group  for  supplies  of  fresh  meat.  The 
Spaniards  therefore  attempted  to  exterminate  the  goats  by  the 
introduction  of  mastiffs  from  Chile;  but  the  latter  also  became 
wild,  adapting  themselves  to  their  environment  and  thriving  in  it 
without  accomplishing  the  reduction  of  the  numbers  of  the  former. 

Flora  and  Fauna 

The  essential  characteristics  of  the  Chilean  flora  were 
impressed  upon  it  during  the  long  ages  of  complete  isolation, 
before  the  Argentine  Pampas  were  lifted  up  out  of  the  waters 
that  covered  them.  Even  now  the  country  is,  on  that  eastern  side, 
shut  in  by  the  Andean  Cordillera,  and  on  the  north  it  is  cut  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  the  deserts ;  formerly  its  sepa- 
rateness  w^as  like  that  of  a  Pacific  island;  and  so  naturally  it  is 
distinguished  botanically  by  the  large  number  of  indigenous 
species  peculiarly  its  own.  Among  these  are  two  genera  and  five 
species  of  Francoacece,,  the  skylanthus ,  and  several  species 
of  cactacece.     Mr.  Mills  w^rites:  ''  It  is  believed  that  the  potato 


300  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

came  originally  from  Chile ;  it  is  still  found  wild  in  Chiloe  and  the 
adjacent  islands  and  mainland.  The  bean  and  pepper  are  also 
indigenous,  and  maize  and  quinoa,  whether  indigenous  or  not, 
were  certainly  grown  in  the  country  before  the  Spanish  conquest. ' ' 
The  forests  of  the  Juan  Fernandez  Islands,  in  so  far  as  they  have 
maintained  their  primitive  character,  may  be  classified  with  sub- 
tropical evergreens,  because  all  their  trees  and  shrubs,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  michai  {Berheris  corymhosa)  which  sheds 
its  leaves  in  July  and  August,  remain  green  throughout  the  year, 
thus  showing  adaptation  to  a  temperate  and  uniform  climate. 
Even  a  tree  by  nature  deciduous,  namely,  the  peach-tree  {Amyg- 
dallus  persica),  retains  its  leaves  all  winter  long  when  naturalized 
in  Masatierra.  Decidedly  less  noticeable  in  the  fauna  than  in  the 
flora  are  the  insular  or  separate  characteristics  just  referred  to, 
although  the  fauna  also  differs  from  that  of  other  South  Ameri- 
can countries  to  the  extent  of  excluding  jaguars  (so  common  in 
regions  just  beyond  the  Andes),  venomous  snakes,  monkeys, 
lizards  (save  in  the  northen  zones),  and  river  turtles.  There  are 
12  genera  and  25  species  of  rodents.  In  this  order  are  included 
the  beaver-like  Coypu  and  the  Chinchilla.  Among  carnivora  we 
find  the  wild  cat,  puma,  and  fox.  Characteristic  ruminants  are : 
the  Huemul  deer  and  the  small  Pudu  (the  latter  peculiar  to  Chile), 
and  those  wild  members  of  the  Llama  family,  the  Vicufia  and 
Guanaco  or  Huanaco.  Birds,  great  and  small,  are:  The  Con- 
dor, the  white  and  the  black  Albatross,  Pelican,  Giant  Petrel, 
Penguin,  Rhea  (South  American  Ostrich),  Cormorant,  the  Bark- 
ing Guid-guid,  Turco,  Tapacollo,  Gull,  SAvan,  Duck,  Parrot,  and 
three  species  of  humming-birds  (one  peculiar  to  Chile).  Fish, 
comparatively  rare  in  the  rivers,  abound  in  the  ocean  near  the 
coast  and  in  the  channels  of  Magallanes  Territory,  and  are  taken 
in  great  numbers  in  the  northern  harbors.  Chilean  waters  are  also 
visited  by  whales  and  at  least  six  species  of  seals. 


HISTORY  OF  CHILE 


The  dominion  of  the  Incas  of  Peru  included  the  northern  and 
central  portions  of  Chile  —  at  least  to  l«t.  37°  S.  In  1535  the 
Spanish  conquerors  of  the  Inca  empire  sent  their  first  expedition 
southward  along  the  Pacific  coast;  but  the  task  of  adding  this 
territory  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Peru  and  Upper  Peru 
(Bolivia)  was  not  undertaken  in  earnest  until  1541,  nor  was  it 
brought  to  a  successful  conclusion  without  desperate  fighting  in 


CHILE 


301 


the  second  half  of  the  16th  century.  Pedro  de  Valdivia  suffered 
defeat  and  death  in  1553  at  the  hands  of  Lautaro,  the  young- 
Indian  leader,  and  not  of  the  famous  Caupolican  as  many  writers 
have  asserted.  Both  Barros  Arana  and  Errazuriz  deprive  Cau- 
polican of  the  glory  that  Ercilla  first  bestowed  upon  him.  (See 
Bibliography.)  The  Araucanians  offered  a  stubborn  resistance, 
and  even  as  late  as  the  18th  century  they  made  good  their  prior 
claim  to  a  large  part  of  the  country  below  lat.  37°  S. 


The    "Moneda"  —  Ancient    Treasure    House,    now    Government    House,    Santiago    de    Chile 

Independence  and  Adoption  of  Constitution 

In  September  1810  was  formed  the  first  national  government,  - 
to  rule  the  country  during  the  captivity  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
whom  the  French  held  as  a  prisoner.  From  that  time  forward  the 
design  to  achieve  independence  was  never  relinquished,  though  the 
events  of  the  years  immediately  following  were  of  a  character  to 
discourage  patriotic  aspirations.  The  Chileans  were  defeated  and 
compelled  to  return  to  a  nominal  subjection;  the  final  success  w^as 
won  with  the  help  of  Argentine  troops  under  Gen.  San  Martin 
(see  Argentina),  and  the  independence  of  the  country  was  pro- 
claimed in  1818.  A  constitution,  adopted  in  1824,  and  remodeled 
in  1828,  was  given  its  final  shaping  —  substantially  the  form  which 
it  still  retains,  though  modifications  demanded  by  the  progress  of 
the  country  have  been  made  —  in  1833.  (See  under  Government.) 
Independence  was  recognized  by  a  formal  arrangement  with  Spain, 
and  embodied  in  the  treaty  of  1844.  In  1865,  however,  a  war  broke 
out  between  the  mother  country  and  Chile  and  Peru,  hostilities 
continuing  until  1869.  After  an  interval  of  peace,  the  important 
War  on  the  Pacific,  often,  though  not  very  felicitously,  called 
"  War  of  the  Pacific,"  began. 


302  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  War  on  the  Pacific 

For  many  years  the  rights  of  Bolivia  and  Chile,  respectively, 
in  certain  mining  lands  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  remained 
without  definition,  but  in  1874  an  agreement  was  entered  into 
between  the  two  countries  which  apparently  disposed  of  the  ques- 
tions at  issue.  The  exploitation  of  these  lands  by  Chileans  increas- 
ing, Bolivia  saw  fit  to  reopen  the  dispute  by  imposing  an  export 
tax  on  the  nitrate,  or  ''  saltpetre,"  obtained  in  Bolivian  territory. 
A  Chilean  company  refused  to  pay  the  tax,  alleging  that  it  con- 
travened the  treaty  of  1874.  The  Bolivian  government's  reply 
w^as  an  order  for  the  sale  by  auction  of  the  property  of  the  offend- 
ing company,  on  13  Feb.  1879.  Thereupon  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment sent  a  man-of-war  to  seize  the  port  of  Antofagasta.  It  soon 
became  apparent  that  Chile  would  be  obliged  to  deal  with  Peru 
also  in  this  matter;  and  in  fact  a  secret  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance  against  Chile  had  been  formed  by  Bolivia  and  Peru  in 
1873.  On  5  April  1879  Chile  declared  war  against  the  latter  repub- 
lic. Tacna  and  the  neighboring  port  of  Arica  were  occupied  by 
the  presidents  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  with  their  troops ;  the  defense 
of  Iquique  was  entrusted  to  a  sufficient  force,  and  at  Lima  a 
reserve  of  about  10,000  men  was  held  in  readiness  to  meet  the 
Chileans  at  any  point  that  might  be  attacked.  The  plans  of  the 
allies  seemed  to  be  well  laid,  and  some  initial  successes  fell  to  their 
share. 

Capture  of  the  Huascar 

Two  Chilean  warships,  the  Esmeralda  and  the  Covodonga, 
blockading  Iquique,  were  attacked  by  the  Peruvian  frigate  Inde- 
pendencia  and  the  monitor  Huascar.  The  Esmeralda  w^as  sunk  by 
,the  Huascar,  but  the  latter  vessel  on  ^8  October  fell  in  with  the 
Cochrane  and  Blanco  of  the  Chilean  navy  north  of  Point  Mejifc 
'/  lones.  A  fight  of  great  severity  ensued.  Only  86  men  w^ere  left 
alive  on  board  the  Huascar,  out  of  her  complement  of  216,  when 
she  was  obliged  to  surrender.  This  vessel  was  repaired  and  added 
to  the  Chilean  navy. 

Triumph  of  Chile 

Pisagua  w^as  captured  from  the  Bolivians  by  Chilean  war- 
ships. On  18  Nov.  1879,  the  allies  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
San  Francisco,  but  before  the  close  of  the  same  month  they  scored 
a  dearly  bought  success  against  the  Chilean  forces  in  the  battle 
of  Tarapaca.     Chilean  divisions  commanded  by  Gen.  Baquedano 


CHILE  303 

invested  the  town  of  Moquegua,  and  on  23  March  1880  entered 
Torata.  Two  months  later  a  decisive  contest  occurred,  the  city 
of  Tacna  (now  the  capital  of  the  Chilean  province  of  that  name) 
being  taken  on  26  May,  The  troops  of  the  allies,  including  5,120 
Peruvians  and  3,200  Bolivians,  commanded  by  Admiral  Montero, 
and  the  Bolivian  president,  Gen.  Campero,  sustained  a 
crushing  defeat.  Arica,  the  port  of  this  district,  was  attacked  by 
the  land  and  sea  forces  of  Chile  in  June,  and  fell  after  making  a 
desperate  resistance.  In  order  to  emphasize  the  defeat  and  to 
cripple  the  more  important  members  of  the  alliance,  the  Peruvian 
coast  was  laid  waste,  Mollendo  was  destroyed,  Callao  and  other 
ports  blockaded,  and  an  expedition  under  Baquedano's  command 
made  ready  to  proceed  to  Lima.     See  Peru. 

Acquisition  of  Territory 

As  the  fruits  of  her  victory,  Chile  took  from  Bolivia  the  dis- 
tricts of  Cobija  and  Atacama;  from  Peru  the  coast  line  north  of 
the  Bolivian  possessions  to,  and  including,  conditionally,  the 
province  of  Tacna.  Thus  Chile's  territory  on  the  Pacific  was 
extended  northward  from  the  old  boundary,  at  lat.  24°  S.  One 
of  the  allies  was  cut  off  from  communication  with  the  outside 
world  by  way  of  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  ,a  strategic  frontier  was 
established  against  the  other  ally.  A  truce;  instead  of  a  treaty, 
was  concluded  between  Bolivia  and  Chile  after  the  war,  the  senti- 
ment of  the  Bolivians  being  utterly  averse  to  any  permanent 
arrangement  which  did  not  give  them  access  to  the  sea.  Renewal 
of  negotiations  for  a  definite  treaty,  which  should  include  the  con- 
cession of  a  seaport,  was  repeatedly  urged  by  Bolivia,  but  without 
effect. 

Treaty  of  Ancon 

Peru,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Ancon  (1883),  surrendered 
to  Chile  absolutely  the  valuable  nitrate  district  of  Tarapaca,  but 
with  respect  to  the  Tacna-Arica  region  a  peculiar  convention  was 
made.  It  was  agreed  that  Tacna-Arica  should  be  governed  by 
Chile  for  a  period  of  10  years,  and  that  at  the  end  of  the  decade 
the  vote  of  the  inhabitants  should  decide  whether  it  would  be  bet- 
ter for  the  province  to  revert  to  Peru  or  to  be  administered  by 
Chile  in  the  future  —  the  country  thus  rejected  by  popular  vote 
receiving  from  the  other  country  $10,000,000  silver  by  way  of 
compensation.  Over  32  years  have  passed,  and  the  Peruvian 
government  has  repeatedly  urged  fulfilment  of  the  treaty,  but  the 


304  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

plebiscite  has  not  yet  been  held.  The  regions  that  changed  hands 
then,  now  form  the  northernmost  zone  of  Chile,  which  we  men- 
tioned above.  (See  Topography  and  Climate.)  The  Bolivian 
frontier  was  settled  by  the  treaty  of  October  1904. 

Balmaceda 

Some  of  the  amendments  to  the  constitution  which  we  have 
referred  to  above  were  adopted  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Peru  and  Bolivia ;  they  embodied  the  liberal  ideas  which,  in 
1874,  triumphed  over  the  conservation  of  the  proprietors  of  large 
estates  —  a  class  practically  dominating  the  government's  policy 
up  to  that  time.  The  most  forceful  of  the  liberal  leaders  who 
effected  this  important  political  change  was  Balmaceda,  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1868,  minister  to  the  Argentine  Republic  at  the 
time  of  the  war  with  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and,  in  1885,  elected  to  the 
presidency  of  the  republic.  The  conspicuous  success  of  President 
•Balmaceda  in  his  advocacy  of  measures  relating  to  internal 
improvements,  a  system  of  popular  education,  the  separation  of 
Church  and  state,  etc.,  created  bitter  antagonisms.  United  in 
opposition  to  him  were  all  those  who  disapproved  of  his  vigorous 
liberalism  on  principle,  and  all  who  were  jealous  of  his  power  as 
an  individual.  In  1888  his  cabinet  was  overthrown ;  his  unyielding 
attitude  in  this  crisis  provoked  an  armed  revolt;  and  the  country 
was  plunged  into  civil  war,  the  operations  of  the  forces  of  the 
revolutionists  being  directed  by  a  junta  representing  Congress, 
and  the  president  somewhat  too  readily  assuming  the  powers  of  a 
dictator  for  the  defense  of  his  position.  Balmaceda  was  defeated, 
and  died  by  his  own  hand  on  19  Dec.  1891. 

The  effect  of  this  civil  war  upon  Chile's  foreign  credit  was 
deplorable.  With  characteristic  enterprise  her  people  have 
developed  the  resources  of  the  country  in  many  new  directions,  yet 
the  utmost  wisdom  and  firmness  in  the  administration  of  her  gov- 
ernment have  been  required  to  bring  about  even  such  conditions  of 
the  national  finances  as  we  shall  presently  record.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  the  country  was  fortunate  in  escaping  a  serious  foreign  war. 

The  Baltimore  Incident 

The  opinion  prevailed  in  Chile  when  this  conflict  was  at  its 
height  that  the  United  States  government,  through  Minister  Pat- 
rick Egan,  was  showing  favor  to  the  cause  of  Balmaceda,  and 
discriminating  against  the  congressional  party.  The  fierce  resent- 
ment felt  by  the  latter  expressed  itself  in  an  attack  upon  sailors 


CHILE  305 

of  the  United  States  cruiser  Baltimore,  who  became  involved, 
while  on  shore,  in  a  brawl  with  Chilean  sailors.  There  was  a  riot 
of  the  populace  in  the  streets,  and  several  of  the  Baltimore 's  men 
were  seriously  or  mortally  wounded.  When  a  report  of  this  indig- 
nity reached  Washington,  suitable  representations  were  made  by 
the  authorities  there,  but  unfortunately  it  was  necessary  to  address 
such  representations  to  a  merely  provisional  government  at 
Santiago.  The  latter  not  only  refused  the  demand  for  satisfac- 
tion, but  also  insisted  in  discourteous  terms  that  the  men  who  had 
been  assaulted  should  be  handed  over  to  Chile  for  trial  as  crimi- 
nals. An  improvement  in  this  threatening  situation  occurred  when 
the  management  of  Chilean  affairs  was  entrusted  to  President 
Montt,  and  when  the  demand  of  the  United  States  was  emphasized 
by  the  sending  of  two  additional  warships  to  Chile.  The  new 
president  tendered  apologies  for  the  discourtesy  of  the  provisional 
government,  as  well  as  for  the  attack  upon  men  wearing  the  uni- 
form of  the  United  States;  and  compensation  was  made  to  the 
wounded  sailors,  or  to  the  families  of  those  who  had  died. 

The  Argentine-Chile  Boundary  Line 

Chile  and  Argentina  had  agreed  that  their  common  boundary 
should  be  a  line  running  along  the  crest  of  the  Andes,  w^hich  was 
supposed  to  be  the  watershed  throughout, —  which  is  not  the  fact. 
Discovery  of  their  error  occasioned  disputes  at  first,  and  finally 
a  resort  to  arbitration.  By  mediation  of  the  ambassador  of  the 
United  States,  an  agreement  was  reached  as  to  the  northern  dis- 
tricts; the  more  intricate  southern  portion  was  surveyed  by  a 
boundary  commission  under  Sir  T.  W.  Holdich ;  and  King  Edward 
of  England,  as  arbitrator,  issued  the  award  in  1902. 

Arbitration  and  Limitation  of  Naval  Armaments 

On  28  May  1902,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Chile  and  the  Argentine 
Republic  concluded  two  important  agreements,  the  first  of  which 
provides  for  the  arbitration  of  all  questions  not  affecting  constitu- 
tional precepts,  or  that  cannot  be  settled  by  direct  negotiations. 
It  is  entitled  a  *'  General  Treaty  of  Arbitration,"  and  the  desire 
is  expressed  in  its  introductory  clause  *'  to  settle  by  friendly 
methods  whatever  questions  may  arise  between  the  two  countries. ' ' 
The  second  agreement  is  entitled  a  '*  Convention  on  Naval  Arma- 
ments," which  has  ''  the  object  of  removing  all  causes  of  anxiety 
and  suspicion. ' '    The  two  governments  ' '  renounce  the  acquisition 

21 


306  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  war  vessels  they  have  in  construction  and  the  making  for 
the  present  of  any  new  acquisitions  ";  agreeing,  moreover,  to 
reduce  their  respective  fleets  until  they  arrive  at  "  a  prudent 
equilibrium. ' ' 

During  the  Last  Decade 

A  violent  earthquake  occurred  on  16  Aug.  1906,  Valparaiso 
suffering  greatly.  Diplomatic  relations  with  Peru  were  severed 
in  1909.  On  10  July  1911  King  George  of  England  rendered  his 
award  in  the  long-standing  Alsop  claim,  assigning  $935,000  to  the 
Alsop  firm.  The  original  amount  of  the  claim  was  $3,000,000  with 
interest.  Chile  paid  the  amount  13  November  through  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  In  1913  the  railway  from  Arica  on  the 
coast  of  Chile  to  the  Bolivian  plateau  was  completed.  The  control 
of  this  railway  is  to  be  retained  by  Chile  for  15  years,  that  is,  until 
1928.  In  1915  the  Republic  of  Chile  was  feeling  very  keenly 
the  effects  of  the  great  war:  the  suspension  of  her  credit  in 
Europe,  loss  of  her  export  market,  and  the  obligation  to  secure 
her  imports  from  new  sources.  The  American  Year  Book,  New 
York  1916,  says  in  regard  to  the  destruction  of  the  German 
cruiser  Dresden  by  a  British  fleet  in  the  territorial  waters  of  the 
Juan  Fernandez  Islands :  "  Chile  protested  to  Great  Britain  and 
received  an  apology,  stating  that  the  Dresden  had  not  accepted 
internment  and  that  it  was  destroyed  to  protect  shipping.  This 
apology  was  accepted  by  Chile.  Germany  sent  an  energetic  pro- 
test to  Chile,  denying  the  allegations  of  the  British  note  and 
demanding  satisfaction.  This  protest  was  returned  by  Chile."  On 
25  May  1915  Seiior  Alejandro  Lira  signed  the  A.  B.  C.  peace  treaty 
at  Buenos  Aires.  President  Juan  Luis  Sanfuentes,  representing 
the  Liberal  Democrats  or  new  Balmacedists  (see  above)  took  office 
23  Dec.  1915. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  Constitution  of  25  May  1833  is  still  in  force,  though 
repeatedly  amended.  That  fundamental  law  established  for  Chile  a 
form  of  government,  with  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial 
branches,  which  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  genuinely  republican ; 
but  the  oligarchical  tendencies  are  much  stronger  than  those 
observed  in  any  other  South  American  country.  (See  Latin 
America  —  Governments,  p.  14.) 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  national  Congress, 
which  is  composed  of  two  chambers:    (1)  The  chamber  of  sena- 


CHILE  307 

tors,  with  members  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years  by  direct  vote 
and  by  provinces,  in  the  proportion  of  one  senator  to  each  three 
deputies;  (2)  the  chamber  of  deputies,  with  members  elected  for 
a  term  of  three  years.  To  represent  Congress  in  the  period  of  its 
recess,  there  is  a  Permanent  Committee  of  14  members,  one-half 
chosen  by  each  chamber. 

The  President  of  the  Republic  holds  office  for  five  years,  and 
he  cannot  be  re-elected  for  the  next  consecutive  period.  A  Council 
of  State,  composed  of  11  members,  some  of  whom  are  appointed 
by  the  President,  and  others  by  the  chambers,  has  the  power  to 
intervene  in  certain  appointments,  and  its  consent  is  necessary 
for  the  promulgation  of  the  laws,  the  granting  of  pardons,  and 
some  other  matters.  This  council  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
cabinet,  in  which  are  but  six  ministers  or  secretaries,  to  wit :  The 
minister  of  the  interior;  of  foreign  affairs;  of  justice  and  public 
instruction;  of  war  and  the  navy;  of  the  treasury;  of  industries 
and  public  works. 

The  judicial  branch  of  the  government  comprises:  The 
supreme  court  of  justice,  located  at  Santiago,  and  composed  of 
seven  members,  with  authority  over  all  other  tribunals  of  the 
republic;  the  court  of  appeals,  for  the  great  districts  of  Tacna, 
Serena,  Valparaiso,  Santiago,  Talca,  and  Concepcion ;  one  or  more 
justices  of  the  peace  in  each  department  of  the  republic;  and 
sub-delegation  or  minor  district  judges.  Juries  exist  only  for 
suits  involving  the  question  of  abuse  of  the  freedom  of  the  press. 

Senators  must  be  not  less  than  36  years  of  age,  and  must 
have  a  fixed  income.  Deputies  also  must  be  not  less  than  36  years 
of  age;  and,  like  the  senators,  they  must  be  possessed  of  a  fixed 
income,  and,  also  like  senators,  serve  without  salary.  Everj'- 
married  male  Chilean  of  21,  or  unmarried  man  of  25,  not  civilly 
disqualified  by  judicial  act,  is  an  elector.  It  is  provided,  however, 
that  he  must  be  able  to  read  and  write,  and  must  have  a  certain 
amount  of  property.  The  literacy  test  disfranchises  more  than 
one-half  —  perhaps  even  seven-tenths  —  of  the  possible  electorate. 
Of  course  this  makes  the  members  of  the  Congress  the  choice  of  ■ 
a  few  electors ;  moreover  candidacy  is  strictly  limited  by  the  pro- 
vision that  senators  must  have  a  fixed  income  of  not  less  than 
$2,000,  and  deputies  of  not  less  than  $500  per  annum. 

The  President,  who  must  be  a  native  Chilean  of  not  less  than 
30  years  of  age,  is  Chief  of  the  Executive  branch.    He  is  elected* 
by  representatives  who,  are   themselves,  by  direct  vote   of  the 
whole  electorate,  sent  to  a  special  congress  for  the  purpose.    The 
President  is  forbidden  to  leave  the  country  either  during  his  term 


308  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  office  or  in  the  following  year  without  sanction  of  Congress. 
His  salary  is  $15,000  per  annum.  He  is  assisted,  or  hampered, 
by  a  Council  of  State  of  11  members,  five  of  whom  he  appoints, 
while  six  are  appointed  by  the  senate.  With  the  sanction  of  the 
Council  of  State,  the  President  may  convene  extraordinary  ses- 
sions. In  the  event  of  the  President's  death  or  abdication,  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior  becomes  Vice-President  and  Chief  of  the 
Executive  branch.  The  President  is,  ex-officio.  Chief  of  the  army. 
The  Executive  is  represented  in  each  department  by  a  public 
prosecutor,  who  initiates  civil  and  criminal  prosecutions,  and  is 
an  officer  dependent  on  the  Ministries  of  Justice  and  of  the 
Interior.  Limitations  of  the  presidential  influence  and  its  sub- 
ordination to  the  legislative  power  appear  very  clearly  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  cabinet  must  resign  if  it  encounters  an 
adverse  vote  in  Congress.  As  Professor  Ross  (see  Bibliography) 
has  expressed  it,  the  cabinet  of  the  Chilean  President  "  does  not 
have  even  the  privilege  the  British  cabinet  has  of  dissolving 
Parliament  and  ordering  a  new  election.  Balmaceda  tried,  against 
the  will  of  the  congressional  oligarchy,  to  obtain  a  revision  of  the 
Constitution  which  would  give  the  President  something  like  the 
place  he  has  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States."  Reference 
to  Balmaceda  and  the  Balmacedist  or  new  Balmacedist  party  is 
made  above,  in  History. 


AGRICULTURAL  AND  PASTORAL  INDUSTRIES 

The  extent  of  lands  capable  of  being  utilized  for  agriculture 
is,  according  to  respectable  estimates,  somewhat  more  than  146,000 
square  miles ;  but  one-half  of  this  is  covered  by  forests  and  woods, 
a  little  more  than  one-eighth  is  properly  pasture-land,  and  one- 
tenth  irrigated  areas  or  those  which  can  readily  enough  be  made 
productive  by  irrigation.  About  one-fourth  (or,  say,  one-eighth 
of  the  total  area  of  Chile)  may  be  classed  among  plains  not 
requiring  irrigation,  though  the  special  utility  for  this  purpose 
of  the  annual  floods  we  have  mentioned  above  (see  Topography) 
has  been  well  understood,  and  the  soil  has  been  built  up  by  silt 
brought  down  in  the  flooding  mountain  streams.  The  main  crops 
are  wheat,  maize,  barley,  potatoes,  rye,  oats,  and  forage  plants. 
In  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  north  —  in  Tacna,  Tarapaca,  Ata- 
cama,  and  Coquimbo  —  maize  gives  two  crops  annually.  Other 
products  are:    grapes,  many  of  the  subtropical  fruits,  tobacco, 


CHILE  309 

sugar-beets,  honey,  and  hemp.  ''  Vineyards  are  planted,"  says 
Mr.  Mills,  "  from  the  northern  extremity  to  Llanquihue.  Of 
course,  in  the  north,  from  Tacna  to  Aconcagua,  it  is  the  slopes  of 
the  irrigated  valleys  that  are  clothed  with  the  luxuriant  green 
of  the  vines."  And  in  these  irrigated  valleys,  from  Atacama  to 
Chile's  northern  boundary,  there  are  generous  crops  of  figs,  pom- 
egranates, and  olives.  Some  of  the  Chilean  tropical  fruits  are 
exceptionally  fine.  There  is  an  immense  grazing  area  in  Magal- 
lanes  Territory,  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan ;  and  sheep  and  cattle 
thrive  in  that  part  of  the  country.  The  horses  bred  in  the  central 
zones  are  short-bodied  but  powerful  animals.  Many  conditions 
favoring  agricultural  development  are  certainly  present ;  but  other 
conditions  as  certainly  are  very  unfavorable.  Nearly  all  the  agri- 
cultural land  of  the  Central  or  Longitudinal  Valley  —  especially 
from  Cautin  up  to  Aconcagua,  though  we  may  as  well  add  the  prm^- 
inces  of  Valdivia  and  Llanquihue  on  the  south  and  Coquimbo  on 
the  north  —  is  in  the  hands  of  wealthy  families  of  Spanish  de- 
scent or  others  who  have  been,  as  Mr.  Mills  puts  it,  ''  absorbed 
into  the  local  oligarchy."  He  says  quite  truly  that  *'  although 
the  law  provides  that  land  shall  be  divided  up  into  equal  shares 
among  all  children,  a  kind  of  patriarchal  system  prevails;  and 
although  a  mansion  or  hacienda  may  shelter  a  group  of  families, 
the  agricultural  estates  themselves  are  not  split  up.  Consequently 
in  these  central  provinces  large  estates  are  the  rule."  There  is 
little  modern  enterprise ;  antiquated  agricultural  methods  are  still 
favored;  leisurely  and  wasteful  ways  persist.  **  But  it  must  be 
confessed  that  life  on  the  haciendas  is  often  very  pleasant.  Many 
of  the  houses  are  large,  well  built,  delightfully  equipped,  and 
money  is  plentiful."  In  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  north  also 
much  of  the  land  is  held  by  the  ruling  classes.  It  is  true  that  there 
remain  districts  not  yet  absorbed  by  the  land  barons,  but  the 
"  chief  "  drawbacks  of  these  are  isolation  and  lack  of  transport 
facilities  as  well  as  of  labor. 

In  1913-14  the  principal  crops,  with  their  acreage  and  produc- 
tion were  as  follows:  Wheat,  1,018,382  acres,  8,787,852  cwts.; 
barley,  152,625  acres,  2,386,157  cwts.;  oats,  121,615  acres,  1,267,815 
cwts.;  maize,  58,609  acres,  752,791  cwts.;  beans,  76,188  acres,  737,- 
626  cwts. ;  potatoes,  81,299  acres,  197,338  tons;  vines,  162,902  acres, 
45,981,056  gallons  of  wine.  On  31  Dec.  1913  the  live  stock  of  Chile 
comprised  457,845  horses,  38,193  mules,  1,968,620  oxen,  4,602,317 
sheep,  and  221,384  pigs.  Dairy  farms  and  the  production  of  butter 
and  cheese  are  on  the  increase.  In  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del 
Fuego  large  tracts  of  country  are  devoted  to  sheep-farming. 


310  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


LABOR 

A  system  of  management  which  is  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the 
conditions  described  in  the  second  part  of  the  foregoing  para- 
graph prevails  on  the  large  estates;  and  that  is  equivalent  to 
saying,  as  we  have  shown,  throughout  all  the  best  agricultural  dis- 
tricts. A  landed  proprietor  allows  any  farm  laborer  to  take  up 
as  much  land  as  the  latter  can  till  with  the  assistance  of  his  family. 
The  laborer  pays  no  rent,  and  the  produce  of  the  land  is  his  own; 
but  he  has  to  sell  his  services  to  the  landlord,  whenever  need  for 
them  arises,  at  less  than  one-half  of  the  prevailing  local  rate. 
Thus  a  permanent  supply  of  labor  is  secured  by  the  landlord,  and 
occasional  employment  by  the  laborer,  or  inquilino,  as  he  is  called 
(Lat.  inquilinus,  Sp.  inquilino,  tenant;  compare  peon,  day-laborer). 
Now,  these  inquilinos,  although  securing  the  use  of  land  on 
terms  that  appear  to  be  easy,  have  to  learn  by  bitter  experience 
(their  only  way  of  learning  anything)  that  they  are  obliged  to 
work  for  the  landlords  at  the  very  time  their  own  little  farms 
need  attention.  The  evils  of  the  system  are  felt  by  both  landlord 
and  tenant;  since  the  inquilinos,  whose  own  farms  are  perforce 
under-cultivated  by  women  and  children  naturally  render  apa- 
thetic and  inefficient  service  on  the  big  estates.  Contributory  to 
the  maintenance  of  such  economically  unsound  arrangements  is 
the  character  of  the  peasantry.  There  is  a  strong  element  of 
Indian  blood  (Araucanian,  etc.)  in  the  Chilean  laboring  classes 
generally;  and  it  has  been  observed  that,  although  hardy  and 
fairly  hard-working,  when  well  directed,  they  cannot  easily  be 
transferred  from  one  place  or  occupation  to  another;  they  lack 
enterprise  but  have  patience  when  sober  and  uncommon  powers 
of  endurance  at  all  times.  Professor  Ross  (see  Bihliography) 
asserts  that  the  dominant  class  of  landed  proprietors  in  Chile 
was,  as  a  whole  —  though  unquestionably  such  a  generalization 
must  admit  of  many  favorable  exceptions  —  not  averse  to  the 
perpetuation  of  the  regime  of  paper  money,  under  which  the  peso 
fell  far  below  its  former  value;  and  the  impression  Professor 
Ross  received  was  that,  so  far  as  this  disposition  existed,  it  was 
attributed  to  the  circumstances  that  when  the  peso  depreciated 
farm  wages  did  not  rise  in  equal  or  corresponding  degree,  and 
that  therefore  the  cost  of  labor  to  the  hacendado  or  landlord  was 
reduced  by  a  substantial  amount.  But  when  we  consider  labor 
conditions  in  the  cities  and  factories,  or  as  they  affect  employees 
on    the    railways,    we    find    Chilean    laboring    men    who    are 


CHILE  311 

beginning  to  have  clear  ideas  in  regard  to  abuse  of  privilege. 
A  general  strike  occurred  in  1913;  a  labor  deputation  visited 
the  President  of  the  Republic;  and  the  demands  of  the  strikers 
included  the  redemption  at  par  of  the  paper  currency  —  the  legal 
tender  currency  being  worth  only  201/0  cents  at  the  time.  Other 
demands  were:  recognition  of  employers'  liability  for  accidents, 
establishment  of  an  eight-hour  working  day,  etc.  The  Chilean 
Government  has  recently  adopted  measures  of  consideration  for 
mothers  working  in  factories.  A  special  room  is  provided  in 
factories  where  mothers  msLV  keep  their  children  under  one  year 
of  age,  and  mothers  may  spend  one  hour  of  the  working-day 
in  caring  for  their  children  without  any  loss  in  wage. 


MINERAL   RESOURCES  AND  MINING 

The  deposits  of  nitrate  of  soda,  or  Chilean  saltpetre  [salitre), 
are  in  Tacna,  Tarapaca,  Antofagasta,  and  Atacama,  and  their 
preservation  is  due  to  the  rainlessness  of  those  northern  prov- 
inces. Measured  from  north  to  south,  the  deposits  extend  about 
300  miles.  Less  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  area  of  the  salitreras 
has  as  yet  been  thoroughly  investigated;  but  surveys  of  2,242 
square  miles  in  that  region  which  was  once  the  bed  of  an  inland 
sea  was  followed  bj'  the  publication  of  the  statement  that  244,000,- 
000  tons  remained  as  a  supply  for  the  future.  The  annual  expor- 
tation of  salitre  exceeds  2,000,000  tons;  in  value  this  amounts  to 
five-sixths  of  the  value  of  the  entire  export  trade.  But  the  value 
of  the  exports  of  nitrate  in  1915  was  only  $77,981,158,  as  compared 
with  $111,454,397  in  1913.  The  development  was  "  below  normal  " 
for  reasons  stated  under  Banking  and  Finance.  (See  also  Com- 
merce—  concluding  paragraphs.)  The  revenue  from  the  export 
tax  on  nitrates  and  iodine  (really  a  by-product  of  the  extraction  of 
nitrate  from  the  raw  ore)  is  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  entire  pub- 
lic revenue  ($30,000,000  out  of  less  than  $75,000,000). 

Next  in  importance  are  copper  ores,  which  abound  both  in 
the  ancient  cordillera  of  the  coast  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Andes  in  the  central  and  northern  zones.  We  read  in  the  Memoran- 
dum hy  Chile,  p.  563  of  the  interesting  reports  of  Proceedings  of 
the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Congress,  held  at  Washington 
in  May  1915,  that  ''  the  copper  output  of  Chile  is  increasing, 
owing  to  the  development  of  large  copper  properties  in  which 
North  American  capital  is  invested."    Chiefly  as  a  result  of  such 


312  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

development,  general  copper  exports  advanced  from  $10,337,351  in 

1913  to  $15,143,802  in  1915.  Iron  mines  in  the  Coquimbo  district 
are  also  being  developed  by  American  capitalists.  Large  quan- 
tities of  gold  were  obtained  during  the  first  century  of  the  Spanish 
conquest  by  the  use  of  unpaid  native  labor.  In  the  18th  century 
the  output  of  silver  was  large  enough  to  be,  perhaps,  misleading. 
Chile  is  much  less  a  land  of  precious  metals  or  precious  stones 
than  the  equatorial  lands  of  South  America;  but,  in  addition  to 
copper  and  iron,  Chile  has  coal.  ''  Coal  is  found,"  says  the 
memorandum  cited  above,  "  in  various  sections  of  the  country, 
but  the  principal  mining  centre  is  the  coastal  region  south  of  the 
river  Bio-bio,  as  far  as  the  port  of  Lebu.  Deposits  have  been 
found  still  farther  south."  The  coal  fields  of  the  Province  of 
Arauco,  it  is  estimated,  *'  contain  over  1,800,000,000  tons.  The 
coal  mining  companies  have  invested  in  this  industry  over 
$7,500,000  and  now  produce  over  1,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  year." 
The  product  of  these  mines  is  from  10  to  20  per  cent  below  the 
standard  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  It  is  used  in  the 
factories  at  Lota  and  Coronel;  on  Chilean  steamers,  railways,  etc. 
The  most  interesting  development  of  coal  mining  in  South  America 
is  at  Lota  and  adjoining  regions  in  the  Province  of  Concepcion. 
Next,  we  consider  the  southern  part  of  Chile ;  and  it  is  a  pleasure 
to  find  in  that  part  of  the  world  a  region  for  which  the  claim  is 
not  advanced  that  it  excels  all  others  in  mineral  wealth.  The 
Territory  of  Magellan  has  no  mineral  resources  that  can  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  provinces  of  the  north  and  centre  of  the 
republic.  Exploitation  of  minerals  is  effective  at  only  two  points : 
we  refer,  first,  to  the  veins  of  coal  (more  strictly  speaking, 
lignite),  not  of  the  best  quality,  which  for  a  number  of  years  have 
been  mined  at  the  Loreto,  near  Punta  Arenas,  and,  second,  to  the 
copper  ores  obtained  at  Cutter  Cove  on  the  Peninsula  of  Bruns- 
wick. There  remain  to  be  mentioned,  so  far  as  our  knowledge 
extends  at  the  present  time,  only  the  washings  of  auriferous  soils 
at  some  points  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Minas  River ;  bitumen 
or  asphaltum  (of  which  there  are  indications) ;  petroleum  (doubt- 
ful) ;  and  calcareous  and  other  salts.  A  very  modest  list;  and  we 
desire  to  emphasize  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  exact  informa- 
tion when  mining  enterprise  is  still  in  the  initial  period  —  the 
period  of  study  and  preparation. 

The  number  of  w^ork-people  employed  in  mineral  workings  in 

1914  was  71,106,  of  whom  43,979  were  engaged  in  nitrate  of  soda 
workings,  8,105  at  coal  mines,  and  11,142  at  copper  mines. 


CHILE  313 

MANUFACTURES 

The  more  important  of  the  industries  of  Chile,  after  the 
chemical  and  metallurgical,  are  those  concerned  with  the  manu- 
facture or  preparation  of  food  substances,  beverages,  textiles, 
clothing,  leather,  woodworking  (including  furniture  and  carriage 
building)  and  pottery.  In  1914  there  were  over  6,200  factories, 
employing  about  80,000  operatives,  of  whom  20,000  were  women 
and  nearlv  7,000  children. 


TARIFFS 


Imports,  being  subject  to  specific  duty  or  charges  by  weight 
(instead  of  ad  valorem  duty,  as  in  the  United  States),  may  be 
dutiable  on  net  weight,  gross  weight,  weight  including  packing,  or 
weight  including  containers.  No  brief  statement  can  summarize 
the  various  regulations  prescribing  the  imposts  on  all  classes  of 
goods  except  those  which,  from  motives  of  public  policy,  are 
admitted  duty-free ;  but  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  application 
of  a  specific  tariff  results  in  the  payment  of  identical  duties  on 
articles  having  the  same  name  and  general  description,  even 
though  there  may  be  a  wide  range  of  quality.  To  make  this  quite 
clear  and  to  emphasize  the  difference  between  the  Chilean  practice 
in  this  respect  and  the  practice  in  the  United  States,  a  concrete 
instance  may  be  cited,  as  follows :  Suppose  two  different  articles, 
one  worth  $1,000  and  the  other  $2,000,  were  imported  into  the 
United  States.  The  duty,  if  calculated  on  an  ad  valorem  basis  of 
40  per  cent,  would  be  respectively  $400  for  the  first  and  $800  for 
the  second.  But  if  these  articles  should  be  imported  into  Chile, 
the  duty  would  be  assessed  regardless  of  the  difference  in  quality. 
The  definite  effect  is,  obviously,  to  encourage  the  importation  of 
costly  articles.  (Consult  Filsinger,  E.  B.,  Exporting  to  Latin 
America,  New  York  and  London  1916.) 


COMMERCE 


In  1915  the  value  of  Chile 's  imports  from  the  United  States  was 
$17,800,611 ;  in  1914,  $13,627,618 ;  and  in  1913,  $16,616,618.  (Com- 
pare The  Americas,  March  1916. )  In  the  last  normal  year  before  the 
war  in  Europe,  1913,  the  figures  for  Chile's  foreign  commerce 
Avere:  Imports,  $120,274,001,  exports,  $144,653,312;  Great  Britain 
leading  in  both  exports  and  imports,  followed  by  Germany,  the 
United    States,    and    France.     Chile's    principal    exports    were: 


314  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Nitrate  of  soda,  2,666,000  tons  (metric  tons  of  2,204.6  lbs.  in  this 
item  and  each  of  the  following) ;  copper  concentrates,  69,106  tons; 
oats,  53,515  tons;  wheat,  52,291  tons;  borate  of  lime,  42,011  tons; 
copper,  37,712  tons ;  bran,  14,855  tons ;  iron  ore,  14,100  tons ;  wool, 
12,786  tons;  beans,  10,840  tons;  hides,  5,881  tons;  wheat  flour, 
5,612  tons ;  whale  oil,  3,109  tons ;  iodine,  437  tons.  The  12  leading 
Chilean  ports,  whose  rating  is  based  upon  the  value  of  their 
imports,  are,  in  the  order  of  such  rating :  Valparaiso,  Talcahuano, 
Antofagasta,  Iquique,  Resguardos,  Valdivia,  Punta  Arenas,  Tal- 
tal,  Coronel,  Tocopilla,  Coquimbo,  and  Correos.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  twelve  leading  in  exports  take  rank  as  follows :  Iquique, 
Antofagasta,  Mejillones,  Tocopilla,  Taltal,  Caleta  Buena,  Val- 
paraiso, Coloso,  Punta  Arenas,  Pisagua,  Junin,  and  Talcahuano. 
The  imports  during  1914,  as  classified  by  the  Central  Statistical 
Office  of  Chile,  were,  with  values  in  U.  S.  gold:  Oils,  varnishes, 
paints,  and  coal,  $18,478,181;  textiles,  $17,838,117;  mineral 
products,  $15,972,919;  vegetable  products,  $14,161,999;  machinery, 
instruments,  tools,  and  apparatus,  $11,192,688;  arms,  ammunition, 
and  explosives,  $8,639,150;  animal  products,  $5,755,723;  per- 
fumery, pharmaceutical  and  chemical  articles,  $2,555,533;  paper 
and  cardboard  and  manufactures  thereof,  $2,467,004;  beverages, 
$1,497,261 ;  miscellaneous,  $1,269,609.  The  effect  of  the  European 
War  upon  Chilean  commerce  is  described  in  the  following 
paragraphs : 

*'  The  United  States  in  1915,  for  the  first  time,  ranked  first 
both  in  exports  from  and  imports  into  Chile,  receiving  more  than 
42  per  cent  of  Chilean  exports  and  selling  to  Chile  more  than 
33  per  cent  of  the  goods  imported.  Before  the  European  War, 
the  order  of  importance  of  countries  in  trade  with  Chile,  both 
export  and  import,  was  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the 
LFnited  States.  But  while  the  exports  from  Chile  to  the  United 
States  were  $18,765,000  greater,  the  imports  from  the  United 
States  were  $1,510,121  less  in  1915  than  in  1914.  In  other  words, 
the  increase  in  exports  to  the  United  States  was  greater  than  the 
total  amount  of  imports  from  this  source."  (Supplement  to  Com- 
merce Reports,  Annual  Series,  No.  41b,  10  Nov.  1916.)  In  fact, 
the  total  imports  from  all  countries  showed  a  decrease  of 
$42,538,977,  while  the  total  value  of  exports  to  all  countries 
showed  an  increase  of  $10,179,052  in  1915  over  1914. 

Imports  and  Exports  by  Countries 

The  statistical  tables  herewith  show  a  general  disorganiza- 
tion of  both  import  and  export  trade  due  to  the  war. 


CHILE 


315 


The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  imports  and  exports  of 
Chile  in  1915,  by  countries  of  origin  and  destination,  respectively: 


Countries 

Argentina 

Australia 

Brazil 

Egypt 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Japan 

India 

Peru 

Russia 

United  Kingdom 

United  States 

Other  countries 

Total 


Imports  from  Exports  t  o 

in  1915  in  1915 

«2, 456, 681  $3,509,47 

1,203,806  1,971,56» 

1,180,948      

2,388,234 

1,700,383  3,554,091 

3,583,589      

1,732,891      

1,779,629 

2,768,640      

4,762,542      

1,827,425 

13,288,603  40,582,411 

18,638,455  50,199,243 

4,605,680  11,794,288 

$55,922,218  $117,606,364 


Principal  Imports  and  Exports,  by  Articles 

The  principal  articles  imported  into  and  exported  from  Chile 
in  1915  are  listed,  with  their  value,  in  the  following  statement : 


IMPOBT8 

Articles  1915 

Agricultural  machinery $115,296 

Belting  for  machinery _ 163,761 

Cars,    carriages,    other    vehicles,    and 
parts  of: 

Automobiles 306,465 

Cars,  railway,  freight,  and  passenger. .  69,369 

Car  wheels,  railway 78, 132 

Breadstuff  9 : 

Flour,  wheat 2,965,390 

Rice 1,106,187 

Wheat 407,077 

Cement 574,739 

Coal 3,002,614 

Coke 366, 102 

Coffee 1 ,  102, 800 

Cotton,  and  manufactures  of: 

Cloth,  white 901 ,208 

Drill 218,600 

Knit  goods 211,913 

Linings  and  dresses 891 ,  700 

Sacking 324,844 

Thread. 210,386 

Yarn , 868,856 

!lectric  light  equipment: 

Bulbs. 166,790 

Machinery  and  supplies 80,605 

Wire 101,443 

rixplosives:  Dynamite 477,838 

Fibres,  and  manufactures  of:  Jute  sacks.  2, 271 ,  125 
Gla.ss,  and  manufactures  of: 

Glass 65,108 

Glassware 49,384 

Hats,  wool  felt 149,025 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of: 

Bars 294,316 

Beams 203,269 

Firearms 486,874 

Machinery  — 

Electrical  machinery  and  supplies .  333 ,  198 

Industrial  machinery  and  supplies  .  337,814 

Locomotives 245 ,  908 

Mining  machinery 326,510 

Motors,  industrial 227,058 

Sewing  machines 55,544 

Parts  of  machinery 1 ,  203 ,  118 

Sheets  — 

Galvanized,  corrugated 317,462 

Plain 83,060 

Tools 49,173 

Wire 205,069 

Meat  and  dairy  products: 

Lard 182,970 

Leather  and  leather  goods: 

Leather 294,523 

Boots  and  shoes 127,902 


IMPORTS 

Articles  1915 
Oils: 

Edible 5891,658 

Linseed 81,364 

Kerosene,     benzine,     naphtha,     and 

gasoline 633,288 

Petroleum,  crude 3, 712, 768 

Paints,  mixed 129,849 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of: 

Books,  printed 142,452 

Paper  — 

Print 868,845 

Writing 88,173 

Silk  manufactures: 

Cloth , 217,812 

Clothing,  women's  and  girls' 63 ,  169 

Spirits,  wines,  etc.:  Whisky 170,897 

Sugar,  granulated 2,412,411 

Tea    749,3.38 

Tobacco,  leaf  and  cut 129,377 

Waxes:   Paraffin 612,872 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of: 

Unmanufactured:  Pine,  rough 360,731 

Manufactured:  Furniture 69,549 

Wool,  and  manufactures  of: 

Cashmere 645,824 

Cloth,  other  than  cashmere 412,842 

Clothing  — 

Men's  and  boys' 94 ,  697 

Women's  and  girls' 62,026 

Yarn 65,206 

Yerba  mate 808,008 


EXPORTS 

Barley 1,677,078 

Beans 604,443 

Beeswax 119,876 

Clover  seed 217,578 

Cooper: 

Bars 7,133,015 

Concentrates 1 ,  867 ,  214 

Ore             1,912,313 

Cowhides 918,026 

Honey 118,970 

Iodine 2,096,993 

Leather,  sole 261 ,  342 

Lumber 232,351 

Nitrate 77,117,063 

Quillay  bark ,  •  •  ■  132,857 

Walnuts 602.773 

Whale  oil 2.54,84 

Wheat 199,779 

Wool                3,631,895 


316  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Commerce  Reports  (issue  dated  29  Jan.  1917)  gives  promi- 
nence to  the  statement  of  a  Chilean  firm  to  the  effect  that  liberal 
selling  terms,  a  knowledge  of  the  requirements  and  financial 
capacities  of  their  customers  obtained  by  means  of  their  selling 
or  banking  agents,  and  a  quick  adaptation  to  customs  and  needs 
of  the  trade  had  given  European  manufacturers  a  chance  to  pene- 
trate thoroughly  the  South  American  markets,  excluding  all  other 
competitors;  but  that  the  present  war  has  changed  this  state  of 
affairs  to  such  an  extent  that  '*  nowadays  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica look  upon  each  other  as  the  natural  sources  for  their  supply 
and  consumption,  a  thing  they  should  have  done  long  before." 
The  difficulties  encountered  by  South  American  firms  desiring  to 
establish  permanent  importing  business-relations  with  North 
American  manufacturers  and  exporters  are  ascribed:  1,  to  lack 
of  cheap  freights  and  regular  and  frequent  steamship  connections ; 
2,  to  unsatisfactory  means  for  consigning  shipping  documents  and 
discount  of  banking  values;  3,  to  long  and  uncertain  deliveries; 
4,  to  the  circumstance  that  ''  goods  forwarded  to  South  America 
have  proved  on  some  occasions  to  be  inferior  to  quality  offered  ' ' ; 
5  and  6,  to  the  further  circumstances  that  American  prices  are 
usually  higher  than  European  and  there  are  no  standing  quota- 
tions ;  7,  to  careless  packing  and  marking,  and  incomplete  details 
on  shipping  documents;  8,  to  a  *'  wrong  idea  ",  prevalent  in  the 
United  States,  that  South  Americans  ''  are  not  '  up  to  busi- 
ness,' "  as  business  is  understood  in  northern  countries.  South 
American  business  routine  does,  indeed,  differ  in  certain  respects 
from  that  of  the  north;  nevertheless  commercial  transactions  can 
be  established  upon  a  perfectly  correct  and  satisfactory  basis. 


CURRENCY 


Although  Chile  is  nominally  on  a  gold  basis,  the  currency  is 
inconvertible  paper.  Hitherto  there  has  been  no  limit  to  the  fluc- 
tuations in  the  exchange  quotations,  because  there  has  been  no 
fixed  unit  of  value  as  a  basis  for  rates.  A  theoretical  unit  does 
indeed  exist,  namely,  the  gold  peso,  representing  0.599103  grammes 
of  gold  .91666  fine,  or,  say,  0.54918  grammes  pure  gold,  of  which 
the  par  value  in  terms  of  currency  of  the  United  States  is  $0,365, 
and  its  equivalent  in  British  currency,  18d.  But  this  law  is  not 
in  operation,  and  the  actual  circulation  is  composed  of  Govern- 
ment notes  which  are  quoted  on  the  market  at  rates  fluctuating 
between  9  and  11  pence  per  peso.    In  1915  the  rates  fluctuated  in 


CHILE  317 

the  neighborhood  of  Ti'od.,  thus  showing  a  depreciation  in  the 
paper  currency  of  about  25  per  cent.  The  action  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  authorizing  its  Conversion  Office  to  issue  notes  against 
gold  at  a  fixed  rate  of  12  pence  per  peso  indicates  the  possibility 
of  the  adoption  of  the  gold  exchange  standard,  in  a  manner  anal- 
ogous to  that  of  Argentina  (q.v.),  Brazil,  Mexico  (in  time  of 
peace),  and  Panama.  The  basis  of  exchange  in  Chile  is  the  90-day 
London  bill,  which  is  quoted  in  terms  of  pence  per  one  paper  peso 
(Consult:  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Con- 
ditions, by  Joseph  T.  Cosby,  New  York  1915,  and  Modern  Foreign 
Exchange,  by  V.  Gonzales,  1914.)  Kates  of  exchange  pre- 
vailing in  Chile  before  the  European  War  contrast  with  those 
prevailing  in  1915,  as  follows :  New  York  —  sight  —  currency  of 
U.  S.—  $1.00  =:  5.06  Peso  paper,  on  7  Feb.  1913,  but  6.64  Peso 
paper  on  23  May  1915 ;  London  —  90  days  — 10  l/32d.=  1.00  Peso 
paper  on  7  Feb.  1913,  but  73/4d.=  tOO  Peso  paper  on  23  May  1915. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

Banks  with  offices  in  Santiago  or  Valparaiso  or  both  are :  Banco 
de  Chile,  Banco  de  Santiago,  Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico,  Banco 
Nacional,  Banco  Comercial  de  Chile,  Banco  Espaiiol,  Banco  de  Chile 
y  Alemania,  The  Anglo-South  American  Bank,  Ltd.,  Edwards  y 
Compania,  Banco  Germanico  de  la  America  del  Sur,  London  and 
River  Plate  Bank,  Deutsche  Sud  Amerikanische  Bank  Akt.  Ges., 
Banco  de  la  Republica,  Banco  Italiano,  Banco  Frances  de  Chile. 
Many  have  established  branches.  Thus  the  Anglo-South  Amer- 
ican, with  headquarters  in  London,  has  branches  not  only  at 
Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  but  also  at  Punta  Arenas,  Chilian, 
Coquimbo,  Copiapo,  Serena,  Iquique,  and  Antofagasta.  In  the 
provinces  we  find,  beside  branches  of  the  foregoing.  The  Banco  de 
,Concepci6n,  Banco  de  Talca,  Banco  de  Curico  and  Banco  Comer- 
cial de  Curico,  and  Banco  de  Punta  Arenas.  The  Banco  de  Chile 
is  regarded  as  the  official  banking  house  of  the  Government, 
though  not  strictly  a  Government  bank.  There  is,  in  fact,  no 
Government  bank  in  Chile.  The  views  of  a  distinguished  writer 
have  been  expressed  recently  in  the  following  terms:  ''  Banking 
business  is  carried  out  on  rather  more  conservative  lines  than  in 
most  Latin  countries,  but  interest  is  allowed  on  current  and  deposit 
accounts,  and  advances  are  made  rather  more  freely  than  is 
the  habit  with  English  joint  stock  banks.  In  the  German,  Italian, 
and  Spanish  banks  we   find   a   certain   amount   of  co-operation 


318  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  home  banks  supporting  the  Chilean  houses,  which  adds 
greatly  to  their  strength  and  influence,  especially  in  financing  big 
commercial  undertakings."  A  Government  institution  known  as 
the  Caja  de  Credito  Hipotecario  lends,  on  lands  and  buildings, 
50  per  cent  of  their  market  value.  A  private  concern  called  the 
Banco  Hipotecario  de  Chile  carries  on  a  similar  business;  and, 
organized  under  the  same  law  (that  of  1857),  we  find  to-daj^  the 
private  institutions:  Banco  Garantizador  de  Valores,  and  Banco 
Hipotecario  de  Valparaiso.  The  function  of  all  four  is,  primarily, 
to  assist  agriculture  by  making  loans  on  real  estate  for  long 
terms.  Savings  banks  in  Chile  are  of  relatively  modern  origin. 
In  the  course  of  20  years  deposits  have  increased  more  than 
20-fold  in  these  "  cajas  de  ahorros  ",  as  they  are  called.  Foreign 
banks,  duly  incorporated,  may  open  branches  in  Chile;  there  is, 
however,  at  present  a  project  of  law  requiring  them  to  invest  or 
maintain  in  Chile  the  capital  they  declare  for  use  in  that  country, 
and  limiting  the  deposits  they  can  receive  in  proportion  to  such 
capital.  There  are  six  foreign  banks  doing  business  in  Chile,  each 
having  many  branches.  A  comparison  of  the  financial  movement 
during  the  year  ending  31  Dec.  1914  with  that  for  the  previous 
year  *'  shows  that  the  European  War  caused  '' —  such  is  the  state- 
ment in  a  memorandum  by  Chile  mentioned  above  —  * '  no  impair- 
ment of  the  integrity  of  the  banking  situation,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  foreign  banks  were  constrained  to  remit  to  their 
home  establishments  the  greater  part  of  the  funds  that  they  had 
in  the  country."  But  it  is  necessary  to  place  beside  that  state- 
ment another  statement  entitled  '*  The  Finances  of  Chile  "  in 
The  Americas  (Vol.  I,  No.  3),  to  the  effect  that  the  nitrate  indus- 
try of  Chile  suffered  perhaps  more  severely  than  any  other 
industry  of  a  neutral  state,  because  approximately  two-thirds  of 
the  nitrate  exports  before  1914  were  taken  by  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary,  and  these,  of  course,  were  cut  off;  that  the 
effect  upon  the  general  business  situation  was  serious,  and  the 
government  was  a  direct  and  heavy  loser  in  its  revenues.  For- 
tunately the  government  had  large  gold  credits  in  Europe.  These 
credits  are  understood  to  have  been  accumulated  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  the  currency  system  on  a  gold  basis ;  but,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  available  for  discharging  other  government  obliga- 
tions, it  seems  probable  that  the  gold  standard  will  be  postponed. 
The  total  funded  public  debt,  as  shown  by  recent  figures, 
amounts  to  $215,280,035,  of  which  $173,644,000  is  on  account  of 
external,  and  $41,640,035  internal  loans.  The  first  public  loan  was 
for  $5,000,000,  raised  in  London  in  1822.    Others  followed,  and  all 


CHILE  319 

were  paid*  off.  Then,  from  1885  to  the  present  time,  Chile  placed 
a  series  of  loans,  sometimes  (as  in  1889)  on  very  favorable  terms; 
and  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  acquisition  of  the 
nitrate  fields,  after  the  successful  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia 
(see  above:  History),  placed  a  vast  source  of  wealth  at  Chile's 
disposal,  enabling  her  to  meet  all  requirements  of  the  government, 
including  the  large  increase  in  expenditures  by  the  war  and  navy 
departments ;  but  this,  unfortunately,  did  not  prevent  the  excessive 
issue  of  paper  to  which  we  have  referred.  The  annual  expenditure 
approximates  $70,000,000  gold  ($7,460,000  for  the  Dept.  of 
Interior;  $1,470,000  Foreign  Affairs;  $2,160,000  Justice ;  $6,800,000 
Navy ;  $7,400,000  War  Dept. ;  $5,280,000  Public  Works ;  $15,400,000 
Government  Railways ;  $9,000,000  Public  Debt  Service,  etc.).  The 
budget  provides  annually  for  the  development  of  water  and 
drainage-systems  in  the  chief  cities  and  for  the  construction  of 
port  works,  which  will  represent  an  outlay,  when  completed,  of 
more  than  $26,000,000.  The  revenues  and  expenses  of  the  country 
have  increased  in  20  years  as  follows:  In  1894,  income  $25,945,000 
and  expenses  $20,739,000 ;  in  1913,  the  last  normal  year  before  the 
war^  the  fiscal  revenue  amounted  to  $77,575,000  and  expenses 
amounted  to  $80,800,000 ;  the  budget  for  1914  attained  the  sum  of 
$95,520,000;  in  1915  the  fiscal  budget  was  reduced  to  $63,362,000, 
approximately. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  Longitudinal  Railway,  with  a  total  length  of  1,957  miles, 
extends  from  Iquique  to  Puerto  Montt,  through  the  Longitudinal 
or  Central  Valley  (see  above:  Topography)  and  with  branches  to 
the  chief  ports.  Thus  a  double  system  of  intercommunication,  by 
both  land  and  water,  is  maintained.  Besides  this  central  line  there 
are  three  transandine  railways  and  the  independent  lines  of  the 
nitrate  fields  —  in  all,  4,521  miles.  Other  lines  under  construction 
increase  the  total  to  5,684  miles  (3,541  owned  by  the  Chilean 
Government  and  2,143  miles  privately  owned).  The  Trans-Andean 
line,  via  Juncal,  was  completed  in  1910.  It  connects  Santiago, 
from  Llai-Llai,  with  Mendoza,  on  the  Argentine  side  of  the  Cor- 
dillera of  the  Andes.  Another  mountain-climbing  line  is  the 
international  railway  from  Antofagasta  to  Oruro  and  La  Paz  in 
Bolivia,  a  distance  of  719  miles.  A  railway  built  by  the  Chilean 
Government  with  the  co-operation  of  Bolivia  connects  the  port 
of  Arica  with  La  Paz.    This  road  —  a   short  line  between   the 


320 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 


Port    of    Valparaiso,    Chile 


Bolivian  plateau  and  the  Pacitic  coast,  was  opened  to  traffic  in 
1913.  Steamship  routes  are,  at  present,  still  those  which  were 
followed  in  Colonial  days,  although  a  single  Japanese  line  crosses 
the  Pacific.  Between  Panama  and  Valparaiso,  with  calls  at  all  the 
larger  ports,  and  occasionally  at  the  smaller  ones  also,  English, 
Chilean,  and  other  lines  maintain  regular  service  at  highly 
remunerative  rates ;  and  by  the  southern  route  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  come  and  go  vessels  of  all  maritime  nations.  Coast- 
wise shipping  gives  employment  to  many  Chileans.  In  the  aggre- 
gate, the  shipping  of  Chilean  ports  exceeds  —  and  relatively  to 
populations  very  greatly  exceeds  —  that  of  other  Latin  American 
countries. 

There  are,  moreover,  20,000  miles  of  public  road,  528  miles  of 
navigable  rivers,  and  660  miles  of  navigable  lakes.  The  lengili  of 
telephone  line  in  operation  is  44,000  miles,  with  55,000  miles  of 
wire.  There  are  17,497  subscribers.  A  chain  of  wireless  telegraph 
stations  is  nearing  completion.  These  are  located  at  Arica,  Anto- 
fagasta,  Coquimbo,  Valparaiso,  Talcahuano,  Valdi^da,  Puerto 
Montt,  Punta  Arenas,  and  one  on  the  Juan  Fernandez  Islands. 

The  telegraph  service  is  chiefly  performed  by  the  State,  which 
owns  about  18,000  miles,  with  367  offices  out  of  the  total  of  22,500 
miles.  The  extensive  wireless  system  has  stations  at  Arica  in  the 
north,  Punta  Arenas  in  the  south,  at 'five  or  more  intermediate 
points,  and  at  Masatierra,  Juan  Fernandez  Islands.  In  the  interest 
of  public  education,  the  Government  has  made  a  practice  of  circu- 
lating newspapers,  reviews,  and  other  periodical  publications  free 
of  postal  charges.  The  number  of  post-offices  is  given  as  1,114, 
handling  over  65,000,000  pieces  of  mail  matter  annually. 


CHILE  321 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 

All  males  bom  in  Chile,  whether  of  native  or  foreign  parent- 
age, are,  under  the  law  of  1910,  subject  to  compulsory  service; 
and  the  nominal  strength  of  the  permanent  army  is  23,216,  of 
which  number  17,132  are  in  the  land  forces.  A  system  of  military 
instruction  and  drill  is  enforced  which  practically  renders  a  much 
larger  number  available  in  an  emergency;  the  National  Guard 
comprising  all  other  men  between  the  ages  of  20  and  45. 
Plans  for  the  army  include  three  regiments  of  field  artillery, 
two  of  mountain  artillery,  one  section  of  machine  guns,  four  com- 
panies of  sappers  and  miners,  six  regiments  of  cavalry,  16  of 
infantry,  and  one  battalion  of  railway  troops,  beside  the  admin- 
istrative units.  The  war  strength  of  the  first  line  is  estimated  at 
150,000  men.  The  artillery  units  are  armed  with  Krupp  guns 
(7  and  7.2  centimetre) ;  the  infantry  with  7  millimetre  Mausers. 
The  police  (about  500  officers,  1,000  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
6,000  men,  organized  on  a  military  basis)  are  in  charge  of  San- 
tiago, the  provincial  and  departmental  capitals,  etc.  Establish- 
ments for  military  instruction  are:  The  Military  Academy  and 
school,  cavalry  school,  artillery  school,  school  for  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  staff  college,  where  higher  studies  can  be 
pursued. 

The  Chilean  navy  includes  nearly  50  vessels  of  various 
classes :  the  armor-clads  Capitan  Prat,  O'Higgins,  and  Esmeralda; 
three  protected  or  armored  cruisers;  three  torpedo  gunboats,  13 
destroyers,  five  modern  torpedo  boats,  two  submarines,  one  mine 
ship,  one  hospital  ship,  etc.  There  is  a  naval  academy  at  Talca- 
huano,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  commend  the  truly  admirable  gov- 
ernment naval  school  at  Valparaiso. 


POPULATION 


In  1907,  the  date  of  the  last  census,  the  population  numbered 
3,249,279,  and  in  1917  it  is  estimated  as  nearly  4,000,000.  The 
great  majority  of  the  population  is  of  European  origin.  The  indig- 
enous inhabitants  are  of  three  branches,  the  Fuegians,  mostly 
nomads,  living  in  the  extreme  south,  the  Araucanians  (101,000), 
the  ancient  rulers  of  the  country,  who  so  long  bravely  resisted  the 
22 


322  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

white  invaders,  live  in  the  valleys  or  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Andes;  the  Changos,  who  inhabit  the  northern  coast  regions  and 
perform  most  of  the  manual  labor  there.  Immigration  is  small, 
but  is  encouraged  by  the  Government.  The  total  number  of  immi- 
grants between  1905  and  1914  was  25,544.  Colonies  (agricultural 
settlements)  are  encouraged  and  their  number  and  importance  are 
increasing. 


EDUCATION 


In  many  parts  of  Chile  education  scarcely  touches  the  com- 
mon people;  but,  so  far  as  the  upper  and  middle  classes  are 
concerned,  the  educational  system  is  fairly  well  developed.  Ele- 
mentary education  is  free,  but  not  compulsory ;  and  although  there 
are  schools  of  some  kind  in  all  towns,  75  or  80  per  cent  of  the 
population  as  a  whole  must  be  called  illiterate.  The  University 
of  Chile  in  its  various  departments  (including  law,  engineering, 
medicine,  philosophy,  and  the  fine  arts)  has  an  attendance  of 
1,300.  Other  public  educational  institutions  are:  The  National 
Institute,  with  1,200  pupils;  Institute  of  Pedagogy;  about  80 
lyceums  of  secondary  instruction  for  men;  and  15  lyceums  for 
girls;  6  normal  schools;  a  Conservatory  of  Music;  a  Commercial 
Institute ;  also  schools  of  fine  arts,  agriculture,  arts  and  trades,  for 
the  blind  and  for  deaf-mutes,  professional  schools  for  girls,  and 
industrial  schools.  Private  educational  establishments  are  numer- 
ous and  receive  pupils  from  other  Latin  American  countries.  The 
Roman  Catholic  University  has  courses  of  engineering  and  law. 
There  are  several  museums  of  natural  history  and  fine  arts;  an 
Astronomical  Observatory,  and  meteorological  observatories; 
botanical  gardens,  and,  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  41  public 
libraries,  with  240,000  volumes.  At  Copiapo,  La  Serena,  and  San- 
tiago there  are  mining  schools;  and  agricultural  schools  at  Chil- 
ian, Concepcion,  Ancud,  and  other  cities.  Exceedingly  interesting 
are  the  statistics  relating  to  instruction  in  Magallanes  Territory, 
for  it  is  shown  that  77.77  per  cent  of  all  inhabitants  of  that  Terri- 
tory, above  the  age  of  six  years,  can  read  and  write;  1.89  per  cent 
can  read  but  cannot  write;  and  only  20.33  per  cent  are  entirely 
unlettered.  But  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  Chile  as  a  whole  is, 
as  we  have  just  said,  nearly  four  times  greater.  Comparing  the 
Chilean  population  of  Magallanes  Territory  with  the  foreign  ele- 
ment, the  former  shows  25.51  per  cent  of  illiteracy  as  against 
13.23  per  cent  for  the  latter.     A  still  more  favorable  result  is 


CHILE  323 

obtained  if  we  scrutinize  the  reports  of  primary  and  secondary 
schools  in  that  Territory,  It  appears  that  more  than  83  per  cent 
of  all  children  of  school  age  there  can  read  and  write,  while  less 
than  17  per  cent  must  be  classed  provisionally  among  illiterates. 
The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  Year  Ended 
June  30,  1915,  (Washington  1915)  contains  the  statement:  *'  The 
budget  passed  by  the  Chilean  Congress  [for  the  year  1915-16] 
carries  $122,450  (U.  S.  currency)  for  public  instruction.  This  is 
less  than  one  per  cent  of  the  entire  budget  and  represents  a  mere 
fraction  of  the  public  expenditure  for  education,  which  is  supplied 
mainly  by  the  provincial  governments."  According  to  the  latest 
annual  of  the  Chilean  bureau  of  statistics  there  were  3,131  public 
and  506  private  primary  schools  in  Chile  at  the  close  of  the  year 
1913,  with  318,000  and  61,000  pupils  respectively;  16  public  and  2 
private  normal  schools  with  2,650  and  225  pupils  respectively ;  86 
public  and  120  private  secondary  schools  with  25,500  and  17,400 
pupils  respectively;  11  public  and  10  private  commercial  schools, 
3,660  and  1,690  pupils  respectively;  special  schools  of  the  army 
numbered  six,  and  there  were  seven  special  schools  of  the  navy. 
The  cost  of  maintaining  the  public  primary  schools  in  1915  was 
$2,945,310. 

It  is  proper  to  note  under  this  heading  that  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage, as  written  and  spoken  in  Chile,  differs  from  the  standard 
Castilian  in  many  respects.  For  example,  the  initial  g  in  such 
words  as  general  is  changed  to  j.  Compare,  in  the  Bibliography, 
the  titles  Historia  Jeneral,  Censo  Jeneral.  See  also  Latin 
America  —  Languages. 

Bibliography 

Avaria,  L.  Navarro,  Censo  Jeneral  del  Territorio  de  Magcdlanes  (Punta  Arenas, 
Vol.  I,  1907,  Vol.  II,  1908) ;  Barros  Arana,  D.,  Historia  Jeneral  de  Chile  (Santiago 
1884-1902)  ;  Bulnes,  G.,  Guerra  del  Pacifico  (Valparaiso  1912-14) ;  Cochrane,  T. 
(Earl  of  Dundonald),  Narrative  of  Services  in  the  Liberation  of  Chile  (London 
1859) ;  Darwin,  C,  Journal  and  Remarks  (Vol.  Ill  in  the  Narrative  of  the  Voyages 
of  H.  M.'s  Ships  Adventure  and  Beagle  (London  1839) ;  Ercilla  y  Zimiga,  A.  de, 
La  Araucana  (Santiago  de  Chile  1910);  Errazuriz,  C,  Historia  de  Chile:  Pedro 
Valdivia  (Santiago  de  Chile  1911-12) ;  Filsinger,  E.  B.,  Exporting  to  Latin  America 
(New  York  1916) ;  Harrison,  B.,  Message  of  the  President.  .  .  \  Inquiry  into 
the  Attack  on  the  Seamen  of  the  U.  S.  S.  Baltimore  (Washington  1892) ;  Holley, 
A.  B.,  Historia  de  la  Paz  entre  Chile  i  el  Peru  (Santiago  de  Chile  1910) ;  Interna- 
tional Bureau  of  the  American  Republics,  Chile:  a  Handbook  (Washington  1909) ; 
Johow,  F.,  Estudios  sohre  la  Flora  de  las  Islas  de  Juan  Fernandez,  con  Noticias 
Preliminares  por  R.  Pohlmann  (Santiago  1896);  Koebel,  W.  H.,  Modern  Chile 
(London  1913)  ;  Malsch,  A.,  Le  Dernier  Recoin  du  Monde  (Geneve  1907);  Mark- 
ham,   C.   R.,    The   War  between   Peru  and  Chile,   1879-1882    (New  York   1883); 


324 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Medina,  J.  T.,  Los  Aborijenes  de  Chile  (Santiago  de  Chile  1882);  Mills,  G.  J., 
Chile:  Physical  Features,  Natural  Resources,  etc.  (London  1914) ;  Poirier,  E.,  Chile 
en  1910  (Santiago  de  Chile  1910) ;  Quesada,  E.,  La  Politica  Argentina  respecto  de 
Chile  (Buenos  Aires  1898) ;  Revista  de  Bibliografia  Chilena  y  extranjera  (Santiago 
de  Chile  1913+) ;  Ross,  E.  A.,  South  of  Panama  (New  York  1915) ;  Stange,  P., 
Landeskunde  von  Chile  (Berlin  1914) ;  Torrente,  M.,  Historia  de  la  Revolucion  de 
Chile,  1810-1828:  Capitulos  de  la  Hist.  Rev.  Hispano-Amer.,  Santiago  de  Chile 
1900;  Velascb,  P.,  La  Revolucion  de  1891  (Santiago  de  Chile  1914) ;  Vicuna  Mac- 
Kenna,  B.,  Historia  de  la  Campaha  de  Lima  (Santiago  de  Chile  1881) ;  Villarino, 
J.,  Jose  Manuel  Balmaceda  (Barcelona  1893). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Chile  is  divided  into  23  provinces  and  the  Territory  of  Magal- 
lanes.  In  alphabetical  order,  with  their  areas  and  populations,  capitals  and 
populations,  they  are  as  follows: 


PROVINCES 


Area 


Population 


Capital 


Population 


Aconcagua 

Antofagasta 

Arauco 

Atacamd 

BioWo 

Cautin 

Chilo6 

Colchagua 

Concepcidn 

Coquimbo 

Curic6 

Linarea 

Llanquihu6 

Malleco 

Maule 

Nuble 

O'Higgina 

Santiago 

Tacna 

Talca 

TarapacA 

Valdivia 

Valparaiso 

Magallanes  Territory 

Total  (1914) 


406 
,408 
,189 
,711 
,353 
,381 
,979 
,851 
,313 
,098 
,045 
,969 
,778 
,303 
,812 
,498 
,168 
,893 
,590 
,864 
,689 
,991 
,775 
,355 


138,446 
126,101 

63,209 

66,641 
103,873 
172,006 

95,756 
159,930 
235,959 
183,787 
109,466 
114,980 
124,947 
117,375 
122,754 
174 , 663 

96,808 
587,721 

45,593 
133,742 
123,843 
151,537 
324,660 

22,744 


San  Felipe .... 
Antofagasta . . . 

Lebu 

Copiap6 

Los  Angeles . . . 

Temuco 

Ancud 

San  Fernando. 
Concepci6n.  . . 
La  Serena .  .  . . 

Curic6 

Linares 

Puerto  Mbntt. 

Angol 

Cauquenea. . . . 

Chilian 

Rancagua.  .  .  . 

Santiago 

Tacna 

Talca 

Iquique 

Valdivia 

Valparaiso .... 
Punta  Arenas. 


10,426 

36,114 

3,500 

11,617 

11,691 

16,000 

3,979 

9,150 

69,776 

24,000 

19,529 

11,122 

6,000 

7,896 

9,683 

39.173 

10,380 

378,103 

15,000 

39,526 

45.012 

19,388 

187,240 

11,000 


289.829 


3.596.541 


Santiago 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  as  well  as  its  principal  city,  lies  1,821  feet  above 
sea  level,  approximately  72  miles  from  San  Antonio,  the  nearest  seaport,  and  117 
miles  east  southeast  of  Valparaiso.  The  city  embraces  an  area  of  almost  16  square 
miles,  and  is  built  in  a  fertile  valley,  bounded  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Coast  Range, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  Andean  Range.  Its  climate  is  perhaps  unequalled  in  any 
part  of  the  world;  the  average  temperature  of  the  year  being  about  60°  P.  In 
building  the  city,  the  block  system  has  been  followed.  The  streets  are  exceptionally 
well  paved,  clean  and  broad,  and  are  lined  with  very  many  large  buildings  of  solid 
stone  construction,  as  well  as  many  handsome  residences.  Its  public  services,  such 
as  drainage,  paving,  electric  lighting  and  gas,  water,  telephones,  electric  trams, 


CHILE  325 

taximeters,  etc.,  are  on  a  par  with  those  of  the  most  up-to-date  cities.  With  the 
exception  of  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco,  it  is  the  most  populous  city  on  the 
entire  western  slope  of  America.  Santiago  is  connected  by  rail  with  Valparaiso, 
Concepcion,  and  Buenos  Aires.  It  is  also  prominent  in  the  industrial  field,  con- 
taining several  tanneries,  flour  mills,  iron  foundries,  and  factories  making  furniture, 
soap,  linseed  oil,  etc.  It  is  the  social  centre  of  the  Republic,  contains  several 
educational  institutions,  and  is  the  official  residence  of  the  Ambassador  of  the 
United  States  accredited  to  Chile. 

Valparaiso 

The  second  city  in  size  and  the  chief  seaport  of  the  Republic,  lies  on  a  bay  of 
the  Pacific,  117  miles  by  rail  west  northwest  of  Santiago.  The  city  is  built  on 
19  hills,  varying  from  300  to  1,100  feet  in  height.  The  level  ground  along  the 
shore  covers  only  a  naiTow  strip,  but  the  largest  buildings  and  business  houses  are 
located  here.  There  are  good  banks,  hotels,  public  offices  and  the  naval  academy. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  equable.  The  harbor  is  open  on  one  side  and  is  subject  to 
violent  gales  from  the  north.  When  these  occur  vessels  are  obliged  to  put  to  sea. 
An  elaborate  plan  of  port  improvements,  to  cost  $12,000,000  is  being  carried  out, 
and  when  completed  will  provide  good  dockage  for  all  vessels  with  modern 
machinery.  There  are  four  new  oil  tanks  in  the  harbor  at  Vina  del  Mar,  two  of 
a  capacity  of  8,000  tons  each,  and  two  of  235  tons  each.  A  branch  of  the  National 
City  Bank  of  New  York  was  established  here  in  1916.  Valparaiso  is  the  most 
important  commercial  city  of  Chile.  Grain,  wool,  leather,  saltpetre,  guano,  and 
copper  are  its  chief  exports.  It  imports  textiles,  mineral  products  and  various 
manufactures.  Nearly  one-half  the  imports  of  the  country  pass  through  Valparaiso, 
while  it  ranks  seventh  as  a  port  of  export.  Cotton  goods,  machinery,  ironwork, 
tobacco,  sugar,  beer  and  liquors  are  the  principal  manufactures.  There  are  also 
flour  mills,  tanneries,  furniture,  soap  and  whale-oil  factories.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  consul.  It  has  two  railroads,  one  of  which  connects  it  with  Buenos 
Aires. 

Iquique 

The  principal  nitrate  port  of  Chile  and  the  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Tarapaca,  is  situated  on  the  north  coast,  150  miles  south  of  Arica,  and  nearly  300 
miles  north  of  Antofagasta.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  bare  desert  and  derives  its 
water  supply  by  an  aqueduct  from  Pica,  88  miles  distant.  It  is  well  built,  has 
several  miles  of  street  railroads,  soap  factories,  a  water-distilling  plant,  shoe 
factories,  railway  shops,  etc.  Inland  are  the  famous  saltpetre  mines  for  which  the 
city  is  the  outlet,  and  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  To  the  north  are  the 
silver  mines  of  Huantajaya.  Besides  saltpetre,  borax,  iodine,  and  copper  ores  are 
^^xpprted.  Machinery  and  fuel  for  the  mines  are  the  principal  articles  of  import. 
Although  a  large  volume  of  export  trade  passes  through  Iquique  annually,  there 
is  no  harbor  there  and  vessels  have  to  anchor  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  out.  Improve- 
ments have  been  projected,  but  no  actual  construction  work  has  been  done.  The 
exports  average  about  $65,000,000  annually  and  the  imports  $28,000,000.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Iquique  is  most  easily  reached  from  New  York 
by  any  one  of  the  innumerable  lines  to  Colon,  where  direct  connection  can  be  made 
to  the  express  steamers  plying  between  Panama  and  Valparaiso  calling  at  inter- 
mediate ports,  including  Iquique. 


326  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

Antofagasta 

This  port  is  situated  on  Chimba  Bay,  300  miles  south  of  Iquique  and  about  700 
miles  north  of  Valparaiso.  It  gets  its  importance  from  being  the  terminus  of  the 
Antofagasta  Railway  and  the  port  through  which  a  large  part  of  the  commerce  of 
Bolivia  passes.  It  has  a  good  street-car  system,  a  large  silver-smelting  plant,  and 
several  nitrate  works.  There  are  saltpetre  deposits  in  the  neighborhood,  and  it  is 
connected  by  rail  with  the  rich  silver  mines  of  Caracoles  and  Huanchaca.  Hard- 
ware, machinery,  cotton  fabrics,  drugs  and  medicines  are  its  principal  imports. 
Its  exports  reach  an  average  of  $55,000,000  yearly  and  its  imports  about 
$40,000,000. 

Concepcion 

This  city  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  It  is  located  on  the 
river  Bio-Bio,  6  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Pacific,  and  352  miles  from  Santiago, 
with  which  it  has  railway  connection.  Its  streets  are  clean  and  well  paved.  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  fertile  region,  its  population  is  engaged  in  various  pi'oductive 
industries,  and  the  city  is  a  thriving  example  of  Chilean  civic  life.  The  location 
near  the  coal  mines  of  the  country  adds  to  its  importance. 

Punta  Arenas 

This  the  southernmost  city  of  Chile,  and  in  fact  of  the  world  is  situated  on  the 
Strait  of  Magellan.  It  is  modern  in  construction,  and  has  become  prominent  both 
on  account  of  its  position  on  the  crossroads  of  international  traffic  and  also  through 
the  richness  of  the  region  round  about.  Considerable  business  is  done  in  furnishing 
ships  with  stores  and  provisions.  There  are  coal,  copper,  and  gold  mines  and 
timber  in  the  neighborhood.  Stock  raising  is  the  principal  occupation.  Wool, 
skins,  beef,  and  other  cattle  products  are  exported  yearly  to  the  value  of  approxi- 
mately $15,000,000.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  consul  of  the  United  States. 

Other  Cities 

Nine  miles  from  Concepcion  lies  the  city  of  Talcahuano,  on  the  bay  of  the 
same  name.  It  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  coast  of  Chile,  and  for  that 
reason  was  selected  as  the  site  of  the  military  port  and  government  dry  docks. 
Talca  lies  155  miles  south  of  Santiago,  and  is  an  inland  city.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  fertile  district  and  has  a  thriving  local  trade.  La  Serena,  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Coquimbo,  is  situated  on  an  eminence  overlooking  a  small  bay,  215  miles  north 
of  Valparaiso,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It  is  well  built,  with  clean, 
straight  and  regular  streets.  A  railway  8  miles  long  connects  it  with  its  port, 
Coquimbo.  Other  roads  run  to  the  interior  towns  of  Vicuna  and  Rivadavia. 
Coquimbo  has  a  good  harbor  and  exports  chiefly  copper  ores  and  cattle.  It  is  the 
residence  of  a  United  States  consular  agent.  Chii-lan,  the  capital  of  Nuble,  is 
situated  56  miles  northeast  of  Concepcion.  It  is  regularly  built  and  is  a  handsome 
city.  There  are  sulphur  baths  in  the  vicinity.  AiiiCA,  in  the  Province  of  Tacna, 
has  a  safe  roadstead,  and  is  2,100  miles  from  Panama.  It  is  connected  by  rail 
with  the  interior  and  with  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  and  much  of  Bolivia's  exports  pass 
through  it.  Gold,  copper,  silver,  tin,  wool,  alpaca,  saltpetre,  and  guano  are 
exported.  Valdivia  is  a  thriving  port,  200  miles  south  of  Concepcion.  TocopilI/A 
exports  copper  ore  and  nitrate,  Mejillones,  Taltal,  and  Caldera  are  also 
important  ports. 


COLOMBIA 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


SITUATION  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


THE  Republic  of  Colombia  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north- 
west by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Republic  of  Panama; 
on  the  east  by  Venezuela  and  Brazil;  on  the  south  by 
Brazil,  Peru  and  Ecuador;  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
area  cannot  be  stated  precisely.  The  estimate  in  the  latest  census 
is  461,606  square  miles;  in  the  pamphlet  entitled  Latin  America 
(Washington  1915),  438,436.  The  boundary  lines  between  it  and 
four  of  the  neighboring  countries  are  in  dispute. 

The  Andes  of  Colombia  are  divided  into  three  ranges  —  the 
Cordillera  Oriental,  Cordillera  Central,  and  Cordillera  Occi- 
dental —  with  intervening  uplands  of  great  extent,  which  are 
habitable  and  fertile,  but  as  yet  rather  inaccessible.  Of  the  three 
ranges  mentioned,  the  western  Cordillera  is  the  least  impressive ; 
the  central  Cordillera  has  the  greatest  number  of  snow-clad  sum- 
mits. There  are  four  river  systems  in  the  republic:  (1)  The  west- 
ern system,  comprising  the  streams  which  flow  from  the  western 
Cordillera  into  the  Pacific  Ocean;  (2)  the  river  Cauca  and  its 
affluents;  (3)  the  Magdalena  River  with  its  affluents;  (4)  the 
streams  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  eastern  Cordillera.  Of  special 
interest  is  the  Atrato  River,  which  is  not  included  in  any  of  the 
foregoing  systems.  This  navigable  stream  flows  to  the  Gulf  of 
Darien  near  the  disputed  Panama-Colombia  boundary.  As  Mr. 
Eder  (see  Bibliography)  has  written,  when  discussing  the  topog- 
raphy of  this  country,  Colombia  presents  three  main  divisions  for 
study,  namely,  the  coast  regions,  the  low-lying  eastern  territory, 
and,  between  the  two,  the  great  Andean  land,  with  its  valleys, 

[327] 


328  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

plateaux  and  mountains.  The  eastern  region  is  subdivided  into  a 
northern  part,  where  the  llanos  or  open  wild  pastures  are  found, 
and  ''  a  southern  part,  of  impenetrable  forests,  the  selvas 
sparsely  populated,  except  by  savages,  and  much  of  it  still  but 
imperfectly  explored."  Beside  the  three  main  Cordilleras,  we 
note:  The  great  mountain  block  called  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
Santa  Marta  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  near  the  Carib- 
bean Sea ;  far  to  the  south  a  line  of  worn-down  ancient  mountains 
separating  the  Amazon  basin  from  the  Orinoco  system;  and  the 
Baudo  range  which  runs  along  by  the  Pacific  coast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  San  Juan  Eiver  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  belongs  to 
the  Antillean  system  (see  Central  America),  while  the  true  West- 
ern Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  running  northward  a  little  farther 
from  the  Pacific  coast,  is  separated  from  the  Baudo  mountains  by 
the  valleys  through  one  of  w^hich  the  San  Juan  River  flows  into  the 
Pacific  while  in  the  other  the  Atrato  takes  its  course  toward 
the  Atlantic,  as  we  have  said.  On  the  Pacific  slopes  of  the  Western 
Cordillera  the  rainfall  is  excessive  and  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant, 
while  the  eastern  slopes  are  comparatively  arid.  Near  the  border 
of  Ecuador  are  the  twin  snow  peaks,  Chiles  (15,680  feet  according 
to  Mr.  Eder;  16,912  according  to  Mr.  Levine)  and  Cumbal  (15,710 
or  17,076  feet  —  the  estimates  varying  in  this  case  also).  With 
these  exceptions  the  height  of  the  Western  Cordillera  is  in  gen- 
eral not  above  12,000  feet ;  and  on  the  other  hand  it  is  as  a  rule  not 
below  6,000.  There  are,  however,  a  few  low  passes,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  the  valley  of  the  Patia,  a  precipitous 
gorge  1,676  feet  deep.  Here  the  Patia  River  has  forced  its  way 
through  the  Andes  and  empties  into  the  Pacific.  Near  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  continent  there  are  other  examples  of  rivers  cutting 
the  Cordillera  from  east  to  west,  rather  than  from  west  to  east ; 
nevertheless  the  gorge  of  the  Patia  is  decidedly  notew^orthy,  and  it 
will  be  referred  to  later.  The  Central  Cordillera's  high  plateaux, 
in  the  regions  of  Pasto  and  Popayan,  are  well  adapted  to  agricul- 
ture, and  towns  of  some  importance  are  located  there,  at  no  great 
distance  from  groups  of  volcanoes,  some  of  which  are  *'  perpet- 
ually emitting  smoky  clouds  from  their  snowy  caps. ' '  Dominating 
Cauca  Valley,  north  of  Popayan,  is  one  of  the  highest  mountains 
in  Colombia,  Huila  (17,700  feet).  Thence  northward  the  Central 
Cordillera  has  a  nearly  constant  altitude  of  about  12,000  feet. 
' '  There  are  several  passes, ' '  Mr.  Eder  Avrites,  ' '  but  through  none 
have  roads  been  built  north  of  the  pass  near  Popayan  till  we  reach 
the  neighborhood  of  Quindiu.  In  recent  years  this  road  has  been 
somewhat  shortened  by  one  or  two  trochas  or  private  trails, ' '  but. 


COLOMBIA  329 

for  the  bulk  of  travel  and  traffic  between  the  Cauca  and  Magda- 
lena  valleys,  there  is  still  available  only  the  old  Spanish  highway. 
Near  the  Quindiu  are  the  snow-crowned  Tolima  (18,400  feet), 
Ruiz  and  Herveo  (18,300  feet),  and  Santa  Isabel  (16,700  feet). 
North  of  these  high  mountains  the  Central  Cordillera  widens  out, 
and  here  we  find  the  important  mineral  region  of  Antioquia.  The 
Eastern  Cordillera  (of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  formation),  which 
broadens  out  into  the  great  table-land  or  savannah  of  Bogota, 
also  has  high  peaks,  such  as  those  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Chita 
and  Cocui  (16,800  feet).  *'  From  whatever  point  of  view  we  exam- 
ine Colombia  —  be  it  scientific,  historical,  political,  or  economical, 
whether  we  are  investigating  the  habits  and  customs  of  its  people 
or  its  trade  routes,  markets,  and  industries  —  we  find  the  moun- 
tains an  ever-present,  a  predominant  factor.  Separating  one  part 
of  the  country  from  another,  providing  hitherto  insuperable  obsta- 
cles to  the  building  of  highways  and  railways,  they  have  helped  to 
breed  or  to  maintain  local  jealousies,  fostered  internal  strife, 
hindered  patriotic  efforts  for  betterment,  and  in  innumerable  ways 
have  proved  an  obstacle  for  which  their  mineral  wealth  and  scenic 
grandeur  have  given  scanty  compensation.  The  immense  tropical 
forests  have  been  scarcely  less  an  impediment."  Such  is  Mr. 
Eder's  comment.  The  effects  of  the  extreme  rugosity  of  the  sec- 
ond in  size  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  should  be  studied  in  this 
connection.    See  the  article  on  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo. 

Climate 

The  coast  and  some  interior  valleys  are  intensely  hot  and 
insalubrious.  On  the  elevated  plateaux  the  temperature  is  that  of 
perpetual  spring.  The  lowest  average  temperature  in  any 
inhabited  part  of  the  mountainous  country  is  20°  F.  The  peaks  of 
the  Cordilleras  are  covered  with  snow  always.  In  spite  of  the 
equatorial  situation  of  Colombia,  the  Andes  make  temperature 
merely  a  question  of  altitude.  At  Bogota  the  thermometer  ranges 
from  55°  to  70°  F.  Alternating  periods  of  dry  weather  and  rainy 
weather,  each  generally  of  three  months  duration,  are  Colombia's 
* '  summer  ' '  and  ' '  winter. " 

Flora  and  Fauna 

Vast  tracts  of  forest  remain  to  be  explored.  It  is  assumed 
that  rare  botanical  treasures  will  be  found  in  their  recesses ;  and 
with  good  reason,  since  the  known  varieties  of  Colombian  flora 
are  of  exceptional  interest.    Building,  cabinet  and  dye-woods  are 


33a  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

plentiful;  the  rubber-tree,  the  cinchona,  wax-palms,  cedar,  balsam 
of  tolu,  lignum  vitae,  copaiba,  and  mahogany  flourish  especially. 
The  aloe,  the  sarsaparilla,  and  other  medicinal  plants  grow  in 
abundance.  Wild  animals  of  the  intertropical  or  higher  regions 
are:  the  puma,  bear  (two  species),  jaguar,  alligator,  sloth,  arma- 
dillo, tapir,  deer,  cavy,  opossum,  and  17  distinct  species  of 
monkeys.  Serpents  (the  boa  constrictor,  yaruma,  etc.),  are  not 
found  at  a  greater  height  than  about  5,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
though  they  are  very  numerous  in  the  lowlands.  Character- 
istic birds  are:  parrots  (many  varieties),  paroquets,  cockatoos, 
lorries,  cranes,  storks,  the  condor,  etc. 

Mineral  Resources 

Gold  has  been  and  continues  to  be  the  most  important  mineral 
product  of  Colombia.  The  metal  is  found  both  in  lodes  in  the 
mountains  and  as  grains  and  dust  in  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the 
river  valleys.  The  principal  gold  area  is  between  the  Magdalena 
and  the  Pacific  coast,  and  south  of  the  point  where  the  Cauca  joins 
the  Magdalena.  The  Province  of  Antioquia  is  the  most  important 
area  of  production,  which  centres  around  Medellin.  In  1912  the 
exports  of  gold  were  $6,634,914.  The  rapid  growth  of  platinum 
production  since  1907,  when  only  245  troy  ounces  of  the  metal  were 
exported,  can  be  realized  from  the  fact  that  in  1915  the  shipments 
amounted  to  11,046  troy  ounces  and  were  valued  at  $494,888.  This 
entire  amount  came  from  the  Choco  and  was  panned  out  of  the 
gravels  of  the  small  streams.  The  area  of  the  platinum  producing 
zone  is  small,  beginning  near  the  mouth  of  the  Condoto  River  and 
extending  a  short  way  north  of  the  rivers  Nemota,  Bebarama,  and 
Negua,  a  longitudinal  distance  of  about  90  miles.  The  strip  is  not 
much  more  than  30  miles  wide.  An  American  company  was 
formed  during  the  latter  part  of  1915  to  exploit  platinum-bearing 
lands  and  to  dredge  a  section  of  the  San  Juan  River.  This  com- 
pany has  ordered  its  equipment  from  the  United  States  and  has 
already  begun  operations.  Silver  is  mined  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
normal  output  fluctuating  but  running  between  $400,000  and 
$700,000  annually.  Copper  is  pretty  generally  distributed,  being 
found  especially  all  along  the  mountains  adjoining  the  Mag- 
dalena Valley,  from  the  Ecuadorian  boundary  to  the  mountains 
of  Santo  Marta  on  the  coast.  Iron  ore  in  large  quantities  occurs 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  but  is  especially  important  in 
Cundinamarca.  Extensive  coal  deposits  have  been  discovered 
and  seem  to  be  scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  country.    The 


COLOMBIA  331 

principal  beds  now  worked  are  near  Amaga  in  Antioquia.  Coal 
mines  do  not  come  under  the  j^rovisions  of  the  Mining  Code 
in  regard  to  filing  of  claims.  The  government  controls  the 
coal  in  its  unoccupied  lands,  and  it  may  be  worked  only  by  con- 
tract with  the  Government,  but  owners  of  lands  containing  coal 
may  work  their  mines  independently.  Oil  has  been  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  especially  around  Cartagena  and 
Barranquilla.  Sulphur,  salt,  emeralds,  lime,  nitre,  chalk,  marble, 
asphaltum,  alum,  magnesia,  amethysts,  lead,  tin,  manganese, 
mercury,  and  cinnabar  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 


HISTORY  OF  COLOMBIA 

In  1508  the  Spanish  crown  granted  to  Ojeda  the  district 
between  Cape  Vela  and  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  and  to  Nicuesa  the 
country  from  the  Gulf  of  Darien  to  Cape  Gracias  ;i  Dios.  The  two 
territiories  were  united  in  1514.  Balboa's  discovery  of  the 
'*  Southern  Sea  "  was  followed  by  the  removal  of  colonists  to  the 
Pacific  coast  and  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Panama.  Starting 
from  Santa  Marta  6  Aug.  1536,  Gonzalo  Jimenez  de  Quesada  led 
700  infantry  and  80  horsemen  into  the  mountains  of  New  Granada 
(now  Colombia),  and  tQok  the  Indian  capital.  Colonies  were 
established  in  the  table-lands  and  along  the  coasts.  The  city  of 
Medina  was  founded  in  1670  by  Fray  Alonzo  Ronquillo  of  the 
order  of  Preaching  Friars.  In  1719  the  natives  destroyed  the 
Spanish  colonies  on  the  Pacific  slope.  New  Granada  became  a 
viceroyalty  in  1740,  having  been  administered  previously  as  a 
simple  presidency,  except  in  1718-19.  In  1810  an  insurrection 
against  the  government  of  Spain  began.  In  1819  New  Granada 
and  Venezuela  were  united,  Ecuador  joining  the  union  two  years 
later.  The  country  thus  formed  was  called  the  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia. The  efforts  of  Spain  to  retain  these  colonies  ceased  in  1824. 
Six  years  later  the  Colombian  union  was  dissolved,  Venezuela  and 
Ecuador  having  withdrawn;  and  the  republic  of  New  Granada 
was  established  in  1831,  its  territory  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
present  Republic  of  Colombia. 

New  Granada  was  at  first  divided  into  five  departments, 
namely :  Boyaca,  Cauca,  Cundinamarca,  the  Isthmus,  and  Magda- 
lena.  Lack  of  coherence  caused  a  civil  war  in  1840;  Panama  and 
Veragua  unsuccessfully  sought  independence  in  1841.  From  1849 
to  1857  the  Liberal  party  controlled  the  government.  In  1853  the 
right  was  granted  to  the  departments  to  elect  their  governors  by 


332  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

popular  vote,  and  the  powers  of  the  provincial  legislative  bodies 
were  increased.  New  political  divisions  were  organized  soon  after- 
ward—  Panama,  etc.  These  claimed,  and  tauglit  the  older  depart- 
ments to  claim,  the  privileges  of  semi-independent  states.  A  civil 
war,  beginning  in  1859,  resulted  in  a  triumph  for  the  liberal 
(States'  Eights)  party.  Under  the  constitution  of  1863  the  name 
Colombia  was  reverted  to,  the  official  title  being  United  States  of 
Colombia.  Nine  sovereign  states  were  formed,  each  authorized  to 
maintain  its  own  military  forces  without  restriction,  and  to  nullify 
the  federal  laws.    Insurrections  prevented  steady  progress  until 


National     Capitol     at     Bogota,     Colombia 
(Courtesy   of  the   Pan   Americau   Uuioii) 

a  reasonable  degree  of  federal  control  was  asserted.  In  1880, 
Rafael  Nunez  became  president.  His  influence  secured  to  the 
national  government  the  right  to  use  its  forces  for  the  suppression 
of  insurrections  in  the  several  states.  A  national  (government) 
bank  was  incorporated ;  diplomatic  relations  were  established  with 
Spain;  the  question  of  the  boundary  between  Colombia  and  Vene- 
zuela was  submitted  to  arbitration.  Nuiiez  held  the  same  office, 
which  he  made  important,  again  in  1 884  and  1886.  In  1891  he  was 
elected  for  the  fourth  time,  but  allowed  Vice-President  Caro  to 
assume  his  duties. 

A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1886.  By  this  the  states 
were  reduced  to  departments,  with  governors  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  republic,  and  legislative  assemblies  elected  by  the 


COLOMBIA  333 

people.  The  president's  term  of  office  was  extended  from  two  to 
six  years.  Colombia  passed  from  extreme  of  a  loose  federation 
to  that  of  a  centralized  republic.  Subsequent  revolutions  have 
shown  the  desire  of  the  Liberals  to  return  to  the  old  irresponsi- 
bility. In  1892  subsidies  were  granted  for  the  construction  of 
several  important  railways,  and  new  cable  lines  along  the  coast 
and  telegraph  lines  in  the  interior  were  authorized.  Two  years 
later  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  the  free  coinage  of  gold  and 
the  redemption  of  the  paper  currency.  Very  little  progress  was 
made,  however;  on  the  contrary  the  means  of  communication  and 
transportation,  as  well  as  the  medium  of  exchange,  displayed  a 
tendency  to  go  from  bad  to  worse.  The  rebellion  of  1895  was 
suppressed  in  45  days,  but  a  civil  war  which  broke  out  17  Oct. 
1899,  proved  to  be  more  ruinous  than  any  preceding  conflict.  The 
Liberals  attempted  by  force  of  arms  to  drive  the  Conservatives 
from  power.  An  issue  which,  in  a  republic,  should  be  settled  at 
the  polls,  cost  the  lives  of  50,000  soldiers,  while  among  the 
wretched  non-combatants  the  number  of  deaths  from  privation 
and  disease  was  vastly  greater.  As  usual,  the  department  of 
Panama  was  a  centre  of  disturbance.  American  marines  were 
landed  to  guard  the  stations  and  railway  at  Colon  and  Panama, 
in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  1846  between  the  United  States 
and  New  Granada,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  United  States  guar- 
anteed the  neutrality  of  the  isthmus  and  assumed  the  obligation 
to  protect  free  transit  between  the  ports  mentioned. 

Toward  the  end  of  1902  the  flame  of  civil  war  finally  went 
out.  The  government  was  almost  destitute  of  money;  it  could 
neither  pay  interest  on  the  national  debt  nor  meet  current 
expenses.  Congressional  elections  were  held  throughout  the 
country.  The  most  important  matter  to  come  before  that  Congress 
was  the  question  of  ratifying  a  convention  concluded  at  Washing- 
ton 22  Jan.  1903,  between  the  secretary  of  state  of  the  United 
States  of  America  and  the  charge  d'affaires  of  Colombia,  for  the 
construction  of  a  ship  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  The  French  Panama  Company,  formed  in  1881,  had  sus- 
pended operations  in  1889,  and  in  1894  a  new  company  had  been 
organized,  securing  a  concession  for  10  years,  which  term  was 
subsequently  extended  by  six  years.  The  board  of  this  company 
had  offered  (4  Jan.  1902)  to  sell  all  its  property  and  rights  to  the 
United  States  for  $40,000,000.  The  Panama  route  had  been 
approved  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  of  the  United  States. 
After  a  long  discussion  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  the 


334 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


convention  was  submitted  to  the  Colombian  Congress,  the  Con- 
stitution of  1886  providing  that  ratification  by  both  Houses  is 
requisite  for  the  validity  of  such  an  agreement  as  that  relating  to 
the  Panama  Canal. 

The  convention  just  referred  to,  commonly  known  as  the  Hay- 
Herran  treaty,  was  defeated  at  Bogota,  24  members  of  the  Senate 
voting  on  12  Aug.  1903  to  reject  it.  A  counter-proposition  pre- 
pared by  a  commission  (29  August)  was  debated  for  a  while,  but 
not  adopted.  The  adjournment  of  the  Colombian  Congress  on  31 
October  was  followed  almost  immediately  by  the  outbreak  of  a  care- 
fully planned  ''  Separatist  "  movement  in  Panama.    Independence 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 
Street  Scene,   Barranquilla,  Colombia 


was  proclaimed  3  November,  and  the  Colombian  army  and  navy  offi- 
cers in  the  principal  city  of  that  department  were  imprisoned.  A 
provisional  government  was  organized.  American  warships  were 
ordered  to  the  Isthmus ;  marines  landed  at  Colon ;  and  the  Colom- 
bian troops  withdrew  from  that  towm.  On  6  November  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  entered  into  relations  with  the 
government  of  the  Republic  of  Pananui,  and  on  13  November 
M.  Phillippe  Bonau-Varilla  was  formally  received  by  President 
Roosevelt  as  minister  of  the  new  country.  At  that  time  hostile 
demonstrations  against  the  Colombian  government  occurred  at 
Bogota,  and  another  revolution  seemed  imminent. 


COLOMBIA  335 

Arbitration 

While  political  factions  have  continued  to  resort  to  arms  for 
the  settlement  of  differences  of  opinion  within  the  nation's  bound- 
aries, the  better  sentiment  of  an  increasing  class  of  educated 
people  has  begun  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  disputes  with  neighbor- 
ing republics  touching  the  location  of  those  boundaries.  Arbitra- 
tion has  repeatedly  been  chosen  in  place  of  foreign  wars.  An 
agreement  was  made  15  Dec.  1894  for  submitting  to  arbitration 
the  question  as  to  the  southern  line  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador 
and  Peru.  President  Loubet  of  France  acted  as  arbitrator  of  the 
boundary  dispute  with  €osta  Rica,  rendering  a  decision  11  Sept. 
1900. 

Events  During  the  Last  Decade 

In  recognition  of  difficult  questions  that  had  arisen,  and  in 
anticipation  of  those  that  might  arise  out  of  Panama's  secession 
from  Colombia  and  the  creation  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  Secre- 
tary Taft  effected  on  17  Aug.  1907  an  agreement  between  represent- 
atives of  Colombia,  Panama,  and  the  United  States.  This  agree- 
ment was  general  in  its  scope,  and  particular  applications  of  its 
main  principle  were  observed,  both  at  the  end  of  the  year  1908, 
when  negotiations  between  Colombia  and  Panama  reached  an 
advanced  stage,  and  at  the  beginning  of  1909,  when  a  treaty 
between  the  United  States,  Panama,  and  Colombia  was  signed. 
Hostility  was  manifested  in  Colombia  to  that  portion  of  the  treaty 
which  exonerated  the  United  States  and  Panama  from  the  charge 
of  injustice  to  Colombia  in  the  matter  and  manner  of  Panama's 
secession.  Thereupon  President  Reyes  tendered  his  resignation, 
and  his  successor.  President  Valencia,  advocated  the  reference  to 
The  Hague  of  that  question  and  also  of  the  question  as  to  indem- 
nity for  the  alienation  of  Colombia's  most  famous  and  valuable 
department.  The  following  year  (1910)  saw  riotous  demonstration 
of  the  anti- American  feeling  in  Bogota,  for  which  an  apology  was 
offered  to  the  Minister  of  the  United  States.  On  20  July  the 
centennial  anniversary  of  Colombia's  independence  was  celebrated. 
In  1911  territory  claimed  by  Colombia  as  a  portion  of  her  south- 
ern domain  was  occupied  by  Peruvian  troops.  A  battle  was  fought 
there,  and  the  Colombians  w^ere  defeated.  In  1913  the  proposed 
development  of  the  petroleum  industry  in  Colombia  by  a  British 
syndicate  (practically,  Messrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son,  Ltd.)  aroused 
opposition  in  the  United  States.  The  liberality  of  the  terms  was 
construed  as  the  grant  of  a  monopoly,  and  the  proposals  were 


336  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

withdrawn.  For  an  explanatory  reference  to  Colombian  oil-fields, 
see  section  Banking  and  Finance.  On  4  Nov.  1913  the  Congress 
at  Bogota  adopted  a  resolution  affirming  the  performance  of 
Colombia's  isthmian  rights,  10  years  having  passed  since  the 
severe  loss  had  been  sustained.  Don  Jose  Vicente  Concha  (cleri- 
cal-conservative) became  president  in  1914.  During  that  year 
there  was,  we  read,  ' '  no  little  satisfaction  at  the  prospect  of 
receiving,  under  a  pending  treaty,  $25,000,000  and  of  acquiring 
special  privileges  in  respect  to  the  Panama  Canal.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  the  presumably  more  favorable  spirit  which  the  treaty 
had  created  in  Colombia,  an  American  *  scientific  mission  '  was 
sent  to  spend  eight  years  and  $400,000  exploring  the  country. ' ' 
But  in  1915,  ^vhen  the  proposed  treaty  was  under  consideration 
by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  its  provision  for  the  payment 
just  named,  coupled  with  apolog\'^  for  the  methods  employed  in 
securing  the  Canal  Zone  privileges  and  obligations,  made  favor- 
able action  by  that  body  entirely  impossible.  In  Colombia's 
national  budget  for  1915-1916  the  estimated  expenditures  were 
more  than  25  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  estimated  receipts. 


GOVERNMENT 


Some  of  the  amendments  to  the  Constitution  adopted  by 
Legislative  Act  Number  3  of  1910  were :  Title  III,  Art.  3.  The 
Legislature  shall  in  no  case  prescribe  the  penalty  of  capital  pun- 
ishment. Art.  7.  New  emissions  of  paper  monej^  of  compulsory 
circulation  are  absolutely  prohibited.  Title  VI,  Art.  9.  The  Con- 
gress shall  annually  elect  two  Designates,  a  first  and  a  second,  who 
shall  exercise  the  Executive  power  in  that  order  in  case  of  a 
vacancy  in  the  Presidency.  Title  VIII.  The  Senate  shall  be  com- 
posed of  as  many  members  as  correspond  to  the  population  of  the 
Republic  in  the  ratio  of  one  for  each  120,000  inhabitants.  Two 
substitutes  shall  be  elected  for  each  senator.  Title  IX.  The  Cham- 
ber of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  as  many  persons  as 
correspond  to  the  population  of  the  Republic  in  the  ratio  of  one 
for  each  50,000  inhabitants.  Title  XI,  Art.  25.  The  President 
of  the  Republic  shall  be  elected  by  the  direct  vote  of  the 
citizens  having  the  right  to  vote  for  Representatives, 
and  for  a  term  of  four  years,  in  the  manner  prescribed  by 
law.  Art.  33  (amending  Art.  121).  In  case  of  foreign  war  or  civil 
disturbance  the  President,  with  the  signature  of  all  the  Ministers, 
may  declare  public  order  disturbed  and  the  Republic  or  any  part 


COLOMBIA  337 

thereof  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege.  By  such  a  declaration  the  govern- 
ment, in  addition  to  the  powers  conferred  by  the  laws,  shall  have 
such  powers  as  govern  war  between  nations  pursuant  to  the 
accepted  rules  of  international  law. 

The  foregoing  w^ill  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  character 
of  the  large  number  of  amendments  dating  from  1910  —  and  a 
rather  important  one  even  from  1915  —  which  necessitate  a  new; 
examination  of  Colombia's  fundamental  law;  and  the  first  obser- 
vation is  that  the  old  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  or  sovereign 
rights  of  departments  has  been  rejected  in  favor  of  the  centralized 
system.  The  brief  sketch  which  follows  shows  the  leading  pro- 
visions of  the  Constitution  adopted  in  1886  and  transformed  by 
amendments  in  most  recent  years. 

The  Executive  overshadows  the  I  legislature  and  Judiciary. 
(Contrast:  Chile  —  Government.)  Appointed  by  the  President 
and  freely  removable  by  him  are  the  Ministers  of  State  and  Govern- 
ment, Foreign  Relations,  Hacienda  o^  Exchequei-  (in  charge  of 
Government  revenues).  Treasury  (in  charge  of  disbursements), 
War,  Public  Works,  and  Education.  These  Ministers  are  also 
responsible  to  the  Legislature.  Naturally,  then,  frequent  shifts 
and  changes  in  the  ministry  are  the  rule  *'  and  rarely,"  says  Mr. 
Eder,  ''  is  a  Minister  in  office  long  enough  to  build  up  his  depart- 
ment or  carry  out  his  own  policies."  The  Governors  of 
departments  (the  main  political  divisions  of  the  Republic)  are 
appointed  by  the  President  and  retain  office  by  retention  of  his 
favor.  The  Governors,  in  their  turn,  designate  and  control  both 
the  prefects  of  the  provinces  (the  main  subdivisions  of  depart- 
ments) and  the  alcaldes  of  the  municipalities;  and  thus,  mediately 
or  immediately,  officials  throughout  the  country  are  dominated  by 
the  Central  Executive  at  Bogota.  The  only  provision  made  for 
home  rule  is  found  in  the  limited  powers  of  the  departmental 
assemblies  and  municipal  boards,  both  elected  by  popular  vote. 
The  revenues  of  the  departments  are  inadequate  to  support 
efficient  local  administration.  Departments  and  municipalities 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  large  cities  that  have  special  sources 
of  revenue)  levy  what  little  they  can  by  indirect  taxes,  often  of 
an  unwise  and  hampering  character.  This  economic  helplessness 
of  the  departments  of  course  increases  and  emphasizes  their 
dependence  upon  the  National  Government,  which  has  at  least  its 
revenue  from  customs  duties,  mines,  stamped  paper,  etc.  The 
conclusion  is,  that  all  power  is  centralized  at  Bogota. 

Sessions    of    the    Senate    and    House    of    Representatives, 
forming  the  Congress,  are  held  annually ;  but,  as  Mr.  Eder  writes, 
23 


338  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

"  Presidents  have  exercised  the  right,  instead  of  having  elections 
for  Congress,  of  convoking  a  National  Assembly,  the  membership 
of  which  has  been  appointed  by  the  departmental  assemblies,  upon 
which  pressure  can  be  somewhat  more  readily  exerted  by  the 
Executive  than  upon  a  direct  vote  at  honestly  conducted  polls. 
The  distinction  between  a  Congress  and  a  National  Assembly  is 
somewhat  hard  for  the  foreigner  to  grasp,  especially  as  the  Con- 
stitution makes  no  provision  for  the  latter  body,  but  it  is  held 
that  the  right  of  the  sovereign  people  to  assemble  is  inherent  and 
superior  even  to  the  Constitution  itself."  It  was  stated  in  the 
preamble  of  the  Executive  Decree  convoking  such  an  assembly  in 
1905  that  the  basis  for  an  act  of  such  transcendent  importance 
must  be  sought,  not  in  the  Constitution  but  in  the  supreme  law  of 
necessity.  Such  an  Assembly  can,  indeed,  amend  the  Constitution 
without  the  more  deliberate  proceedings  which  that  instrument 
prescribes.  Title  XX,  Art.  70  of  Legislative  Act  Number  3  of 
1910  prescribes  that  the  Constitution  may  be  amended  only  by  a 
Legislative  Act  first  discussed  and  approved  by  the  Congress  in 
the  usual  manner,  and  in  like  manner  considered  at  the  next  suc- 
ceeding annual  session  and  thereat  approved  by  both  chambers, 
after  second  and  third  hearings,  by  an  absolute  majority  of  the 
whole  membership  of  each  of  the  chambers. 

The  Judiciary  and  the  Codes,  etc. 

The  Supreme  Court  has  nine  members,  four  elected  by  the 
Senate  and  five  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  In  each  case 
the  term  is  five  years,  and  nominations  are  made  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic.  The  Supreme  Court  magistrates  appoint,  as 
judges  of  the  Superior  Courts,  the  nominees  of  the  departmental 
assemblies.  Municipal  judges,  however,  are  elected  by  the  local 
boards.  The  Commercial  and  Maritime-Commercial  codes  are 
chiefly  based  on  Spanish  law,  though  the  influence  of  French  law 
is  not  to  be  overlooked.  The  same  influence  strongly  affects  the 
Penal  Code,  and  the  Civil  Code  is  founded  on  the  Code  Napoleon. 
The  title  "  doctor  "  is  commonly  bestowed  upon  lawyers  of 
prominence  or  university  training. 


EDUCATION 

The  most  recent  phase  of  educational  development  or 
endeavor  has,  naturally,  very  practical  and  material  aims.  Com- 
pare Brazil  —  Education.    We  note  particularly  the  establishment 


COLOMBIA  339 

of  a  National  Institute  of  Agriculture  and  Veterinary  Science  at 
Bogota,  with  an  experiment  farm  attached  and  an  auxiliary  school 
of  agriculture  to  be  located  elsewhere,  as  authorized  in  December 
1914.  But  the  purely  literary  tradition  of  this  interesting 
country  is  its  highest  distinction  —  its  achievement  in  literature 
has  been  admirable.  The  political  capital  has  been  a  literary  capi- 
tal as  well,  and  the  list  of  Colombia's  struggling  yet  well-planned 
colleges  and  schools  properly  begins  there.  Governmental  control 
of  education  throughout  the  country  is  centralized  in  the  Ministry 
of  Education  which  is  represented  by  a  director-general  in  each 
department.  No  complete  census  of  schools  aiid  pupils  has  been 
taken,  but  the  fact  has  been  ascertained  that  the  enrollment  in 
schools,  in  the  country  as  a  whole,  is  only  5.3  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation. In  general,  private  schools  are  more  flourishing  than 
public  schools.  The  University  of  Cartagena,  Department  of 
Bolivar,  comprises  five  *'  schools,"  devoted  to  philosophy  and 
letters,  science,  medicine  and  the  natural  sciences,  law  and  political 
science,  and  mathematics  and  civil  engineering.  A  school  of  mines 
is  maintained  by  the  National  Government  at  Medellin,  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Antioquia.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
Director  of  Education  266  primary  schools,  public  and  private, 
gave  instruction  in  the  department  of  Cartagena  in  1916;  about 
12,250  students  were  enrolled,  and  the  average  attendance  was 
8,059.  Primary  education  is  free,  but  not  compulsory.  The  private 
schools  are  generally  superior  in  instruction  to  the  primary  public 
educational  institutions  and  are  attended  by  children  of  the  upper 
classes.    There  are  no  secondary  schools  of  public  education. 


AGRICULTURE 


Agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  of  Colombia  and  is  espe- 
cially favored  by  soil  and  climate.  The  low  and  torrid  regions 
(coasts  and  valleys)  produce  coffee,  sugar  cane,  bananas,  cacao, 
yucca,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  vanilla,  rice,  and  many  kinds  of 
tropical  fruits.  The  temperate  middle  region  of  the  Andes  is 
suited  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  barley,  corn,  etc.,  but  these 
grains  are  not  produced  in  very  large  quantities  owing  to  the  lack 
of  means  of  transportation.  The  rubber  tree  and  copaiba  tree 
grow  wild  and  are  tapped.  The  cattle  raising  industry  is  impor- 
tant in  the  great  plains  of  the  southeast  and  cattle  hides  are  an 
important  export.  The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  republic  is 
about  7,000,000.    There  are  some  excellent  horses  and  mules  of 


340.  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Andalusian  stock.  The  government  has  adopted  measures  to 
make  experiments  in  irrigation  of  tropical  lands  and  will  place 
artesian  wells  at  various  points  on  the  plains.  A  recent  law  covers 
this  project  and  provides  for  the  establishment  of  schools  of  tropi- 
cal agriculture  and  a  central  bacteriological  institute.  Coffee  is 
Colombia's  most  important  article  of  export,  and  is  grown  largely 
in  the  Medellin  and  Bogota  districts  and  the  Cauca  Valley.  Colom- 
bian coffee  commands  a  high  price  and  finds  a  ready  market  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  The  Cali  railway,  which  is  nearing 
completion,  will  undoubtedly  stimulate  the  industry  in  the  Cauca 
Valley.  Much  of  the  rubber  shipped  abroad  is  of  the  uncultivated 
variety,  but  in  the  Atrato  Valley  and  elsewhere  the  tree  is  under 
cultivation.  The  production  in  1915  increased  100  per  cent  over 
that  of  the  preceding  year,  and  the  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
The  Sinii  and  Atrato  Valleys  abound  in  fibrous  plants,  such  as 
fique  and  pita,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  River  plants  of 
the  agave  family  and  a  species  of  henequen,  called  locally  '  *  planta- 
nillo,"  grow  in  great  numbers.  These  various  plants  produce  an 
excellent  grade  of  fibre  which  is  used  throughout  the  country  for 
making  rope,  rugs,  hammocks,  etc.  The  manner  of  separating  and 
cleaning  the  fiber  is  crude  and  primitive,  the  plants  being  flagel- 
lated until  the  fibres  separate  and  these  are  put  in  the  sun  to  dry. 
The  introduction  of  machinery  for  separating  the  fibre  econom- 
ically should  create  a  thriving  industry.  Ipecac  is  an  important 
agricultural  export.  In  1915  there  was  a  large  increase  in  the 
tonnage  and  value  of  shipments  of  this  commodity.  The  plant 
grows  wild  in  the  Sinii  Valley  and  a  small  toll  is  assessed  by  the 
Grovernment  on  all  ipecac  gathered  on  public  lands. 

There  are  productive  tobacco  lands  near  the  coast  and  in  the 
Department  of  Santander,  but  the  district  of  Ambalema  produces 
the  best  grade  and  the  greatest  quantity  of  tobacco.  The  larger 
part  of  it  is  used  locally  for  manufacturing  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
although  the  exports  have  been  important  during  some  years. 
There  was  less  tobacco  grown  than  usual  in  1915  owing  to  the 
expected  curtailment  of  the  market  abroad.  The  invoiced  price  of 
exported  tobacco  early  in  1915  was  six  cents  a  pound,  which 
increased  to  eight  cents  a  pound  in  November. 

The  elimination  of  Germany  from  the  market  in  1915  left  the 
exporters  of  tagua  or  ivory  nuts  in  this  district  with  quantities  on 
hand  that  could  not  be  disposed  of  elsewhere.  It  is  owing  to  the 
neglect  in  sorting  the  nuts  according  to  size  and  grade  that  has 
prevented  Colombian  exporters  from  selling  greater  quantities  in 
the  United  States.    The  prevailing  local  price  of  tagua  during  the 


COLOMBIA  341 

year  was  $40  a  ton.  Land  for  agricultural  and  other  purposes  is 
cheap  and  generally  well  watered,  but  the  scarcity  of  labor  is  one 
of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  developing  the  country.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  hardwood,  only  cedar  and  mahogany  are 
exported. 


MANUFACTURES 

According  to  government  statistics  Colombia  in  1916  had  121 
manufacturing  plants,  in  which  was  invested  a  total  capital  of 
$12,406,000.  The  list  prepared  by  the  Government  is  not  complete, 
as  several  well-known  factories  are  not  represented,  and  the  total 
capital  should  be  at  least  $13,000,000. 

There  are  two  plants  (sugar  and  oil)  of  over  $1,000,000 
capital.  Three  textile  factories  and  one  electric  plant  have  cap- 
italizations of  over  $500,000  each,  and  10  enterprises  (4  textile 
mills,  2  match  factories,  1  flour  mill,  1  cement  plant,  1  chocolate 
factory,  and  1  tanning  extract  plant)  are  capitalized  between 
$200,000  and  $500,000  each.  Twelve  factories  have  capitalization 
between  $100,000  and  $200,000;  15  between  $50,000  and  $100,000; 
50  between  $10,000  and  $50,000;  and  28  less  than  $10,000. 

The  principal  manufacturing  centres  are  Bogota,  Medellin, 
Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena.  Bogota  has  40  plants  with  a  com- 
bined capital  of  $3,013,000;  Medellin  has  30  with  a  capital  of 
$2,380,600;  Barranquilla,  18  with  $1,370,000  capital;  and  Carta- 
gena, 12  with  a  total  capital  of  $2,993,000.  In  the  Cartagena  fac- 
tories are  included  a  sugar  mill  at  Sincerin,  some  20  miles  distant, 
which  is  capitalized  at  $2,000,000.  With  the  exception  of  sugar, 
the  exports  of  which  in  1915  amounted  to  $98,265,  practically  none 
of  the  products  of  these  manufacturing  industries  is  exported.  In 
fact  their  output,  except  in  a  few  articles,  is  not  sufficient  to  meet 
the  domestic  demand.  For  instance,  with  7  large  and  14  small  tex- 
tile mills  in  the  country  the  imports  of  drills,  sheetings,  and  print 
goods  amounted  to  $3,343,383  in  1915. 

The  manufacture  of  Panama  hats  is  an  almost  entirely  decen- 
tralized industry,  which  occupies  many  individuals  and  families  in 
the  small  communities  of  the  interior.  The  1915  production  of  hats 
was  valued  at  about  $1,000,000,  exports  having  amounted  to 
$966,846.  The  industry  suffered  greatly  in  the  early  part  of  1915 
through  the  curtailment  of  the  purchasing  power  of  the  buyers  and 
the  decreased  demand  from  the  principal  market,  the  United 
States.  Declared  exports  of  Panama  hats  at  American  consulates 
amounted  to  $566,683  as  against  $1,080,508  for  1914,  a  decrease  of 


342  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

$513,825,  or  almost  50  per  cent.  The  wages  paid  male  laborers  in 
Colombian  factories  are  $0.50  to  $1  per  day,  the  average  being 
about  $0.60.  Women  receive  $0.25  to  $0.35  daily.  In  the  coast 
towns  most  factories  work  only  eight  hours,  but  in  the  interior  10 
hours  is  the  rule.  Shipbuilding  is  an  important  industry  in  Car- 
tagena in  normal  years,  but  in  1915  there  was  a  noticeable  decrease 
in  the  number  constructed.  The  ships  built  here  are  for  the  coast- 
wise trade  and  consist  of  small  skiifs  and  schooners,  sometimes 
equipped  with  motor  power  engines  which  are  generally  imported 
from  the  United  States. 


COMMERCE 

The  value  of  Colombia's  imports  in  the  last  normal  year 
before  the  European  War,  1913,  was  given  as  $28,535,800,  exports 
in  the  same  year  reaching  the  sum  of  $34,315,800.  After  Brazil, 
Colombia  exports  more  coffee  than  any  other  country.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  annual  exports  amount  to  1,000,000  bags  of  60  kilos 
each  (132  pounds),  produced  by  125,000,000  coffee  plants.  As 
these  plants  are  valued  at  30  cents  apiece,  they  represent  an 
investment  of  $37,500,000.  The  exports  of  coffee  in  1915  were 
valued  at  more  than  half  of  the  total  exports,  being  $16,247,672 
out  of  a  total  of  $31,579,131.  The  United  States  consumes  the 
bulk  of  Colombian  coffee,  importing  91,830,513  pounds  out  of 
Colombia's  total  exportation  of  136,215,413  pounds  in  1914,  and 
taking  111,077,449  pounds  out  of  the  exports  of  149,111,674  pounds 
in  1915.  Other  items  in  the  export  list  are :  bananas,  tagua,  hides, 
leaf  tobacco,  rubber,  gold,  ''Panama"  hats,  and  platinum. 
Imports  from  the  United  States  in  1913  were  valued  at  $7,629,500, 
and  exports  to  the  United  States  $18,861,800.  In  the  same  year, 
the  imports  from  Great  Britain  were  valued  at  $5,837,490,  and 
exports  to  Great  Britain  $5,566,000;  imports  from  Germany, 
$4,012,100  and  exports  to  Germany,  $2,216,200;  imports  from 
France  $4,408,600  and  exports  to  France  $797,000.  Colom- 
bia imported  from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  other  countries  in  normal  years, 
before  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  Europe,  articles  of  the 
following  classes:  Textiles,  foodstuffs,  metals,  cars  and  car- 
riages, materials  for  arts,  drugs  and  chemicals,  fuel  and  lighting, 
agricultural  and  mining  implements,  electrical  supplies,  paper 
and  cardboard,  wines  and  liquors,  arms  and  munitions,  etc.  In 
domestic  commerce  many  articles  appear  which  are  manufactured 
in  the  country  on  a  very  small  scale,  partially  supplying  home  con- 


COLOMBIA  343 

sumption.  Exports  from  the  United  States  to  Colombia  were 
valued  at  $8,980,177  in  1915.  Exports  to  the  United  States  from 
Colombia  in  1916  increased  over  $9,000,000,  according  to  the 
declared  returns  received  from  the  consulate  of  the  United  States 
at  Barranquilla.  The  total  exports  for  1915  were  $18,656,662  and 
for  1916  they  were  $27,759,081.  Large  increases  are  shown  in  the 
shipments  of  bananas,  coffee,  gold  bullion,  and  hides.  The  increase 
in  exports  of  platinum  is  especially  large.  In  1916,  coffee  to  the 
value  of  $16,616,686  was  exported  as  compared  with  $12,632,829; 
hides  and  skins  valued  at  $3,632,359,  as  compared  with  $2,122,595 ; 
gold  bullion,  $2,009,079  against  $903,441  in  1915;  bananas, 
$1,667,213  against  $863,483;  platinum,  $1,456,648  against  $504,302 
in  1915.  Rubber,  sugar,  tanning  extract  and  ivory  nuts  figured  in 
the  exports  to  the  extent  of  about  $250,000  each. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 
The  principal  banks  of  the  capital  city  are  the  Banco  de 
Bogota,  Banco  de  Colombia,  Banco  del  Comercio,  Banco 
Central,  and  C.  Schloss  y  Cia. ;  those  of  Cartagena  are  the 
Banco  de  Bolivar,  Banco  de  Cartagena,  Banco  Industrial,  and 
Pombo  Hermanos;  those  of  Barranquilla  are  the  Banco 
Comercial  de  Barranquilla  and  Alzamora,  Palacio  y  Cia.; 
those  of  Medellin  are  the  Banco  Aleman-Antioqueno  and 
Restrepos  y  Cia.  The  circulating  medium  was  only  paper, 
having  approximately  the  value  of  one  cent  American  gold  per 
peso  in  1914.  (See  Bihliography:  Modern  Foreign  Exchange 
and  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Condi- 
tions). It  is,  in  1917,  both  gold  and  paper.  The  theoretical  unit 
was  the  peso  of  1,5976  grammes  of  gold  .91666  fine,  divided  into 
100  centavos;  and  a  law  passed  some  time  ago  was  designed  to 
fix  its  value  at  one-fifth  of  a  pound  sterling,  which  would,  indeed, 
be  the  actual  value  of  a  coin  agreeing  with  the  above  description. 
For  official  payments  and  judicial  liquidations  the  legally  estab- 
lished value  of  the  paper  currency  at  the  time  was  given  in  rela- 
tion to  the  pound  sterling  and  in  the  proportion  of  £1  as  the 
equivalent  of  500  paper  pesos.  Mr.  Joseph  T.  Cosby  wrote  in  1915 
as  follows:  Since  then  the  actual  par  of  exchange  is  10,000  per 
cent,  when  quotations  vary  from  this  par  they  are  considered  as  at 
either  a  discount  or  a  premium,  as  the  case  may  be.  For  instance, 
if  the  commercial  quotation  for  demand  draft  on  London  is 
expressed  as  10,500  per  cent,  this  would  represent  a  premium  over 
par  of  five  per  cent,  since  £1  would  cost  525  pesos  instead  of  500 


344  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

pesos,  the  par  at  10,000  per  cent.  American  and  English  gold  coin 
circulate  freely.  The  shipments  of  Colombia's  export  products 
are  usually  financed  through  the  medium  of  credits,  and  these 
credits  were  to  a  large  extent  cancelled  soon  after  the  war  in 
Europe  began,  exchange  rates  advancing  to  111/2  per  cent  above 
normal.  At  that  rate,  $100.00,  currency  of  the  United  States,  cost 
11,150.00  Colombian  paper  pesos.  The  method  of  quoting 
exchange  rates  in  Colombia  is  as  follows :  Madrid,  500  pesetas, 
9,550  per  cent  =  9,550  pesos  paper ;  New^  York,  100  dollars,  10,250 
per  cent  ^  10,250  pesos  paper;  Paris,  500  francs,  9,950  per  cent 
=  9,950  pesos  paper;  Berlin,  400  marks,  9,850  per  cent  =  9,850 
pesos  paper ;  Lppdon,  £20, 10,000  per  cent  =  10,000  pesos  paper.  A 
coinage  law  was  pronmlgated  by  the  President  in  the  Diario  Oficial 
of  19  Dec.  1916.  Under  this  law  the  Government  will  coin  gold, 
silver,  and  nickel  pieces,  and  will  recoin  old  and  foreign  pieces, 
standardizing  in  value  the  money  in  use  throughout  the  country. 
The  Govei'nment  is  authorized  to  coin  gold  pieces  of  established 
weight  and  fineness  in  the  mints  of  Bogota  and  Medellin,  when 
gold  is  needed  in  circulation,  and  when  individuals  present  gold 
for  coinage,  the  work  to  be  done  at  cost  price.  The  Government 
will  complete  the  mint  at  Bogota,  and  will  arrange  with  the 
Departmental  Government  of  Antioquia  for  the  purchase  or  lease 
of  the  mint  at  Medellin  to  be  enlarged  and  put  into  shape  to  coin 
an  adequate  amount  of  money.  An  appropriation  of  $50,000 
annually  for  coinage  purposes  is  to  be  included  in  the  next  budget 
and  in  succeeding  budgets  until  the  amount  of  $200,000  is  reached. 
The  funds  of  the  Conversion  Board  may  be  used  in  exchange  for 
national  silver  pieces  coined  before  191 1  and  foreign  silver  coins 
now  in  circulation  in  Colombia. 

The  Colombian  Government  recently  authorized  the  exchange 
of  gold  notes  for  the  old  paper  money  in  circulation.  The  Diario 
Oficial  announced  that  the  exchange  would  be  made  in  Bogota  by 
the  conversion  board,  through  the  exchange  office,  during  the 
period  from  1  March  to  19  Dec.  1917. 

Three  comprehensive  pamphlets  dealing  with  the  financial 
and  economic  situation  of  Colombia,  with  her  public  works,  etc., 
were  submitted  by  the  Colombian  delegates  to  the  First  Pan 
American  Financial  Conference  and  are  embodied  in  the  report 
of  proceedings  (Washington  1915).  Attention  was  invited  espe- 
cially ''  to  the  geographical  location  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
and  its  relation  to  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  proximity  of  the 
principal  Colombian  ports  to  both  entrances  of  the  canal.  This 
being  visualized,  it  is  at  once  self-evident  that  the  hostage  to  the 


COLOMBIA    .  345 

future  given  by  the  United  States  by  the  construction  of  the  canal 
makes  it  imperative  in  the  interests  both  of  the  United  States  and 
of  Colombia  that  the  two  countries  should  establish  relations  of 
the  greatest  intimacy."  The  Colombian  committee  also  expressed 
a  belief  that  it  is  ''  in  the  interest  of  all  the  American  Republics, 
whose  future  commerce  will  pass  through  the  Panama  Canal,  and 
especially  essential  to  the  United  States,  that  adequate  harbor 
accommodations  and  facilities  for  transshipment  and  storage 
should  be  installed  at  the  Colombian  ports  of  Santa  Marta,  Carta- 
gena, and  Buenaventura.  To  assure  the  proper  development  of 
these  ports  it  is  also  felt  that  the  sanitation  systems  should  be 
perfected."  In  addition,  the  attention  of  the  conference  was 
called  **  to  the  possibilities  of  railway  constructions  which  would 
stimulate  the  development  of  the  rich  natural  resources  of  the 
country,  and  thus  build  up  a  traffic  which  would  find  its  way  to 
the  markets  of  the  world  through  the  ports  mentioned."  The 
suggestion  was  offered  that,  if  American  capital  should  go  to  this 
country,  which  is  larger  than  Germany  and  France  together,  or 
larger  than  all  the  coast  states  from  Maine  to  Florida,  including 
Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  it  *  *  could  take  advantage  of  the  greatest 
and  best  classes  of  business  and  also  obtain  the  contracts  for  the 
construction  of  the  most  indispensable  public  improvements  of 
the  country,"  as  the  English  did  in  Argentina  from  1860  to  1880. 
Interesting  statements  made  by  the  Colombian  committee  are  the 
following:  In  the  order  of  their  importance,  the  workable  mines 
are,  first,  those  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  platinum  and  emeralds ; 
second,  petroleum  (found  in  large  fields  both  near  the  coast  and  in 
the  interior) ;  third,  coal,  which  '*  is  to  be  had  in  every  part  of  the 
Republic."  Platinum  and  emeralds  are  not  found  elsewhere  in 
paying  quantities  except  in  Russia.  In  eastern  Colombia  there 
are  immense  plains  well  adapted  to  the  cattle-raising  industry, 
and  communication  with  that  region  might  be  secured  by  means  of 
a  railw^ay  along  the  Patia  River,  which  has  carved  its  way  through 
the  mountains,  as  we  have  said  above,  and  empties  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  a  two  days'  journey  from  the  Panama  Canal.  No  convinc- 
ing evidence  is  at  hand  as  to  the  feasibility  of  this  plan.  Customs 
duties  yield  about  75  per  cent  of  the  total  yearly  revenues  of  the 
government,  and  the  export  tax  on  the  two  or  three  Colombian 
products  liable  to  duty  is  so  small  that  it  cannot  be  taken  into 
account. 

The  foreign  debt  for  loans  as  well  as  for  subventions  and 
guaranties  of  interest  on  railways  is  payable  in  London  and 
amounts  to  £3,923,720  or  $19,618,600,  that  being  only  $3.80  per 


346  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

capita.  Law  69  of  1909  gave  the  control  of  the  currency  to  a 
board  of  three  persons,  called  the  Junta  de  Conversion,  the  para- 
mount duty  of  the  board  being  to  collect  a  conversion  fund  in 
gold  coin  with  which  to  guarantee  the  paper  money  in  circulation ; 
and  it  appears  that  about  50  per  cent  of  the  gold  value  of  the 
paper  money  (in  the  proportion  £1=500  paper  pesos,  for  official 
payments,  etc.,  as  above)  has  been  collected.  The  banks  doing 
business  in  Bogota  have  a  total  capital  of  $4,350,000.  The  law 
does  not  allow  banking  institutions  to  issue  notes.  In  1913  the 
export  item  was  larger  by  $5,780,000  than  the  import  item,  so  that 
the  liabilities  assumed  in  the  first  six  months  of  1914  were  not 
based  on  credit  alone,  and  for  that  reason  it  was  not  found  neces- 
sary, when  the  European  War  broke  out,  to  grant  a  moratorium 
either  in  favor  of  the  banks  or  of  private  business  men. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

About  700  miles  of  railway  are  in  operation.  As  the  com- 
merce of  the  interior  is  carried  on  the  river  systems,  with  railways 
as  their  auxiliaries,  the  lines  of  the  latter  are  short.  Important 
in  this  respect  are  the  following  rivers:  Magdalena  (navigable  for 
over  600  miles),  Cauca,  Nachi,  Cesar,  Lebrij  and  Sogamoso.  The 
chief  ports  are  (on  the  Caribbean  side)  Barranquilla,  Cartagena, 
Santa  Marta,  and  Riohacha,  and,  on  the  Pacific,  Buenaventura. 
The  government  has  now  under  consideration  a  survey  of  the 
Bay  of  Malaga  or  Magdalena  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  with  a  view  of 
establishing  a  new  port  there  with  modern  facilities.  Points  of 
export  and  entry  on  the  Venezuelan  frontier  are  Cucuta  and 
Arauca.  The  ports  are  in  communication  with  European  and 
American  countries.  There  were  before  the  European  War  seven 
lines  of  mail  steamers  (three  British  and  the  others  French, 
Spanish,  Italian  and  German),  and  trade  service  between  the 
United  States  and  Colombia  was  furnished  by  The  United  Fruit 
Company,  weekly  sailings,  American;  Hamburg  American  Line, 
weekly  sailings,  German;  Panama  Railroad  Company's  steamers, 
weekly  sailings,  American;  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company, 
fortnightly  sailings,  British.  The  number  of  post-offices  is  given 
as  655,  and  there  are  12,000  miles  of  government  telegraph  lines. 


COLOMBIA  347 


ARMY  AND   NAVY 

Military  service  is  compulsorj^  under  the  law,  but  military 
training  is  bestowed  upon  a  handful  of  young  men  only.  The 
peace  footing  of  the  army  is  6,000  to  7,000,  and  the  police  strength 
in  1914  was  given  as  2,328  men.  Vessels  of  the  navy  are :  on  the 
Pacific,  two  cruisers,  two  gunboats,  two  tugs,  and  a  troopship ;  on 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  three  cruisers;  and  a  gunboat  on  the 
Magdalena  River.    There  are  no  modern  or  really  valuable  ships. 


POPULATION 


The  inhabitants  number  about  5,100,000,  10  per  cent  pure 
whites,  five  per  cent  pure  blacks,  40  to  45  per  cent  aborigines,  30 
per  cent  Cholos  (descendants  of  Europeans  and  aborigines),  and 
10  to  15  per  cent  mulattoes.  The  urban  population,  in  the  12 
cities  of  19,000  or  more  inhabitants,  may  be  placed  at  500,000 ;  or 
about  600,000  if  we  include  towns  of  6,000.  The  estimate  made  by 
Professor  Sievers  (see  Bibliography)  is,  for  the  inhabitants  of  such 
cities  and  towns,  10  to  12  per  cent  of  the  entire  population. 

Bibliography 

Acosta,  J.,  Compendio  Historico  del  Deseubrimiento  y  Colonizacion  de  la  Nueva 
Granada  (Paris  1848) ;  Bandelier,  A.  F.,  The  Gilded  Man  (New  York  1893) ;  Cieza 
de  Leon,  P.,  Travels  (London,  Hakluyt  Society,  Part  I;  1864,  Part  II,  1883); 
C'onstitucion  de  la  Republica  de  Colombia,  Edicion  Oficial  (Bogota  1886) ;  Cosby, 
J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New  York 
1915);  Eder,  P.  J.,  Colombia  (London  1913) — an  invaluable  contribution  and  an 
interesting  study  from  within;  Freehoff,  J.  C,  America  and  the  Canal  Title  (New 
York  1916) ;  Fuhrmann,  0.,  and  Mayor,  E.,  Voyage  d'  Exploration  Scientifique 
en  Colombie  (Neuehatel  1914) ;  Gonzales,  V.,  Modern  Foreign  Exchange  (New 
York  1914);  Harding,  E.,  In  Justice  to  the  United  States  (New  York  1914  —  in 
Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass.,  Latin  America) ;  Humboldt,  A.  de  and 
Bonpland,  A.,  Voyages  aux  Regions  Equinoxiales,  etc.  (Paris  1810-1835) ; 
Levine,  V.,  Colombia  (London  1914) ;  Markham,  C,  The  Conquest  of  New  Granada 
(London  1912) ;  Moore,  J.  H.,  Panama's  Independence  of  Colombia  (Washington 
1914) ;  Mozans,  H.  J.,  Up  the  Orinoco  and  Down  the  Magdalena  (New  York  and 
London  1910) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Latin  America  (Washington  1915) ;  Pereira, 
R.  S.,  Les  Etats-Unis  de  Colombie  (Paris  1883) ;  Petre,  F.  L.,  The  Republic  of 
Colombia  (London  1906)  ;  Serret,  F.,  Voyage  en  Colombie  (Paris  1912) ; 
Sievers,  W.,  Die  Cordillerenstaaten  (Vol.  II,  Berlin  1913). 


348 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  consists  of  14  Departments,  2  Intendencies,  and  7 
Commissaries.     These  with  their  areas,  populations  and  capitals  are  as  follows : 


DEPARTMENTS 

Area 

(in  square 

miles) 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

Vntioquia 

22,752 
1,008 

22,320 

16,460 
7,380 

20,403 
8,046 
8,100 

19,080 
9,360 
6,255 

17,865 

10,080 
3,897 

68,127 

739,434 
114,887 
420,730 
586,499 
341,198 
211,756 
713,968 
158,191 
149,547 
292,535 
204,381 
400,084 
282,426 
217,159 

68,127 
29,309 

4,922 
24,534 
53,013 

8,207 
31,380 

6,476 

5,545 

Medellin 

71  004 

48,907 
36  632 

Bolivar 

Boyacd 

Tunja 

8,971 

34,720 

18,724 

J21  000 

Caldas 

Popaydn 

Cundinamarca 

Huila 

21,852 
8,348 
27,760 
20,364 
19  755 

Magdalena 

Narifio 

Pasto 

Santander  Norte 

Cflcuta. 

Santander  Sur 

Bucaramanga 

Tolima 

24  693 

Valle 

Cali 

27,747 

Intendencies 
Choc6 

Quibd6 

Meta 

Villavicencio 

Commissaries 
Arauca 

Caquetd 

Goagira 

Jurad6 

Putumayo 

Urabd, 

Vaup6s 

Total 

440,846 

5,064,308 

Bogota 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  stands  on  a  plain  8,675  feet  above  sea  level  protected 
on  three  sides  by  mountains.  It  is  divided  by  the  Bogota  or  Funcha  River,  which 
at  a  distance  of  14  miles  from  the  city  falls  over  a  precipice  of  almost  500  feet. 
The  streets  of  the  city  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  while  narrow  are  well 
paved  and  shaded.  The  climate  is  moist  and  moderate,  the  temperature  averaging 
about  60°  F.,  with  two  rainy  seasons  each  year.  There  are  several  public  buildings 
of  note,  including  a  museum,  a  library,  a  mint,  an  observatory,  and  a  university, 
besides  the  various  Government  buildings.  As  the  valleys  in  the  neighborhood  are 
well  inhabited  by  an  industrious  people,  an  abundant  and  remarkably  varied  food 
supply  is  one  of  the  attractive  features  of  the  city.  It  has  a  number  of  manu- 
factories, which  produce  porcelain,  cloth,  cordage,  glass,  carpets,  matches,  etc. 
Because  of  its  being  subject  to  earthquakes  the  city  is  largely  built  of  low  ono- 
story  houses  made  of  brick.  The  district  to  the  north  and  east  is  rich  in  coal,  iron, 
limestone,  sand,  fire  clay,  and  manganese.  At  Zipaquira,  35  miles  to  the  north, 
are  large  salt  mines,  operated  by  the  government,  and  which  supply  nearly  all  the 
national  demand.  Bogota  has  telephone  and  tramway  systems  and  has  rail  con- 
nection with  Facatativa  (25  miles),  Zipaquira,  Soacho  (7  miles)  and  with  Girardot 
on  the  Magdalena  River,  67  miles  distant,  and  thence  by  the  river  route  to  the 
northern  seacoast  700  miles  distant. 

In  the  time  of  the  Spanish  occupation  it  was  a  centre  of  learning  and  is  to-day 
one  of  the  noted  cities  in  South  America  for  culture  and  education,  having  a  number 


COLOMBIA  349 

of  colleges,  a  good  school  system  with  an  enrollment  of  10,000,  and  a  large  number 
of  periodicals.  Although  it  is  so  far  in  the  interior,  it  has  great  importance  as  a 
trade  centre. 

Medellin 

The  second  city  of  Colombia  and  the  capital  of  the  important  and  populous 
Department  of  Antioquia  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about  5,000  feet,  giving  it 
a  pleasant  and  temperate  climate.  It  is  125  miles  northwest  of  Bogota,  and  about 
90  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast.  Its  streets  are  broad,  straight  and  well-paved  and 
lined  by  many  handsome  buildings.  It  has  a  good  water  system,  an  electric-light- 
ing system,  a  flour  mill,  manufactories  of  soap,  wax  matches,  candles,  clothing, 
and  shoes,  chocolate,  tobacco,  clocks,  paper,  and  articles  of  gold  and  silver.  Gold 
in  bars  to  the  extent  of  $300,000  a  month  or  more  is  sent  to  the  United  States  and 
England.  Its  commerce  is  considerable  and  there  are  also  a  number  of  iron 
foundries.  Medellin  has  rail  connection  with  Puerto  Berrio,  on  the  M'agdalena 
River.    A  consular  agent  of  the  United  States  is  stationed  here. 

Cartagena 

Cartagena  is  a  fortified  seaport  and  capital  of  the  Province  of  Bolivar.  It  is 
situated  on  a  peninsula  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  about  80 
miles  southwest  of  Barranquilla.  The  climate  is  unhealthful  and  there  is  an  average 
temperature  of  82°  F.  Cartagena  has  the  largest  and  best  harbor  in  Colombia, 
with  40  feet  of  water,  and  serves  as  the  port  for  all  the  ocean  trade  of  the  western 
country  adjoining  the  Caribbean.  A  fourth  or  more  of  the  Magdalena  River 
traffic  also  passes  through  it,  carried  by  a  railway  55  miles  long  joining  the  city 
with  the  village  of  Calamar,  on  the  river.  There  are  banana  plantations  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  oil  also  exists  in  considerable  quantities.  Cattle,  hides,  fine 
woods,  precious  stones  and  tobacco  are  exported  and  there  are  manufactories  of 
chocolate  and  candles..  The  new  harbor  of  Sabanilla  is  taking  a  large  amount  of 
goods  which  formerly  went  through  Cartagena.  Cartagena  was  the  classical  port 
of  the  Spanish  Main.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul, 

Barranquilla 

This  modem  city  is  situated  just  above  the  delta  of  the  Magdalena  River,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  canal.  It  is  the  principal  commercial  city  of  the  Republic, 
as  a  large  part  of  the  imports  for  the  upriver  trade  and  of  the  exports  from  the 
interior  pass  through  it.  The  land  around  it  is  supposed  to  contain  petroleum 
and  some  prospecting  has  been  done.  The  city  has  manufactories  of  underwear 
and  stockings,  safety  matches,  cotton  suiting  and  toweling,  jute  bags,  chocolate, 
glass,  and  various  other  articles,  besides  cotton  and  flour  mills,  and  a  public  electric 
lighting  and  power  system.  Barranquilla  is  connected  by  a  railroad  with  the  port 
of  Sabanilla,  14  miles  to  the  northeast.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 
Coffee  and  hides  form  the  bulk  of  its  export  trade.  Recently  the  government  has 
taken  measures  to  provide  a  channel  that  will  admit  boats  to  pass  the  mouth  of  the 
Magdalena  River  up  to  Barranquilla  and  has  begun  the  construction  of  piers  and 
warehouses  there. 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


SITUATION  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

ACCORDING  to  the  claims  of  its  owii  government,  La  Repuh- 
lica  del  Ecuador  (The  Republic  of  the  Equator),  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Brazil,  extending  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
at  Ion.  82°  55'  W.,  to  Ion.  72°  12'  W.,  and  from  lat.  1°  50'  N.  to 
lat.  5°  30'  S.,  but  nearly  all  of  the  region  east  of  the  Andes  is 
claimed  by  Peru,  and  the  boundary  with  Colombia  is  also  in  dis- 
pute. (See  Colombia.)  Therefore,  it  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  northeast  by  Colombia,  and  on  the  southeast  and  south  by 
Peru,  according  to  the  adverse  views  entertained  by  those  com- 
peting governments.  The  area  in  its  actual  possession,  including 
the  Galapagos  Islands,  is  about  120,000  square  miles;  the  total 
area,  if  we  include  disputed  territory,  is  nearly  276,000 
square  miles.  For  territorial  divisions  with  their  capitals  and 
populations  see  Provinces  and  Cities,  p.  362. 

The  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes  traverse  Ecuador,  running 
nearly  north  and  south,  with  elevated  plains  between  the  eastern 
and  western  mountains  —  some  of  the  latter  forming  a  sequence 
that  has  suggested  to  geographers  two  parallel  chains ;  and  it  is, 
indeed,  true  that  the  eastern  and  western  limits  of  the  broad  band 
of  Ecuadorian  upland  roughly  parallel  each  other.  There  are  four 
facts  of  special  interest:  First,  Though  we  do  not  find  here  the 
highest  single  peaks  in  the  world,  or  even  in  South  America,  there 
are  nowhere  else  so  many  peaks  of  very  great  height,  forming  a 
group.  Second,  their  equatorial  situation  gives  to  these  masses 
of  granite,  gneiss,  schist,  trachyte,  porphyry,  volcanic  detritus 
wholly  exceptional  contrasts  in  temperature.  (See  below.  Climate.) 

[350] 


ECUADOR  351 

Third,  this  region  has  been  in  the  past,  and  is  probably  today, 
more  subject  to  volcanic  disturbances  than  any  other  in  South 
America.  Fourth,  as  an  offset  to  the  group  of  high  peaks,  the 
Andean  ridges  sink  downward,  forming  the  lowest  pass  that  exists 
at  any  point  between  Colombia  and  the  southern  division  of 
the  Andes.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  lowlands  of  western 
Ecuador,  running  from  the  central  region  of  mountains  and  high 
plains  to  the  Pacific,  are  the  Guayas  and  the  Esmeraldas.  The 
former  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  In  the  eastern  low- 
lands, the  Napo  and  its  tributaries  belong  to  the  Amazon 
River-system.    There  are  numerous  small  lakes. 


Summit  of  Chimborazo,   Ecuador 

(View  taken  at  altitude  of  15,600    feet) 

Climate 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  coast  at  Guayaquil,  etc.,  is 
80°  F.,  that  of  the  interior  ranges  from  95^  F.  in  the  lower  valleys 
to  65°  F.  or  even  50°  F.  on  the  plateaus,  according  to  the  altitude. 
The  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  torrid;  the  highest  crests 
are  snow-clad.  The  elevated  valleys  of  the  Andes  have  a  very 
salubrious  climate.  They  lie  at  an  altitude  of  from  7,500  to  9,000 
feet,  where  the  temperature  is  moderate  and  fever  unknown.  The 
climate  of  the  capital  is  temperate  and  springlike  throughout  the 
year,  with  little  variation,  and  it  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in 
the  world  for  the  cure  of  tuberculosis.  There  are  two  seasons  only, 
the  rainy  lasting  from  December  to  May,  and  the  dry  from  June 
to  November.  The  first  meteorological  station  in  Ecuador  was 
established  in  1915.  It  has  since  been  in  successful  operation  at 
the  Quinta  Normal  (Agricultural  School),  near  Ambato.  Sub- 
stations are  now  established  at  Sangolqui,  Saquimalag,  Latacunga, 


352  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

Pansaleo,  Mulalillo,  Pillaro,  Palate,  Pelileo,  Banos,  Pilahuin, 
La  Victoria,  and  El  Puyo.  They  are  in  charge  of  the  director  of 
the  Quinta  Normal,  where  the  data  are  computed  and  reduced  to 
tables  each  month,  which  are  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
school. 

Mineral  Resources 

Petroleum,  sulphur,  gold,  platinum,  coal,  copper,  mercury, 
lead,  and  iron  are  found,  but  of  these  gold  alone  figures  in  the  list 
of  principal  exports  in  1914  (Report  dated  1916).  The  Zaruma 
mines,  province  of  El  Oro,  are  worked  on  an  extensive  scale  by 
an  American  company.  That  district  contains  numerous  gold- 
bearing  quartz  veins,  which  were  worked  by  the  Spaniards  100 
years  ago.  Along  the  Santiago,  Cochabibi,  and  Uimbi  rivers  in 
the  province  of  Esmeraldas  there  are  placer  deposits  of  gold,  and 
platinum  is  found  in  conjunction  with  gold  in  the  Esmeraldas 
washings.    Silver  also  is  exported  to  a  small  extent. 


HISTORY  OF  ECUADOR 

The  Quito  Indians,  who  held  the  country  near  the  present 
capital,  were  conquered,  perhaps  in  the  10th  century,  by  a  more 
warlike  race  led  by  chiefs  called  Scyris.  These  in  turn  yielded  to 
the  Incas  of  Peru.  On  the  death  of  Inca  Huayna-Capac,  the 
empire  was  divided  between  his  two  sons,  Atahualpa  and  Huascar. 
The  former,  whose  mother  was  a  Scyri  princess,  revived  the  Quito 
kingdom ;  Cuzco  and  the  southern  empire  were  given  to  the  latter. 
War  broke  out  between  the  brothers  shortly  before  the  Spaniards 
under  Francisco  Pizarro  arrived  upon  the  scene,  and  this  civil 
strife  made  possible  the  conquest  of  a  great  nation  by  a  handful 
of  foreign  adventurers.  (See  Peru.)  Benalcazar,  the  famous 
Spanish  captain,  completed  the  conquest  of  the  Scyri  kingdom, 
and  seized  the  city  of  Quito  (1534).  Between  1564  and  1820  this 
region  was  administered  as  a  presidency;  and  36  presidents  exer- 
cised authority  there  as  representatives  of  Spain  before  the  series 
of  *'  presidents  of  the  republic  "  began.  Quito's  first  demon- 
stration in  favor  of  independence,  10  Aug.  1809,  was  quickly  and 
savagely  repressed;  Guayaquil  was  more  fortunate  in  her  belated 
attempt  (9  Oct.  1820).  A  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  capture 
of  Quito,  after  the  battle  of  Pichincha,  was  organized  by  a  trium- 
virate whose  members  were  the  poet  Jose  Joaquin  de  Olmedo,  the 
merchant,  F.  Roca,  and  the  soldier,  Rafael  Jimena.    The  battle  of 


ECUADOR 


353 


Pichincha  was  won  for  the  patriots  by  the  Venezuelan  general, 
Antonio  de  Sucre,  Bolivar's  lieutenant:  the  territory  thus  liber- 
ated was  naturally  drawn  into  the  Colombian  federation,  which 
Bolivar  dominated  for  a  time,  (See  Colombia.)  In  1830,  after  the 
dissolution  of  that  greater  Colombia,  Ecuador  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic.    The  convention  of  Riobamba  placed  Gen.  Juan 


street   in   Guayaquil,    Ecuador 


Copyright,    Keystone    View    Co. 


Jose  Flores  at  the  head  of  the  government.  His  successor 
(1835-39)  was  Vicente.  Flores  was  again  in  power  from  1839  to 
1845,  and,  with  the  approval  of  many  partisans,  tried  to  secure  a 
much  longer  term  and  dictatorial  powers.  A  second  triumvirate, 
composed  of  Olmedo,  Roca,  and  Noboa,  carried  on  the  government 
until  a  convention  was  held  at  Cuenca.  This  convention  elected 
Vicente  Ramon  Roca,  who  served  as  president  from  1845  to  1849. 
Vice-president  Acasubi  assumed  the  presidency  when  congress  and 
the  country  could  not  agree  upon  a  candidate;  the  country,  how- 
ever, continued  to  be  disturbed  until  1851,  when  Diego  Noboa  was 
chosen  bv  a  constituent  assembh 


In  the  following  year  he  was 


24 


354  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

displaced  by  Gen.  Jose  Maria  Ilrvina,  at  the  head  of  a  successful 
revolution.  TJrvina  was  president  until  1856.  Slavery  was  abol- 
ished during  his  term.  Gen.  Francisco  Robles  followed  (1856-59). 
During  the  next  two  years  the  country  had  a  varied  experience: 
war  with  Peru,  the  dictatorship  of  General  Franco,  and  the  pro- 
visional government  of  Gabriel  Garcia  Moreno.  The  convention  of 
Quito  elected  Garcia  Moreno  to  the  presidency  (1861-65).  Jer- 
onimo  Corrion,  elected  in  1865,  retired  in  1867.  Javier  Espinosa 
served  from  1868  to  1869.  Garcia  Moreno,  as  the  leader  of  an 
insurrection,  took  office  again  (1869-78),  and  in  1873,  secured 
re-election  by  the  use  of  force.  He  was  assassinated  6  Aug.  1875. 
Antonio  Borrero,  his  successor,  was  driven  frorn  office  by  Gen. 
Ignacio  de  Veintemilla  in  1876.  After  the  expiration  of  the 
legal  period.  President  Veintemilla  made  himself  dictator.  Jose 
Maria  Placido  Caamano  was  president  from  1888-1892;  Luis 
Cordero  from  1892  to  1895  —  when  he  resigned  to  put  an 
end  to  bloodshed.  General  Alfaro,  at  first  '*  supreme  chief  ", 
was  legally  elected  in  1897.  Gen.  Leonidas  Plaza  Gutierrez 
sjicceeded  him  in  1901.  In  1904  all  religions  were  made  equal 
nbefore  the  law,  and  eventually  the  nation  was  declared  to  be 
the  owner  of  all  church  property.  In  1905,  the  clericals  elected 
their  candidate  for  the  presidency,  Lizardo  Garcia,  but  he 
was  overthrown  in  January  1906  by  ex-President  Alfaro  at  the 
head  of  an  "  uprising  ",  it  is  said,  though  really  Alfaro  led  a 
'^  Falstatf 's  Ragged  Regiment  "  and  never  thought  his  position 
secure  —  in  1911  he  himself  -was  assassinated  in  Quito,  together 
with  a  number  of  leaders.  The  president  elected  in  1912  w^as 
Gen.  Leonidas  Plaza  Gutierrez.  In  1918  contracts  w^ere  made  for 
the  sanitation  of  Guayaquil.  In  1914  government  forces  attacked 
the  port  of  Esmeraldas,  which  the  rebel  leader  Colonel  Concha 
was  holding  and  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire.  In 
1915  difficulties  of  a  serious  financial  character  were  discussed  in 
connection  with  delayed  payment  of  interest  on  bonds  of  the 
Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railway,  and  the  lien  on  the  entire  customs 
receipts  of  the  country  held  by  European  investors  in  that  railway 
enterprise. 


GOVERNMENT 


Congress  meets  at  Quito  every  two  years,  usually  on  10 
August,  for  a  period  of  60  days,  which  may  be  extended  for 
another  30  days.  The  President  of  the  Republic  may  also  call  an 
extraordinary    session    when    deemed    necessary    or    expedient. 


ECUADOR  355 

There  are  two  chambers :  the  Senate  of  32  members  (two  senators 
from  each  province;  term  four  years)  and  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties of  48  members  (one  deputy  for  each  30,000  inhabitants;  term, 
two  years).  Both  senators  and  deputies  are  elected  by  direct 
popular  vote,  every  citizen  over  21  years  of  age  who  can  read  and 
write  being  entitled  to  vote.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  elected 
for  four  years  by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  cannot  be  re-elected 
until  eight  years  have  passed  after  expiration  of  the  term  of 
office.  The  constitution  now  in  force,  dating  from  23  Dec.  1906, 
is  the  twelfth  promulgated  since  1830.  According  to  its  provisions, 
Ecuador  is  a  centralized  republic,  but  that  is  nothing  new.  In  the 
event  of  the  death  or  disability  of  the  President,  the  president  of 
the  Senate  or  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  the  order  mentioned, 
exercises  the  executive  power.  The  President's  cabinet  is  com- 
posed of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Public  Works,  the  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Relations  and  Justice,  the  Minister  of  the 
Treasury  and  Public  Credit,  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
Post  Offices  and  Telegraphs,  and  the  Minister  of  War  and  Navy. 
In  addition  to  this  cabinet,  there  is  a  council  of  state  which  is  con- 
sulted by  the  President  in  all  important  matters  and  which 
represents  Congress  when  that  body  is  not  in  session.  It  includes 
members  of  the  cabinet,  the  president  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the 
president  of  the  Court  of  Accounts,  two  senators,  two  deputies, 
and  three  other  citizens,  the  last  seven  members  being  elected  by 
Congress.  Under  the  constitution  foreigners  enjoy  the  same  guar- 
anties and  civil  rights  as  the  citizens  of  Ecuador.  Freedom  of 
thought,  of  worship  and  of  the  press  is  assured.  Women  may 
exercise  all  the  rights  granted  to  Ecuadorians,  and  also  have  the 
free  administration  of  their  property,  even  when  they  are  mar- 
ried. Aliens  may  acquire  property,  also  public  lands,  and  may 
establish  banking  institutions  under  the  same  conditions  as 
Ecuadorians.  Public  credit  is  guaranteed,  and  funds  set  aside  for 
the  payment  of  public  debt  cannot  be  used  for  other  purposes. 
(See  also  Local  Government  and  Judiciary). 

Local  Government 

This  is  controlled,  as  in  fact  it  was  before  the  enactment  of 
the  latest  centralizing  constitution,  by  the  central  government. 
The  local  administrators,  from  the  governors  of  the  provinces 
down  to  the  lieutenants  of  the  parishes  are  all  appointed  by  the 
President.  Chief  towns  of  cantones  have  municipal  councils,  com- 
monly of  five  members.  There  are  rural  (mounted)  and  urban 
police,  with  a  director  or  chief  in  each  provincial  capital. 


356  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP'  LATIN  AMERICA 

Judiciary 

Ecuador's  courts  are:  the  supreme  court,  at  Quito  (five  jus- 
tices, elected  by  Congress  for  a  term  of  six  years,  attorney- 
general,  two  secretaries) ;  superior  courts  at  Quito,  Guayaquil, 
Cuenca,  Riobamba,  Loja,  and  Portoviejo,  the  first  two  being  com- 
posed of  six  judges  and  the  last  four  of  three  judges  each,  all 
elected  by  Congress  for  the  same  term  as  the  members  of  the 
Supreme  Court;  court  of  accounts  at  Quito  (seven  judges)  empow- 
ered to  audit  and  investigate  all  public  accounts  and  expenditures, 
its  members  being  elected  by  Congress  for  a  term  of  similar  length 
to  that  of  the  justices;  municipal  civil  tribunals  of  the  first 
instance  at  Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  Cuenca;  fiscal  judges  for  each 
province;  judges  of  commerce  in  large  towns;  judges  of  mines, 
police,  and  parishes.  In  the  Republic  there  are  33  cantonal  and 
359  parochial  justices,  and  85  solicitors  admitted  to  practice.  In 
criminal  cases,  trial  by  jur}^  is  provided  for,  but  only  in  the  larger 
towns. 


EDUCATION 


Primary  instruction  is  gratuitous  and  obligatory  for  children 
between  6  and  12  years  of  age.  Among  the  subjects  taught,  beside 
the  familiar  elementary  branches,  are  morality  and  religion,  and 
urbanity.  In  the  boys'  schools  the  constitution  of  Ecuador  is 
added;  in  those  for  girls,  sewing  and  domestic  economy.  In  1916 
public  schools  of  primary  grade  were,  in  number,  about  1,600,  with 
98,400  pupils.  Secondary  instruction  is  provided  in  37  "  col- 
leges ",  with  371  professors  and  4,500  students;  the  school  year 
beginning  10  October  and  ending  30  July.  The  University  at 
Quito,  with  associate  universities  at  Cuenca  and  Guayaquil,  has 
faculties  of  philosophy,  belles-lettres,  law,  medicine,  physical  and 
natural  sciences,  mathematics  and  agriculture.  There  are  in  all 
nine  schools  of  higher  education  with  about  1,228  students.  An 
officially  authorized  publication  states  that  *'  a  large  number  of 
primary  and  secondary  schools  have  been  confined  hitherto 
(before  1900)  to  the  religious  orders,  who  have  acquitted  them- 
selves of  their  task  with  zeal  and  success."  Schools  of  arts  and 
crafts  are  found  in  the  provinces  of  Pichincha,  Leon,  Chimborazo, 
Azuay,  Loja,  and  Guayas.  Bahia  has  a  commercial  school.  About 
$600,000  is  expended  yearly  by  the  government  on  education. 


ECUADOR  357 


LITERATURE 

Jose  Joaquin  de  Olmedo  (b.  Guayaquil  1780)  and  Juan 
Montalvo  (b.  Ambato  1833)  are  by  loyal  Ecuadorians  esteemed  the 
former  the  greatest  poet,  the  latter  the  greatest  prose  writer  of 
South  America.  Ecuador  was  also  the  birthplace  of  Jose  Mejia, 
the  **  American  Mirabeau,"  and  of  many  historians,  theologians, 
poets,  romancers,  and  critics  whose  works  are  as  highly  regarded 
in  Spain  as  in  America.  The  Ecuadorian  Academy  (founded 
1875)  is  the  chief  of  the  literary  associations  of  the  republic, 


FOREIGN   COMMERCE 

The  value  of  imports  in  1914  was  $8,402,767;  of  exports, 
$21,464,333,  and  the  principal  exports  were:  cacao,  47,210  tons; 
coffee,  2,980  tons;  gold  (in  bars  or  dust),  $365,324;  ''  Panama  " 
hats,  $972,215;  cattle  hides,  811  tons;  ivory  nuts,  8,583  tons; 
rubber,  147  tons.  The  United  States  took  exports  valued  at 
$3,588,130;  France  took  $4,438,226;  Germany,  $860,302;  United 
Kingdom,  $1,230,555.  Ecuador  imported  from  the  United  States 
goods  valued  at  $2,770,599;  from  the  United  Kingdom,  $2,414,662; 
from  Germany,  $1,203,566;  from  France,  $326,770.  The  value  of 
imports  in  1915  was  $8,422,881 ;  of  exports  $12,882,402.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  were  cacao,  81,712,773  pounds  valued  at  $9,706,981 ; 
''Panama"  hats,  300,375  pounds  valued  at  $839,027;  gold, 
$530,591 ;  ivory  nuts,  20,094,925  pounds  valued  at  $526,519;  coffee, 
5,116,161  pounds  valued  at  $463,413 ;  cattle  hides,  1,971,243  pounds 
valued  at  $289,333;  rubber,  564,943  pounds  valued  at  $196,447; 
leaf  tobacco,  584,868  pounds  valued  at  $89,825;  leather,  163,803 
pounds  valued  at  $27,410;  bananas,  3,522,475  pounds  valued  at 
$33,575.  The  exports  to  the  United  States  amounted  to  $5,674,291, 
to  the  United  Kingdom  $2,669,280,  to  France  $1,175,972,  to  Spain 
$582,834,  to  the  Netherlands  $982,410,  to  Italy  $598,590.  Textiles 
other  than  silk  formed  the  principal  import  item  in  1915,  amount- 
ing to  $1,795,101.  Other  important  articles  imported  were  gold 
and  silver  coin  to  the  value  of  $1,416,232,  foodstuffs  $1,257,294, 
hardware  $581,521,  clothing  $301,418,  mineral  products  $327,315, 
machinery  and  parts  $277,970.  The  imports  from  the  United 
States  in  1915  totaled  $3,209,608,  those  from  the  United  Kingdom 


358  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

$3,353,333,  from  Italy  $399,961,  Spain  $330,867,  France  $246,728. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  United  States  ranked  first 
in  purchases  from  Ecuador  for  1915,  with  the  United  Kingdom 
second  and  France  third,  w^hile  in  imports  the  United  Kingdom 
occupied  first  place,  the  United  States  a  close  second,  and  France 
a  distant  third.  Heavy  purchases  of  materials  for  the  sanitation 
of  Guayaquil  from  the  United  Kingdom  were  largely  responsible 
for  the  increased  value  of  shipments  from  that  country.  Great 
increases  were  made  by  the  United  States  in  the  sales  of  cotton 
piece  goods,  laundry  soap,  readymade  clothing,  straw  hats,  drugs 
and  chemicals,  paper,  crackers,  and  a  number  of  others,  including 
canned  goods,  which  have  secured  a  permanent  entry  into  this 
market.  There  were  185  vessels  of  318,742  tons  and  2  sailing- 
vessels  of  1,737  tons  entered  during  1915,  as  compared  with  162 
steam  vessels  of  335,561  tons  and  7  sailing  vessels  of  12,125  tons 
during  1914.  The  exports  from  the  port  of  Guayaquil  in  1916  to 
the  United  States  included  37,227,400  pounds  of  cacao,  175,143 
pounds  of  coffee,  1,829,200  pounds  of  hides,  592,997  pounds  of 
ivory  nuts,  and  121,317  pounds  of  rubber.  Of  cacao  the  United 
Kingdom  took  23,772,000  pounds,  of  hides  143,730  pounds,  and  of 
ivory  nuts  62,362  pounds.  France  took  10,095,225  pounds  of  cacao, 
599,938  pounds  of  coffee,  29,378  pounds  of  hides,  and  219,205 
pounds  of  ivory  nuts.  Spain  took  4,242,700  pounds  of  cacao, 
558,956  pounds  of  coffee,  42,091  pounds  of  hides,  78,375  pounds  of 
ivory  nuts,  and  10,683  pounds  of  rubber.  Holland  took  4,325,000 
pounds  of  cacao,  and  Chile  2,528,834  pounds  of  coffee.  The  total 
exports  of  the  port  were  81,756,910  pounds  of  cacao,  4,645,218 
pounds  of  coffee,  2,044,399  pounds  of  hides,  1,101,017  pounds  of 
ivory  nuts,  and  132,000  pounds  of  rubber. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  monetary  system  is  based  on  the  gold  standard,  the  unit 
of  value  being  the  sucre  (weight  0.8136  grammes  of  gold  .900  fine, 
or  say  0.73224  grammes  of  pure  gold).  The  value  of  the  sucre  is 
$0.48665,  currency  of  the  United  States ;  and  the  value  of  $1.00  in 
terms  of  Ecuadorean  currency  is  therefore  $2.05484.  The  actual 
currency  of  the  republic  is  gold,  silver  and  banknotes,  but  the  only 
legal  tender  is  gold.  The  new  coinage  consists  of  the  gold  condor 
of  10  sucres,  weighing  8.136  grammes  of  gold  .900  fine,  or  7.3224 
grammes   of  fine  gold,  equivalent  to  $4,866  in  currency  of  the 


ECUADOR  359 

United  States,  the  silver  sucre  and  its  subdivisions,  and  nickel  and 
copper  pieces.  (Compare  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary 
Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New  York  1915).  Ecuador 
has  four  banks  of  issue:  In  Guayaquil,  Banco  del  Ecuador  (capi- 
tal 3,000,000  sucres),  and  Banco  Comercial  y  Agricola  (capital 
5,000,000  sucres) ;  in  Quito,  Banco  de  Pichincha  (capital  1,500,000 
sucres);  in  Cuenca,  Banco  del  Azuay  (capital  400,000  sucres). 
Other  banks  are  the  Banco  Hipotecario  (capital  2,000,000  sucres) 
and  the  Banco  Territorial.  These  are  only  mortgage  loan  banks. 
The  fiscal  revenues  of  Ecuador  before  the  European  War 
amounted  to  $10,000,000  American  gold,  derived  chiefly  from  cus- 
toms duties  (on  imports  of  $4,000,000  and  on  exports  $2,600,000, 
alcohol  tax  $480,000,  salt  monopoly  $360,000)  and  internal 
resources.  (Consult  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American 
Financial  Conference,  Washington  1915).  The  debt  of  the  govern- 
ment to  the  local  banks  is  partly  consolidated,  to  be  liquidated  in 
1927  and  partly  in  current  account.  Beside  this,  the  government 
owes  about  a  million  of  six  per  cent  internal  bonds  and  $1,500,000 
of  floating  debt,  making  a  total  of  about  $6,500,000.  The  foreign 
debt  proper  amounts  to  $1,000,000,  and  the  guarantee  of  the 
bonds  of  the  Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railway,  Ecuador  Central  Rail- 
way, and  French  Railway  Company  of  Ecuador.  (See  page  404  of 
Proceedings  cited  above). 


AGRICULTURE 


The  cultivated  area  is  limited,  owing  to  the  lack  of  laborers ; 
nevertheless  Ecuador  has  considerable  agricultural  resources.  A 
large  variety  of  crops  are  grown  and  the  soil  is  exceedingly  fer- 
tile. Ecuador  produces  more  cacao  than  any  other  country  except 
the  Gold  Coast  in  Africa.  It  is  grown  principally  in  the  provinces 
of  Guayas,  El  Oro  and  Manabi.  In  1914,  47,210,  and  in  1915,  40,000 
metric  tons  were  produced.  Another  product  of  considerable 
interest  is  that  of  the  tagua  or  ivory  nut,  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  buttons,  and  of  which  over  40,000,000  pounds  are  exported 
annually.  Coffee  is  cultivated  in  several  districts,  to  the  extent  of 
several  million  pounds  a  year  and  considerable  quantities  are 
exported.  Sugar  cane  and  tobacco  are  grown  on  the  lowlands  of 
the  coast.  Of  the  former  about  16,000,000  pounds  are  produced 
yearly,  an  amount  which  about  satisfies  the  domestic  demand. 
Rice,  quina,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  a  number  of  medicinal 
and  industrial  plants  are  also  grown  to  supply  the  home  market, 


360  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  some  are  exported.  The  rubber  tree  is  plentiful  and  this 
industry  is  growing  fast,  the  rubber  exported  annually  reaching 
nearly  $1,000,000  in  value.  Alfalfa  is  cultivated  and  the  pastoral 
industries  are  thriving. 


RAILWAYS,  POSTS  AND  TELEGRAPHS 

Sixty  miles  of  the  railway  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito  were  built 
before  1880,  that  is,  from  the  coast  to  the  village  of  Chimbo,  at 
the  base  of  the  cordillera.  There  the  enterprise  was  checked  by 
the  difficulties  of  construction.  A  company  organized  in  the  United 
States  undertook  to  complete  the  road,  and  did  so  by  25  June  1908, 
since  which  time  passenger  trains  have  been  making  the  trip  (297 
miles)  in  two  days.  The  line  starts  from  Duran,  across  the  Guayas 
River  from  Guayaquil,  and  ascends  the  Andes  to  a  height  of 
11,841  feet,  when  it  descends  to  a  height  of  about  9,000  feet  and 
contiimes  on  to  Quito.  The  gauge  is  3  feet  6  inches,  and  the  roll- 
ing stock  consists  of  about  25  locomotives  and  several  hundred 
passenger  and  freight  cars.  The  Central  Railway,  from  Manta  on 
the  coast  to  Santa  Ana,  is  in  operation  as  far  as  Portoviejo,  25 
miles,  and  when  complete  will  be  35  miles  long.  A  railway  which 
will  connect  Bahia,  Caracas  and  Quito  has  been  built  as  far  as 
Choiie,  opening  up  a  cacao  district.  A  number  of  other  lines  are 
authorized,  among  them  being  a  125-mile  line  from  Ambato  to  the 
Curaray  River,  a  line  from  Ambato  to  Banos,  a  line  from  Quito  to 
a  port  on  the  Esmeraldas  coast,  and  one  from  Guayaquil  to  the 
coast.  The  total  extent  of  the  telegraph  system  is  5,384  miles  with 
188  offices.  The  Ecuadorian  landing-station  of  the  Central  and 
South  American  Telegraph  Company's  cable  is  at  Salinas,  which 
was  declared  open  as  a  minor  port  by  executive  decree  21  Aug. 
1902.  Quito  and  Guayaquil  have  telephone  services;  the  latter  a 
street  car  system.  There  are  four  wireless  telegraph  stations  — 
two  main  ones  at  Quito  and  Guayaquil  each,  one  on  the  coast  to  the 
north  of  Guayaquil,  and  one  on  the  Galapagos  Islands.  There  are 
168  post  offices  in  the  country,  handling  about  5,500,000  pieces  of 
postal  matter  yearlj^  The  mails  are  carried  twice  a  week  to  all 
parts  of  the  republic;  to  foreign  countries  once  a  week.  Twenty 
passenger  steamers  ply  on  the  Guayas  River,  and  between  Guaya- 
quil and  the  other  coast  towns.  English  steamships  of  the  Pacific 
line,  and  vessels  of  the  Chilean  line  plying  between  Valparaiso 
and  Panama,  call  regularly  at  Guayaquil. 


ECUADOR  361 


INLAND  WATERWAYS 


Some  20  steamers,  as  well  as  a  number  of  sailing  vessels, 
steam  yachts,  steam  launches  and  gasoline  launches  maintain  an 
active  coast  and  river  service,  most  of  the  numerous  rivers  of  the 
country  being  navigable  for  considerable  distances  inland  and 
affording  excellent  means  of  transportation.  The  Guayas  River, 
at  the  mouth  of  which  is  the  city  and  port  of  Guayaquil,  is  the 
most  important  of  these  waterways,  being  navigable  for  river 
steamers  as  far  as  Bodegas,  40  miles  from  Guayaquil,  while 
smaller  vessels  can,  during  the  wet  season,  reach  Zapotal,  some 
200  miles  inland.  The  Daule  River  is  navigable  for  some  60 
miles,  the  Vinces  for  50  miles,  while  the  Esmeraldas,  Naranjal, 
Santa  Rosa,  Santiago,  and  Mira  rivers  are  all  navigable  during 
the  rainy  season  for  short  distances,  varying  from  10  to  60  miles 
or  more.  The  Amazon  River,  which  in  Ecuador  is  given  the  name 
of  Marafion  River,  is  navigable  almost  in  its  entirety,  and  thus  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Ecuadorian  Andes  may  be  reached  by  way  of 
Brazil  and  the  Amazon  River  and  its  tributaries. 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 

In  time  of  peace,  the  army  consists  of  7,500  officers  and  men, 
and  reserves  numbering  possibly  100,000.  The  regular  force  is 
composed  of  13  battalions  of  infantry,  one  regiment  of  cavalry, 
and  12  batteries  of  artillery,  besides  some  departmental  troops. 
These  serve  one  year  and  then  pass  to  the  reserve  and  second  line. 
The  second  line  army  has  135  infantry  battalions,  seven  artillery 
regiments  and  44  cavalry  squadrons.  The  regular  infantry  have 
the  Mauser  rifle;  the  artillery  have  old-fashioned  Krupps.  Mili- 
tary service  is  obligatory  from  18  to  32  years  of  age  in  the  army, 
and  from  32  to  45  in  the  national  guard.  The  compulsory  law, 
however,  is  not  generally  enforced.  A  mining  and  torpedo  section, 
a  sanitary  section,  and  a  telegraph  and  telephone  corps  were 
created  in  1910.  The  national  guard  includes  companies  of  fire- 
men —  organizations  which  are  especially  numerous  and  influen- 
tial in  Guayaquil.  The  naval  vessels  are,  one  cruiser  of  600  tons, 
one  torpedo  gunboat  of  56  tons,  one  torpedo  boat  destroyer  of 
1,000  tons  and  a  transport,  with  three  launches,  with  a  total  equip- 
ment of  about  200  men. 


362 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


POPULATION 

The  boundaries  of  the  republic  being  in  dispute,  and  a  large 
part  of  Ecuador's  claim  being  unexplored  territory,  estimates 
of  the  total  number  of  inhabitants  vary,  naturally.  The  Ecua- 
dorians usually  say  about  1,500,000  and  of  these  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths  are  Indians,  300,000  to  400,000  half-breeds,  and  only 
100,000  to  200,000  pure  whites.  There  is  a  small  number  of 
negroes. 

Bibliography 

El  Ecuador;  Guia  Comercial,  Agricola  e  Industrial  de  la  Republica  (Quito, 
annually) ;  Enock,  C.  R.,  Ecuador  (New  York,  1914) ;  Mbzans,  H.  J.,  Along  the 
Andes  and  Down  the  Amazon  —  this  especially  for  appreciation  of  Quito  (New 
York  and  London  1911) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Ecuador  (Washington  1915)  and 
Latin  America  (Washingtofl  1916) ;  Saville,  M.  H.,  The  Atitiquities  of  Manahi, 
Ecuador  (New  York  1907-10) ;  Velasco,  J.  de,  Historia  del  Reyno  de  Quito  (3  vols., 
Quito  1841-44)  and  a  French  translation  of  that  work  in  H.  Ternaux-Compans' 
Voyages,  relations,  et  memoires  (2  vols.,  Paris  1840)  ;  Suarez,  F.  Gonzalez,  Historia 
general  de  la  republica  del  Ecuador  (7  vols.,  Quito  1890-1903) ;  AVhymper,  E., 
Travels  Amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator  (New  York  1892). 


PROVINCES  AND  CITIES 

The  provinces  of  Ecuador,  with  their  capitals  and  populations,  are  as  follows : 


PROVINCES 


Population 


Capital 


Inhabitants 


Azuay 

Bolivar.  .  .  . 

Canar 

Carchi 

Chimborazo 
Esmeraldas . 
Galdpagos . . 
Guayas.  .  .  . 
Imbabura .  . 

Leon 

Loja 

Manabi .... 
Oriente.  .  .  . 

Oro 

Pichincha.  . 
Los  Rios.  .  . 
Tungurahua 


132,400 
43,000 
64,000 
36,000 

122,000 

14,600 

500 

98,100 

68,000 

109,600 
66,000 
64,100 
80,000 
32,600 

205,000 
32,800 

103,000 


Cuenca 

Guaranda .  .  . 

Azogues 

Tulcan 

Riobamba.  .  . 
Esmeraldas.  . 
San  Cristobal 
Guayaquil . .  . 

Ibarra 

Latacunga . .  . 

Loja 

Porto viejo. .  . 
Archidona .  .  . 
Machala.  .  .  . 

Quito 

Babahoyo . . . 
Ambato 


30,000 

6,000 

5,000 

4,000 

18,000 

3,000 

300 

75,000 

10,000 

15,000 

10,000 

10,000 

5,000 

5,000 

60,000 

5,000 

10,000 


Quito  A 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  is  the  second  largest  city  of  Ecuador.  It  is  situated 
on  the  flank  of  mountain  which  gives  its  name  to  the  province  of  Pichincha,  297 
miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Guayaquil  and  114  miles  from  the  Pacific.  Thanks  to 
its  elevation  above  sea  level  (9,371  feet),  the  climate  is  healthful  and  temperate. 
The  city  is  laid  out  on  a  rectangular  plan  and  has  several  suburbs.  The  streets 
are  steep  and  generally  impassible  for  wagons.     It  is  not  well-built,  many  of  the 


ECUADOR  363 

houses  being  of  mean  adobe,  while  the  better  ones  are  stuccoed.  Cattle  and  sheep- 
raising  are  carried  on  in  the  surrounding  district  and  the  city's  trade  in  these 
animals  and  their  products  is  considerable.  There  are  22  mills  in  operation, 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  flour,  sugar,  ice,  cloth,  candles,  matches,  cheese, 
leather,  saddles,  shoes,  ponchos,  blankets,  carpets,  etc.  The  embroideries  and  laces 
made  by  the  women  of  Quito  are  famous.  Electric  lighting  has  been  recently 
installed  and  there  is  a  telephone  system.  It  is  the  official  residence  of  the  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  the  United  States  accredited  to 
Ecuador. 

Guayaquil  or  Santiago  de  Guayaquil 

Capital  of  the  Province  of  Guayas  and  the  chief  seaport  of  Ecuador,  is 
situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Guayas  River,  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  Its  site  is  low,  the  climate  is  unhealthful  and  the 
water  supply  is  bad.  An  effective  system  of  sanitation  to  cost  $10,000,000 
was  begun  in  1913,  and  when  completed  it  is  expected  that  yellow  fever  and 
bubonic  plague  so  long  endemic  here  will  be  eradicated.  In  the  older  part  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  badly  paved,  but  are  well  laid  out  in  the  modern 
part.  The  city  does  most  of  the  buying  for  the  Republic.  It  is  a  good  market 
for  drugs,  light  hardware,  flour,  electrical  and  plumbers'  supplies.  Its  chief 
exports  are  cacao,  rubber,  coffee,  quinine,  gold,  silver  and  hides.  The  harbor  is 
good  and  is  protected  by  a  breakwater.  The  city  has  a  number  of  shipyards, 
ranking  among  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America.  The  chief  occupa- 
tion is  trade,  both  foreign  and  domestic.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  United  States  consul- 
general  to  Ecuador.  The  Guayaquil-Quito  Railway  starts  from  Duran,  across  the 
Guayas  estuary  from  the  city.  Another  line  to  the  coast  is  in  course  of  construction. 
This  road  will  open  up  the  coal  regions  of  Ecuador,  which  are  said  to  be  very  rich, 
A  dozen  newspapers  are  published  in  the  city.  There  are  manufactories  of  food 
products,  ice,  mineral  waters,  chocolate,  liquors,  alcohol,  soap,  candles,  and  hats. 
There  are  2,250  telephone  instruments  in  use  in  the  city.  In  1914  there  entered 
the  port  162  vessels  of  335,561  tons  and  cleared  162  vessels  of  340,727  tons. 
Guayaquil  is  visited  by  the  steamers  of  three  European  lines,  as  well  as  by  steamers 
plying  on  the  Pacific  coast  via  the  Panama  Canal. 

Cuenca 

Capital  of  the  Province  of  Azuay,  is  the  third  city  of  Ecuador.  It  is  situated 
8,640  feet  above  sea  level,  on  the  Rio  Matadero,  190  miles  south  of  Quito.  Its 
streets  are  straight  and  it  is  fairly  well-built.  The  surrounding  region  produces 
cotton,  sugar  and  cochineal  and  rich  metal  deposits  are  worked  nearby.  The  city 
has  a  large  trade  in  cheese,  grain  and  preserved  fruits  and  other  products  of  the 
region  and  has  manufactures  of  pottery,  hats  and  woolens.  It  is  a  centre  of 
literary  and  artistic  life  in  the  Republic. 

Other  Cities 

RJOBAMBA,  Ambato,  Loja  and  Latacuxga  are  the  most  thriving  of  the  lesser 
cities.  Their  interests  are  purely  local  and  their  trade  small.  Bahia  Caraquez,  and 
ESMKRALDAS  are  on  the  coast;  their  ports  open  to  the  trad^  of  all  nations.  Ibarra, 
to  the  north  of  Quito  is  situated  in  a  rich  interior  and  is  growing.  Portoviejo  is 
situated  25  miles  from  Manta  on  the  coast,  and  is  connecte4  with  it  by  rail.  It  has 
an  important  trade  in  coffee  and  ivory  nuts.  -q   \ 

\ 


PARAGUAY 


By  MariiIon  Wilcox 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  a  country  of  South  America, 
enclosed  between  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  Bolivia.  Esti- 
mates of  the  total  area  range  between  122,000  square  miles 
and  196,000  square  miles.  (See  below:  subtitle  History  and  the 
long-standing  boundary  disputes,  etc. )  The  chairman  of  the  Dele- 
gation of  Paraguay  to  the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Confer- 
ence estimated  the  superficial  area  at  445,000  square  kilometers; 
the  Pan  American  Union  handbooks  give  507,640  square  kilo- 
meters, or  196,000  square  miles. 

The  country  is  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  Paraguay 
River,  the  eastern  section  being  called  El  Paraguay  Oriental  and 
the  western  El  Gran  Chaco  or  El  Paraguay  Occidental.  For  the 
purposes  of  government,  Paraguay  is  divided  into  93  departments, 
which  are  grouped  to  form  20  electoral  districts.  (See  Political 
Divisions  and  Cities,  p.  375.) 

A  consequence  of  the  government 's  efforts  to  encourage  immi- 
gration and  colonization  is  seen  in  the  establishment  of  the  fol- 
lowing colonies  —  Villa  Hayes  Colony,  nearly  opposite  Asuncion 
in  El  Grran  Chaco,  settled  by  families  from  Switzerland,  France, 
Italy,  Belgium,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Spain;  San  Bernardino 
Colony,  settled  principally  by  Germans ;  Colonia  Nacional,  on  the 
railway  from  the  capital  to  Villa  Encarnacion;  Nueva  Alemania 
Colony,  in  the  department  of  San  Pedro;  Elise,  or  San  Antonio, 
Colony,  in  the  department  of  San  Lorenzo  de  la  Frontera ;  Nueva 
Australia  Colony  -nntaining  Australians,  English,  and  Para- 
guayans;  Colonic  -^    in   the   department   of  Caazapa,   also 

[364] 


PARAGUAY  365 

inhabited  by  Australians ;  Colonia  Guillermo  Tell,  a  Swiss  settle- 
ment; and  the  Hohenau  Colony,  a  small  community  of  German, 
Brazilian,  and  Paraguayan  coffee  planters. 

Topography  and  Hydrography 

The  general  level  of  the  Chaco  and  the  lowlands  of  the  western 
part  of  El  Paraguay  Oriental  is  approximately  250  or  300  feet 
above  that  of  the  sea;  the  eastern  side  of  Paraguay  is,  however, 
much  higher,  with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  southeast,  which 


Frontage  of  Asuncion,  Paraguay,  on  the  Paraguay  River 

(Courtesy    of    the    Pan    American    Union)  , 

is  a  low-lying,  swampy  region.  An  extension  of  the  plateau  or 
highlands  of  Brazil  is  seen  in  the  northeast,  the  so-called  Sierra 
of  Amambay,  with  lateral  spurs  running  toward  the  Paraguay 
River.  Through  the  centre  of  the  country,  from  Villa  Encarnacion 
toward  the  northeast,  run  the  cordillera  of  Villa  Rica  and  the 
Caaguazii  Mountains ;  and  a  transverse  range,  crossing  the  Parana 
River  into  Brazil,  forms  the  great  cataract  of  Guayra.  These 
ranges  have  an  elevation  above  sea-level  of  1,500  to  2,000  feet. 
The  position  of  Paraguay  Oriental  has  been  aptly  compared  with 
that  of  the  State  of  Illinois  for  its  southern  boundary  is  at 
the  confluence  of  two  great  rivers,  and  more  than  800  miles  above 
Buenos  Aires  and  the  La  Plata  estuary.  Of  these  rivers,  one,  the 
Paraguay,  forms  the  western  boundary  below  Asuncion,  while, 
above  the  capital,  it  passes  between  the  eastern  and  western  divi- 
sions of  the  republic,  as  already  stated;  the  other,  the  Parana, 


366  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

separates  Paraguay  from  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Brazil  on 
the  south  and  southeast.  A  large  part  of  the  territory  lying 
between  these  great  streams  is  not  yet  well  known.  The  Pilcomayo 
River,  flowing  southeastward  from  Bolivia,  forming  the  southern 
boundary  of  Gran  Chaco,  and  joining  the  Paraguay  below  Asun- 
cion, is  navigable  for  a  distance  of  150  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  Parana  flows  1,367  miles  from  its  source  in  Goyaz,  Brazil, 
before  uniting  with  the  Paraguay ;  the  latter  is  about  1,800  miles 
long;  both  have  large  tributaries  in  Paraguay  Oriental. 

Mineral  Resources  and  Soils 

The  northern  part  of  Paraguay  is  covered  with  limestone, 
while  the  southern  is  of  sandstone  formation.  Marble  is  reported 
as  abundant  in  the  north,  iron  in  the  south.  Several  veins  of 
copper  have  been  found.  Other  minerals,  according  to  semi-official 
statements,  are:  kaolin  (in  the  departments  of  Caapucu,  Ibicui, 
Quiqlio,  Villa  Rica,  Cordillera,  Villeta,  and  Luque) ;  talc; 
graphite;  serpentine  stone;  basalt  (near  Villa  Encarnacion) ; 
manganese  in  several  deposits  that  are  thought  to  be  extensive. 
There  are  four  distinct  varieties  of  soil,  namely,  (1)  sandy,  either 
white  or  red,  the  latter  being  fertile;  (2)  a  good  agricultural  soil, 
consisting  of  clay  and  quartz,  oxide  of  iron,  lime,  and  miscellaneous 
substances;  (3)  humus,  characteristic  of  forest  lands;  and  (4)  the 
black  alluvial  deposits,  prevailing  in  western  Paraguay. 

Climate 

Paraguay  is  regarded  as  a  sanitarium  by  the  inhabitants  of 
some  of  the  neighboring  countries;  and  it  is  quite  true  that  the 
capital  and  its  suburbs  are  moderately  healthful.  The  mean  tem- 
perature at  Asuncion  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Cairo,  Egypt; 
Hongkong,  China ;  and  Caracas,  Venezuela,  while  the  mountainous 
interior  regions  are  decidedly  cooler.  Rain  is  abundant  through- 
out the  year ;  snow  is  entirely  unknown ;  storms,  with  accompany- 
ing high  winds  and  very  severe  thunder  and  lightning,  occur  fre- 
quently. (For  a  record  of  temperatures  and  for  comment  on  the 
climate  values  of  altitude,  etc.,  see  Latin  America,  p.  9.) 


HISTORY 


Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1527,  explored  the  Parana,  and  sailed  up 
the  Paraguay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bermejo  in  the  following  year. 
Hoping  that  a  passage  to  the  land  of  gold  and  silver  mines,  Upper 


PARAGUAY  .    367 

Peru  or  Bolivia,  would  be  found  in  some  part  of  this  great  river- 
system  (a  hope  which  still  leads  explorers  along  the  courses  of  the 
Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo),  300  Spanish  adventurers,  in  1536,  pro- 
ceeded up  the  Paraguay  to  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Asuncion, 
where  they  built  a  fort.  This  outpost  became  a  centre  of  military 
enterprise,  and,  after  1609,  of  missionary  work  among  the  natives. 
The  Spanish  province  of  Paraguay  embraced  the  whole  region 
south  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Brazil  and  east  of  the 
Andes  until  1617;  but  when  Bufijioe-tAtr^w^as  made  a  provincial 
capital  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governors,  afterward  viceroys,  at 
that  city  extended  over  the  settlements  on  the  Paraguay  and  its 
tributaries,  as  well  as  those  on  the  Parana  and  La  Plata.  The 
Argentine  general,  Belgrano,  incited  the  Paraguayans  to  revolt 
against  Spain  in  1810.  On  14  May  1811  Pedro  Juan  Caballero 
with  a  few  companions  took  possession  of  the  Spanish  barracks, 
and  the  next  day  compelled  Governor  Velazco  to  divide  his  author- 
ity with  two  leaders  of  the  revolution.  An  assembly  which  began 
its  sessions  on  11  June  1811  renounced  allegiance  to  Spain,  and 
this  declaration  was  ratified  by  the  Congress  which  assembled  for 
the  first  time  on  1  Oct.  1813,  and  on  the  12th  vested  the  executive 
branch  of  the  government  in  two  consuls,  Gaspar  Rodriguez  Fran- 
cia,  a  doctor  of  theology,  and  Sr.  Yegros.  Dr.  Francia  became  dic- 
tator (1814-40).  After  his  death  the  Paraguayans  experimented 
with  a  government  of  four  military  officers,  which  was  superseded 
by  a  triumvirate  on  23  Jan.  1841;  the  triumvirate  in  turn  was 
replaced  by  two  consuls  on  12  March,  and  next,  from  1844  to  1870, 
the  whole  power  of  the  state  was  grasped  by  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez  ^ 
and  his  son  and  successor  Francisco  Solano  Lopez.  The  younger 
Lopez  made  deliberate  preparations  for  a  war  of  conquest.  When 
the  time  was  ripe  for  action,  he  issued,  through  Congress,  a 
declaration  of  war  against  Argentina,  18  Mar.  1865.  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  Uruguay  formed  an  alliance  to  oppose  him.  Paraguay 
was  defeated  and  almost  depopulated  in  a  struggle  which  ended 
with  the  death  of  Lopez,  1  Mar.  1870.  A  comparison  of  the 
official  census  of  1857  with  that  of  1873  shows,  allowance  being 
made  for  increase  at  the  normal  rate  between  1857  and  1865,  that 
Paraguay  lost  more  than  1,200,000  inhabitants  during  the  war  — 
her  entire  population,  except  28,746  men  and  202,333  women  and 
children.  It  is  proper  to  assume  exaggeration  in  the  earlier 
census,  while  the  later  one  was  undoubtedly  defective;  but,  even 
so,  the  disaster  must  be  regarded  as  the  severest  that  any  small 
nation  in  recent  times  has  sustained,  rising  from  such  a  trial  still 


368  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

resourceful  and  independent.  To  Brazil,  Paraguay  ceded  the  ter- 
ritory on  the  north  and  northeast ;  to  Argentina,  by  the  treaty  of 
3  Feb.  1876,  the  district  south  of  the  Pilcomayo.  But  a  distin- 
guished arbitrator,  the  President  of  the  United  States,  12  Nov. 
1878,  awarded  to  Paraguay  a  district  north  of  the  Pilcomayo, 
which  Argentina  claimed. 

During  the  last  decade,  1908-1917,  the  resort  to  arms  for  the 
decision  of  political  disputes  has  not  been  discontinued ;  and  if  we 
review  the  entire  period  since  1870  (see  Government)  we  realize 
the  force  of  the  statement  that  "  only  three  presidents  (under  the 
constitution  then  adopted)  have  been  allowed  by  revolutionists  to 
complete  the  term  of  office."  Recent  disturbances  of  the  public 
order  w^ere  those  of  2  to  4  July  1908,  which  led  to  President  Fer- 
reira's  resignation;  of  1910  and  1911,  when  Manuel  Gondra  and 
Albino  Jara  were  compelled  to  resign;  of  22  Mar.  1912,  in  view 
of  which  President  Pena  and  his  cabinet  took  refuge  on  foreign 
warships;  of  27  April  to  13  May  the  same  year,  when  the  revo- 
lutionary efforts  came  short  of  success,  and  within  a  week  Eduardo 
Schaerer  was  elected  to  the  presidency  for  the  four-year  term 
beginning  15  Aug.  1912;  of  January  1915  (the  Escobar  revolt), 
when  another  revolutionary  failure  was  recorded  and  martial  law 
was  declared.  On  19  July  1915  a  treaty  was  signed  with  Bolivia, 
the  aim  of  both  countries  being  to  secure,  if  possible,  a  just  and 
amicable  settlement  of  difficult  questions  relating  to  the  boundary 
dispute  and  conflicting  titles  to  the  Chaco. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  constitution  of  1870,  now  in  force,  vests  the  powers  of 
the  government  in  three  co-ordinate  branches,  the  legislative, 
executive,  and  judicial.  The  National  Congress,  consisting  of 
Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  meets  each  year  at  Asuncion. 
Senators,  elected  by  the  people,  by  universal  suffrage,  one  senator 
for  each  12,000  inhabitants,  serve  for  six  years.  Deputies,  simi- 
larly chosen,  but  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  each  6,000,  serve  four 
years.  ''  The  executive  power,"  says  the  constitution,  ''  shall  be 
vested  in  a  citizen,  to  be  called  President  of  the  Republic  of  Para- 
guay. In  case  of  sickness,  absence  from  the  capital,  death,  resig- 
nation, or  dismissal  of  the  President,  the  executive  power  shall  be 
exercised  by  the  Vice-President."  Both  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent are  chosen  by  an  electoral  college,  serve  for  four  years,  and 


PARAGUAY  369 

''  cannot  be  re-elected  except  after  the  lapse  of  two  presidential 
terms. ' '  Numerous  provisions  of  the  constitution  are  designed  to 
guard  against  the  revival  of  dictatorships,  or  undue  extension 
of  the  powers  of  the  executive  (see  History).  In  regard  to  the 
cabinet,  Article  104  provides:  ''  Five  ministers  or  secretaries, 
respectively  called  of  the  Interior ;  Foreign  Relations ;  the  Treas- 
ury; Justice,  Worship,  and  Public  Instruction;  and  War  and  the 
Navy,  shall  attend  to  the  business  of  the  nation,  and  legalize  with 
their  signatures  the  acts  of  the  President.  Those  acts  without 
their  signatures  shall  have  no  efficacy."  To  the  foregoing,  the 
Ministerio  de  Fomento  (Department  of  Promotion)  has  been 
added,  making  the  number  of  cabinet  members  at  present  (1917) 
six  instead  of  five.  These  Ministers  are  responsible  to  Congress. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  consisting  of 
three  justices,  and  having  "  the  right  to  inspect  and  supervise  the 
action  of  all  inferior  courts  " — that  is,  in  practice,  the  courts  of 
appeal,  and  criminal,  police,  first  instance,  and  justices'  courts. 

An  interesting  side-light  is  thrown  upon  the  constitutional 
provisions  designed  to  curtail  the  chief  executive's  authority  when 
we  recall  the  circumstance  that  prior  to  the  war  with  the  Triple 
Alliance  Paraguay  had  no  debt,  either  domestic  or  foreign.  Her 
first  foreign  loans  were  negotiated  in  1871-72  at  London ;  and  on 
31  Dec.  1901  the  debt  thus  contracted  amounted  to  $4,787,077.86. 
On  the  same  day,  the  Brazilian  and  Argentine  indemnities,  results 
of  the  war,  amounted  to  $9,876,466  and  $9,563,990  respectively. 
(See  section  Banking  and  Finance,  p.  373.) 


RELIGION   AND  EDUCATION 

Article  III  (Pt.  I,  Chap.  I)  of  the  constitution  provides: ''  The 
religion  of  the  state  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Apostolic;  Congress, 
however,  shall  not  have  power  to  forbid  the  exercise  of  any  other 
religion  within  the  territory  of  the  republic.  The  chief  prelate  of 
the  Paraguayan  church  shall  be  a  Paraguayan."  Article  VIII 
declares:  *'  Primary  instruction  is  compulsory,"  directing  Con- 
gress to  *'  promote  by  all  possible  means  the  instruction  of  the 
citizens."  Professors  at  the  national  college  are  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  republic,  though  nominated  by  the  council  of  that 
institution.  The  entire  educational  system  was,  from  1609  to 
25 


370  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

1 767,  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits ;  the  tendency  to  nationalize  it  has 
grown  strong  principally  during  the  last  40  years.  In  all  schools 
the  Spanish  language  is  taught,  and  the  Guaranf,  though  still  the 
tongue  of  the  common  people  everywhere  outside  of  the  larger 
towns,  is  gradually  being  displaced;  it  is  even  prohibited  within 
the  college  precincts.  The  educational  system  adopted  by  the 
government  provides  for  rural  schools,  with  three  grades;  ele- 
mentary schools,  with  four  grades ;  and  more  complete  schools  with 
six  grades  (consult  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
the  year  ended  30  June  1915,  Washington  1915).  An  agricultural 
school  is  being  established  at  Ypacarai,  with  two  instructors,  who 
have  been  educated  abroad,  in  charge  of  courses  of  study.  The 
system  of  employing  teachers  for  special  subjects,  which  prevails 
in  secondary  schools  throughout  South  America,  is  applied  to  a 
certain  extent  in  Paraguay 's  elementary  schools. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

Forest  and  Agriculture 

Woods  which  are  valuable  on  account  of  their  extraordinary 
durability  and  powers  of  resistance  are  characteristic  forest  prod- 
ucts; many  of  these  being  so  heavy  that  they  sink  when  thrown 
into  the  water.  Dyewoods  of  many  varieties,  medicinal  and  resin- 
ous trees,  wild  vanilla,  etc.,  are  found.  The  chief  and  most  dis- 
tinctive product  of  the  country  is  yerba,  the  "  Paraguayan  tea," 
also  called  yerba  mate ;  sugar  cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  mandioca,  rice, 
maize,  coffee,  textile  plants  (caraguata,  ibira,  etc.),  oranges, 
bananas,  and  grapes  are  successfully  cultivated.  A  memorandum 
submitted  by  the  Delegation  of  Paraguay  to  the  First  Pan  Ameri- 
can Financial  Conference,  held  at  Washington  in  1915,  contains 
the  statements  that  the  "  artificial  cultivation  "  of  yerba  mate, 
tried  until  recently  without  good  results,  has  finally  been  success- 
ful, and  now  extended  plantations  of  it  may  be  seen;  that  the 
cultivation  of  tobacco  is  being  perfected,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of 
the  Banco  Agricola;  that  the  yield  of  cotton  of  fine  quality,  with 
long,  silky,  and  strong  fiber  "  is  proportionally  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  cotton-raising  country  ";  that  sugar  cane,  rice,  and 
Indian  corn  are  cultivated  with  easily-won  success;  and  that  the 
list  of  agricultural  products,  some  of  them  unknown  elsewhere, 
includes   mamon,  mandioca,   tartago    (from   which  castor   oil  is 


PARAGUAY  371 

locally  extracted),  coffee,  wheat,  olives,  coco,  ramie,  barley,  vanilla, 
cinnamon,  etc.  Forests  cover  about  one-half  of  the  total  area,  and 
these  contain  "  an  incalculable  wealth  in  woods  for  construction 
and  for  cabinet-making,"  of  which  the  following  are  of  demon- 
strated utility :  curupay  and  lapacho,  both  very  durable ;  incienso, 
a  strong  and  flexible  wood;  ibiraro,  considered  a  good  .substitute 
for  teakwood;  cedar  and  petereby,  the  latter  as  well  as  the  former 
suitable  for  cabinet-making;  timbo  and  ibyrapyta,  both  very 
abundant,  and  the  latter  useful  as  a  material  for  paving  blocks; 
laurel,  used  for  railway  ties;  guayaybi,  with  qualities  similar  to 
those  of  hickory;  palo  santo,  "  suitable  for  axle  bearings,  in  place 
of  metal  ";  quebracho  the  axe-hreakrr,  etymologically,  and  well 
known  industrially  as  a  source  of  tannin  and  as  resistant  material 
for  railway  ties.  Among  the  numerous  resources  on  which  the 
country  depends,  cattle  raising  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  most 
profitable,  pasture-land  being  abundant,  well  watered,  and  pro- 
vided with  natural  shelter  for  the  animals. 

The  tobacco  industry  reached  the  maximum  figures  in  1916, 
the  entries  in  the  market  amounting  to  77,804  bales  in  the  first 
11  months  of  the  year,  or  13,830  bales  more  than  in  the  previous 
year.  Only  61,000  bales  were  exported  in  the  1916  period,  as  low 
water  in  the  river  temporarily  obstructed  exportation.  The  live- 
stock industry,  which  is  counted  as  the  chief  source  of  wealth  in 
Paraguay,  has  been  developing  recently  and  is  receiving  a  new 
impulse  under  the  prospect  of  the  establishment  of  a  packing 
house  by  manufacturers  from  the  United  States.  The  exports  of 
live  animals  to  Argentina  have  not  varied  greatly  in  the  last  four 
years,  the  figures  being  as  follows :  1 913,  39,564  head ;  1914,  24,385 ; 
1915,  29,509;  1916,  29,940.  A  census  taken  of  the  live  stock  in 
Paraguay  in  1915  gave  the  following  figures:  Horned  cattle, 
5,249,043;  sheep,  600,000;  horses,  478,000;  mules,  17,000;  asses, 
18,000;  hogs,  61,000;  and  goats,  87,000.  Among  the  cattle  coun- 
tries of  South  America  that  have  cattle  for  export,  Paraguay  is 
said  to  occupy  second  place  with  11.8  head  per  square  kilometer 
and  5,249  beeves  for  each  1,000  inhabitants  of  the  country.  In 
addition  to  the  exports  of  live  animals,  animal  products  were 
exported  from  Paraguay  in  the  first  11  months  of  1916  in 
considerable  quantities. 

Some  Characteristic  Industrial  Products 

The  very  moderate  activity  we  have  observed  in  the  industrial 
life  of  Paraguay  is  directed  chiefly  to  forest  industries,  such  as 
the  production  of  tannin  at  Puerto  Casado,  Puerto  Sastre,  Puerto 


372  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Max,  Puerto  Maria,  Puerto  Galileo,  and  other  places.  The  prep- 
aration of  woods  for  exportation  is  carried  on  at  the  Nogues  and 
Pinasco  plants,  at  Puerto  Medanos  and  many  other  points  that  are 
connected  with  ports  of  shipment  by  private  railways.  Exploita- 
tion, of  Paraguayan  tea  (yerba  mate)  is  to  a  large  extent  controlled 
by  the  organization  known  as  The  Industrial  Paraguaya. 

In  the  making  of  the  very  beautiful  iianduti  lace,  Paraguayan 
art  and  industry  unite,  contributing  equally  to  a  charming  product 
—  the  artistic  tradition  being  an  inheritance  from  the  early  days 
of  the  Spanish  occupation,  while  the  exemplary  patient  labor  in 
the  execution  of  traditional  lace  designs  is,  of  course,  a  character- 
istic expression  of  that  limited  art-impulse  of  the  aborigines 
which  is  associated  with  patient  workmanship.  Excellent  ham- 
mocks are  made  by  the  same  painstaking  folk.  As  meritorious 
products  we  mention  also  the  native  cigars,  the  great  variety  of 
preserved  fruits  (native  fruits  in  native  cane  sugar),  and  the 
extract  from  the  leaves  of  a  native  orange  tree  which  is  known 
commercially  as  petitgrain  or  oil  of  petitgrain. 

Imports  and  Exports 

The  values  of  foreign  commerce  for  the  year  1915  were,  for 
imports  $2,340,510  and  for  exports  $5,409,858 ;  a  total  of  $7,750,- 
368  only,  whereas  in  1913  the  total  was  $13,539,744  gold,  and 
$9,441,807  even  in  1914,  when  the  effects  of  the  European  war  were 
first  apparent.  Before  the  war,  an  increase  was  noted  from  year 
to  year,  and  the  chief  sources  of  imports  were  then  in  Germany, 
England,  Argentina,  France,  Spain  and  Italy;  the  articles 
imported  being  textiles,  foodstuffs,  hardware,  fancy  goods,  wines, 
spirits,  drugs  and  chemicals,  ready-made  clothing,  chinaware  and 
crockery,  hats,  rugs  and  carpets,  shoes,  jewelry,  and  railway  or 
tramway  materials.  The  principal  exports  are  live  stock,  wool, 
dried  beef,  oranges,  tobacco,  cocoanut  bran,  essence  of  petitgrain, 
extract  of  quebracho,  yerba  mate,  palms,  and  many  kinds  of  wood. 
Commercial  interchange  with  the  United  States  during  the  years 
1910-17  was  on  a  footing  of  small  values  for  exports  from  Para- 
guay—  only  about  one-third  as  much  as  the  total  of  Paraguay's 
imports  from  the  United  States  during  that  period.  In  1914  Para- 
guay's exports  to  the  United  States  were  valued  at  $10,668,  and 
her  imports  from  the  United  States  at  $413,937 ;  but  in  1915  the 
figures  were:  Paraguay's  exports  to  the  United  States  valued  at 
$292,410  and  imports  from  the  United  States,  $209,148. 


PARAGUAY  37c 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 


The  Banco  de  la  Repiiblica  (authorized  capital  $20,000,000 
gold,  $6,000,000  already  subscribed)  and  the  Banco  Mercantil  del 
Paraguay  (authorized  capital,  in  terms  of  the  depreciated  cur- 
rency described  under  Monetary  System,  25,000,000  paper  pesos 
and  20,000,000  paid  in)  both  have  headquarters  in  Asuncion.  The 
Banco  de  Espaiia  y  America,  with  main  offices  in  Buenos  Aires, 
has  a  branch  in  Asuncion  (capital  $2,200,000  gold).  Some  of  the 
smaller  cities  have  agencies  of  the  foregoing.  The  normal  bank- 
ing rate  is  12  per  cent  annually.  The  Banco  Agricola  (capital 
originally  15,000,000  pesos  legal  money  and  recently  increased  to 
30,000,000  currency  pesos)  has  official  standing  as  an  institution 
authorized  to  assist  farmers  and  manufacturers  with  loans  at  a 
reduced  rate  of  interest  and  also  to  supply  advice  and  instruction 
in  regard  to  methods  of  cultivation. 

The  internal  debt,  as  stated  in  the  Finaucial  Congress,  was 
$559,675  gold  and  11,564,572  currency  pesos;  to  which  amount 
$394,119  gold  and  33,913,373  currency  pesos  are  to  be  added  as  the 
aggregate  of  individual  claims  for  damages  Sustained  **  during 
past  epochs  of  revolution. ' '  The  balance  of  the  treasury 's  debt  to 
the  Banco  de  la  Repiiblica,  of  $615,995.43,  was  adjusted  by  grant 
of  a  privilege  connected  with  a  certain  tax  imposed  on  exports. 
The  recent  issue  of  60,000,000  pesos,  paper,  has  nearly  doubled  the 
amount  outstanding,  which  is  now  125,000,000  pesos,  equivalent  to 
8,333,000  gold  pesos,  approximately.  In  1915  the  amount  of  the 
foreign  debt,  arising  from  the  loans  of  1871  and  1872  made  in 
London,  was  $3,370,418.12.  The  government's  chief  sources  of 
income  are  customs  duties  on  imports  and  exports,  land  and  postal 
taxes,  internal  consumption  revenues,  etc. 

Monetary  System 

The  nominal  unit  of  Paraguay 's  monetary  system  is  the  gold 
peso  of  Argentina  weighing  1.6129  grammes  of  gold  .900  fine,  or 
say  1.4516  grammes  of  fine  gold  (par  value  $0.96475,  currency  of 
the  United  States),  but  in  actual  circulation  we  find  only  incon- 
vertible notes  of  almost  incredibly  slight  purchasing  power.  Large 
amounts  may  be  "■  reduced  to  gold  "  theoretically  at  the  rate  of 
1.500  per  cent,  according  to  an  authoritative  statement  in  the  Pan 
American  Financial  Conference  Proceedings,  1915.  The  fact  that 
practically  no  gold  or  silver  coins  circulate  in  Paraguay,  the  cur- 
rency being  limited  to  the  depreciated  paper,   is  mentioned  in 


374  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions,  by 
Joseph  T.  Cosby  (New  York  1915).  Mr.  Cosby  adds:  "  No  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  redemption  of  the  outstanding  notes,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  volume  of  notes  known  as  Moneda 
Nacional  " — this  national  money  being  guaranteed  by  a  gold 
reserve  of  one-tenth  of  the  issue,  and  having  a  stable  value  on 
that  basis.  When  fractions  of  the  paper  peso  in  the  form  of 
nickel  coin  were  placed  in  circulation,  the  paper  currency  depre- 
ciated so  rapidly  that  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  nickel  coins  soon 
exceeded  their  monetary  value.  Therefore  those  coins,  tending  to 
disappear  from  circulation,  occasionally  are  sold  as  curiosities. 
Only  in  foreign  remittances  do  we  note  the  employment  of 
exchange  payable  in  gold  and  commanding  a  high  premium. 


WATERWAYS,  RAILROADS,  POST  OFFICES,  ETC. 

River  steamboats  maintain  connnunication  between  the  capi- 
tal and  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  a  railway,  with  train  ferry 
across  the  Alto  Parana  from  Posadas  to  Villa  Encarnacion,  also 
connects  the  same  cities.  The  upper  reaches  of  the  Paraguay 
River  above  Asuncion  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  lower  Alto 
Parana  are  navigable  —  in  many  places  precariously;  even  below 
Asuncion,  indeed,  the  channels  shift  suddenly  and  are  hard  to  find. 
Travel  and  transportation  between  Paraguay  and  the  great  world 
outside  are  thus  difficult,  inadequate,  and  controlled  by  a  single 
foreign  state;  naturally  therefore  the  landlocked  country  is  seek- 
ing now  by  pacific  arrangement,  as  it  sought  in  the  last  century  by 
force  of  arms  (see  History),  its  exits  and  its  entrances  —  among 
which  there  is  to  be  mentioned  the  projected  line  of  railway  from 
Asuncion  to  Parana,  near  the  magnificent  falls  of  Yguazii,  and 
thence  by  a  Brazilian  line  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  baffled  yet 
admirably  hopeful  country  has  400  post  offices  and  2,000  miles  of 
telegraph  lines,  with  stations  at  all  the  chief  town.s  from  Asuncion 
southward. 

Bibliography 

Decoud,  J.  S.,  A  List  of  Books,  Magazine  articles  and  Maps  relating  to  Para- 
guay (Washington  1904)  ;  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan 
American,  24-29  May  1915  (Washington  1915) ;  Koebel,  W.  H.,  Paraguay  (New 
York  1917) ;  Lopez  Decoud,  A.,  Album  Grafico  de  la  Republica  del  Paraguay 
(Buenos  Aires  1911);  Mitre,  B.,  Cartas  Polemicas  sobre  la  Triple  Alianza  y  la 
Guerra  del  Paraguay    (Buenos  Aires  1871),   and   Gucrra  del   Paraguay    (Tonios 


PARAGUAY 


375 


II- VI  of  Archivo  del  General  Mitre,  Buenos  Aires  1911-13) ;  Molins,  W.  J.,  Para- 
guay: Cronicas  Amerieanas  (Buenos  Aires  1915) ;  Mosqueira,  S.,  Ideales  (El  Para- 
guay, pp.  157-211,  Washington  1913) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Latin  America 
(Washington  1916),  and  Paraguay  (Washington  1914)  ;  Robertson,  J.  P.  and 
Robertson,  W.  P.,  Letters  on  Paraguay  (London  1839)  ;  White,  E.  L.,  El  Supremo: 
a  Romance  of  the  Great  Dictator  of  Paraguay  (New  York  1916) ;  Yubero,  G.,  El 
Paraguay  Moderno  (Asuncion  1915). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  divided  into  20  Electoral  Districts,  which  in  turn 
are  subdivided  into  93  Departments.  The  Districts  are  numbered  I  to  XX.  Their 
populations,  capitals  and  populations  of  the  latter  are  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

I 

II 

34,580 
37,429 
36,195 
30,262 
31,182 
19,274 
32,297 
25,886 
28,531 
28,418 
22,978 
30,365 
22,535 
30,454 
38,822 
28,608 
37,435 
38,633 
16,563 
37,193 

Villa  Concepci6n 

12,600 
8,926 

Ill 

Altos        

8,715 

IV 

9  143 

V 

9,120 

VI 

Ajos 

Villa  Rica    

6,283 

VII 

26 , 000 

VIII 

Hiaty 

7,096 

IX 

16,341 

X 

Yutf           

10,953 

XI 

Villa  Encarnaci6n 

San  Ignacio 

12,496 

XII 

5,121 

XIII 

10,253 

XIV 

1 1 , 943 

XV 

10,328 

XVI 

8,820 

XVII 

16,501 

XVIII 

ltd 

12,329 

XIX 

Villa  Oliva 

Villa  del  Pilar 

3,504 

XX 

6 ,  697 

Total 

Chaco  Territory* . 


Area,  ' 

square  miles    Population 
65.000  607,640 


100,000 


25,000 
100,000  uncivilized  Indians 


Grand  total 

*  In  dispute  with  Bolivia. 


165.000 


732,640 


Asuncion 


The  capital  and  lai-gest  city  of  Paraguay,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Paraguay  River,  about  1,100  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  with  which  seaport  splendid 
steamboat  communication  is  maintained.  The  river  at  this  point  is  over  600  yards 
in  width.  The  city  is  well  built  and  contains  many  noteworthy  buildings.  There 
are  distilleries,  mills,  foundries,  and  shipyards,  and  many  manufacturing  plants 
producing  C|uebracho  extract,  beef  extract,  verba  mate,  and  essential  oils,  and  for 
domestic  consumption,  sugar,  furniture,  soap,  leather,  alcohol,  and  bricks.  It  is 
the  chief  centre  of  trade  for  the  entire  country,  both  in  imports  and  exports; 
tobacco,  leather,  sugar  and  mate  are  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Asuncion  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Enearnacion,  250  miles  distant  on  the  Argentine  frontier, 
and  there  is  through  rail  connection  with  Buenos  Aires.  It  is  the  official  residence 
of  the  United  States  minister  to  Paraguay  and  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 
"The  population  is  estimated  at  80,000, 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  Republic  of  Peru  is  a  country  of  South  America,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  on  the  east  by 
Brazil  and  Bolivia,  on  the  south  by  Chile,  and  on  the  south- 
west and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  location  of  the  northern 
boundary  is  a  subject  of  dispute,  both  Ecuador  and  Colombia  as 
well  as  Peru  laying  claim  to  a  region  about  100,000  square  miles 
in  extent  adjoining  the  Maranon  River.  During  recent  years  the 
clashing  of  outposts  of  the  forces  of  the  competing  nations  in  that 
region  resulted  in  loss  of  life.  On  the  south,  Chile  holds  Tacna 
and  Arica,  which  were  not  ceded  by  definite  agreement  until  1912 
(See  section  History).  Other  portions  of  the  national  territory 
have  also  been  subject  to  adverse  claims ;  moreover  no  thoroughly 
reliable  surveys  of  the  eastern  district  have  ever  been  made. 
Estimates  of  the  total  area  are,  therefore,  naturally  far  apart; 
480,000  square  miles  being  preferred  by  the  British,  authority, 
C.  R.  Markham,  while  the  Lima  Geographical  Society  gives  695,- 
733  square  miles,  and  the  government  claims  679,600  square  miles. . 
(For  the  departments  see  Political  Divisions  and  Cities,  p.  392.) 

Topography  and  Hydrography 

The  maritime  Cordillera,  rising  about  20  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  the  great  ranges  of  the  Andes  farther  inland,  divide  Peru  into 
three  principal  regions:  (1)  The  central,  called  the  sierra,  includ- 
ing the  parallel  chains  of  mountains  —  the  Maritime  and  Central 
Cordilleras  and  the  Andes  proper,  or  the  eastern  chain  —  together 
with  transverse  ridges,  table-lands,  deep  gorges,  and  intermediate' 

[376] 


PERU 


377 


valleys;  (2)  the  montaiia,  all  that  territory  lying  between  the  east- 
ern Andean  slope  and  the  Brazilian  and  Bolivian  frontiers ;  (3)  the 
arid  coast  region.    In  the  sierra  the  mountains  of  the  western  part 
are  volcanic,  while  those  of  the  east  have  an  entirely  different 
geologic  history.     To  the  former  are  ascribed  the  violent  earth- 
quakes which  have  so  often  afflicted  the  country.     Both  western 
and  eastern  ranges  show  through  their  whole  extent  peaks  of 
great  height.    The  heart  of  the  sierra,  where  Inca  semi-civilization 
arose,    is    in    a   comparatively 
limited       section,       measuring 
about  380  miles  from  south  to 
north  between  the  great  trans- 
verse  ridge   of  Vilcanota   and 
that  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.     The 
main   natural   features   of   the 
montafia  are  the  rivers  Mara- 
non,    Huallaga,    and    Ucayali, 
each  of  these  being  navigable, 
and   all    uniting    to    form    the 
stream  which  here  is  called  the 
Maraiion     but     on     its     lower 
reaches     the     Amazon.       The 
sources    of    these    are    in    the 
sierra;  in  first,  rising  in  Lauri- 
ocha,    14,250    feet    above    sea- 
level,    descends    quite    rapidly 
until   at   Manseriche;   the   last 
rises  in  a  mountain  turn  tliat 
sends  its  waters  both  southward  to  Titicaca  and  northward  to 
Iquitos;  on  the  other  hand  the  southernmost  portion  of  the  mon- 
taiia forms  its  rivers  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  and  sends 
them  as  affluents  to  the  Madeira  system.    The  absence  of  rain  on 
a  large  part  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  due  to  the  circumstances  that 
the  prevailing  winds  from  the  east  lose  all  their  moisture  in 
passing  over  the  Andes,  and  this  is  not  replaced  by  evaporation. 
Numerous  rivers,  rising  in  the  central  or  western  Cordilleras, 
make  their  way  to  the  ocean  across  this  desert.    The  most  impor- 
tant harbor,  that  at  Callao,  has  been  improved  by  extensive  works. 
Principal  lakes  are :  Titicaca,  12,545  feet  above  sea-level,  about  80 
miles  in  length  and  40  in  breadth,  its  southern  portion  enclosed  in 
Bolivian  territory;  Arapa;  Umayo;  Chinchay-Cono  (at  an  altitude 
of  13,800  feet),  37  miles  long  by  7  wide;  and  Parinacocha,  12  by  6 
miles. 


Senate  Building,  Lima,   Peru 

(Courtesy    of    the    Pan    American    Union) 


378 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Bridge,    Rimac  River,    Lima,   Peru 


Mineral  Resources 

The  old  accounts  of  the  discovery  and  exploitation  of  Peru's 
chief  mining  zones  during  the  colonial  epoch  make  important 
chapters  in  the  history  of  that  period.  The  development  of  this 
industry  was  stopped,  first,  by  the  abolition  of  compulsory  Indian 
labor,  and,  secondly,  by  the  revolt  of  the  Indians  and  the  pro- 
longed war  for  national  independence.  The  founding  of  the  School 
of  Mines  in  1874  and  the  passage  of  the  mining  law  of  January 
1877,  which  made  the  holding  of  mining  property  perpetual  and 
irrevocable  (contrary  to  the  practice  under  the  old  Spanish  codes), 
lent  renewed  vigor  to  this  national  industry.  An  authoritative 
statement  in  1915  gave  the  total  output  of  the  mines  and  oil  wells 
each  year  as  about  $25,000,000,  copper  leading,  followed  by  silver, 
petroleum,  coal,  gold,  etc.  A  region  which  is  regarded  at  present 
as  the  richest  in  gold  is  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  republic. 
Vanadium  and  molybdenum  have  recently  been  discovered.  Silver 
ore  occurs  very  generally  throughout  the  entire  Andean  region, 
often  combined  with  copper  or  lead;  the  district  most  famous  in 
this  respect  is  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  department  of  Junin,  which  has 
produced  since  the  date  of  its  discovery  by  the  Spaniards  (1630) 
more  than  30,000  tons  of  silver.  To  that  department  are  credited 
now,  as  output  for  one  year,  240,000  pounds  of.  silver,  28,000  tons 
of  copper,  170,000  tons  of  coal,  and  5,000  tons  of  lead.  The  anmial 
production  of  petroleum  is  over  1,000,000  barrels,  the  oil  districts 
being  Zorritos,  Chimbote,  other  places  near  the  seashore,  and 
Puno,  near  Lake  Titicaca.  True  copper  veins,  containing  only 
that  metal  and  a  small  proportion  of  silver  and  gold,  are  found 
iiear  the  coast;  copper  ores  containing  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  anti- 


PERU  379 

mony  in  the  sierra.  A  national  mining  congress  was  held  in 
July  1917  to  define  the  position  of  the  Peruvian  government  in  the 
encouragement  of  the  mining  industry. 

Flora  and  Fauna 

The  cinchona  tree,  from  which  quinine  is  obtained ;  the  India 
rubber,  sarsaparilla,  vanilla,  etc.,  are  characteristic  of  the  mon- 
tana.  Sugar  cane,  maize,  cotton,  coca,  cocoa,  coifee,  and  tropical 
fruits  are  grown  in  the  valleys;  the  sierra  shares  with  the  Chiloe 
Islands  such  credit  as  may  be  given  to  the  original  home  of  the 
potato.  The  fauna  includes,  besides  species  mentioned  in  the 
articles  Colombia  and  Ecuador,  the  alpaca,  llama,  and  vicuna. 
Among  avifauna,  the  condor  is  conspicuous,  and  sea  birds  (the 
gulls,  tern,  etc.),  in  great  numbers  frequent  the  small  islands  near 
the  coast. 

Climate 

The  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  usually  about  16,400  feet,  though 
in  some  situations  oidy  15,400  feet,  above  sea-level.  Plains 
stretching  between  the  mountain-peaks  are  often  exceedingly  cold; 
the  climate  of  the  numerous  deep  valleys,  however,  is  tropical,  and 
that  of  the  intermediate  slopes  and  valleys  temperate.  The  rare- 
fied atmosphere  of  the  cooler  uplands  is  healthful  in  certain 
respects  only.  (See  the  article  Latin  America  —  Climate,  pages 
8,  9).  Tropical  conditions  prevail  in  the  montana  and  coast  region, 
but  with  a  marked  difference :  the  former  is  exceedingly  rainy,  and 
the  latter,  from  November  to  April,  has  no  rainfall  whatever. 

By  a  law  of  22  Dec.  1916  the  government  made  provision  for  a 
vigorous  campaign  against  malarial  conditions  throughout  the 
country.  The  work  involves  the  treatment  of  patients,  the  protec- 
tion of  people  in  regions  where  the  disease  is  endemic,  the  destruc- 
tion of  insects  transmitting  germs,  and  the  drainage  or  special 
treatment  of  swampy  lands.  In  connection  with  the  campaign 
(luinine  is  admitted  free  of  all  duties. 


HISTORY 


Before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  the  sierra  was  held  by 
Indians  of  the  Inca  tribe  whose  chief  town  was  Cuzco.  Chiefs  of 
that  tribe,  ''  Incas  "  par  excellence,  had  extended  their  conquests 
along  the  heights  of  the  Andes,  northward  somewhat  beyond  Quito 


380  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  southward  into  the  Titicaca  basin.  Unquestionably,  also, 
they  held  in  subjection  tribes  of  the  Pacific  littoral  and  montana 
regions;  their  commanding  position,  relatively  efficient  military 
organization,  and  use  of  the  llama  on  long  marches,  enabling  them 
to  levy,  even  in  remote  communities,  a  tribute  of  "  sun  virgins  " 
(female  captives,  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  national  god),  and 
of  the  precious  metals,  which  w^ere  largely  used,  never  as  money, 
but  for  the  interior  decoration  of  temples  and  for  domestic  uten- 
sils. As  for  the  social  organization  of  the  Incas,  and  the  impres- 
sive accounts  of  the  so-called  dynasty  which  have  been  commonly 
accepted  hitherto,  it  must  be  admitted  that  recent  scientific 
researches  conducted  in  the  sierra  have  put  the  whole  subject  in 
doubt.  It  is  quite  certain,  for  example,  that  the  "  empire  "  was 
ruled,  not  by  a  succession  of  enlightened  administrators,  but  by 
war-chiefs,  whose  office  was  not  hereditary;  that  extravagant 
notions  have  prevailed  in  regard  to  the  defenses  of  the  capital, 
the  system  of  roads,  and  the  irrigation  works ;  and  that  a  reliable 
chronology  begins  with  the  Spanish  conquest.  On  14  Nov.  1524 
Pizarro  first  sailed  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  About  three 
years  later  the  Inca  Huayna  Ccapac  died,  and  a  civil  war  broke  out 
between  north  and  south,  Atahualpa  commanding  in  the  former 
section,  Huascar  in  the  latter.  This  disruption  proved  to  be  the 
Spaniards'  opportunity.  In  January  1530  Pizarro  again  set  sail 
from  the  Isthmus,  and,  after  long  delays,  reached  the  sierra.  On 
16  Nov.  1532  the  Spanish  force  seized  and  imprisoned  Atahualpa. 
Xeres,  Pizarro 's  secretar}^,  writes:  ''Atabaliba  (Atahualpa) 
feared  that  the  Spaniards  would  kill  him,  so  he  told  the  governor 
that  he  would  give  his  captors  a  great  quantity  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  governor  asked  him :  '  How^  much  can  you  give,  and  in  what 
time?  '  Atabaliba  said :  '  I  will  give  gold  enough  to  fill  a  room  22 
feet  long  and  17  wide,  up  to  a  white  line  which  is  half  way  up  the 
wall.'  The  height  would  be  that  of  a  man's  stature  and  a  half. 
He  said  that,  up  to  that  mark,  he  would  fill  the  room  with  different 
kinds  of  golden  vessels,  such  as  jars,  pots,  vases,  besides  lumps 
and  other  pieces.  As  for  silver,  he  said  he  would  fill  the  whole 
chamber  with  it  twice  over.  He  undertook  to  do  this  in  two 
months."  February  1533  Almagro  arrived;  3  May  1533  the  gold 
and  silver  were  melted ;  29  Aug.  1533  Atahualpa  was  garroted.  On 
6  Jan.  1535  the  site  of  Lima  was  chosen;  the  city  founded  12  days 
later.  On  8  April  1537  Almagro  seized  Cuzco ;  8  July  1538  he  was 
condemned  to  death.  Two  years  afterward,  Gonzalo  Pizarro 
started  to  explore  the  montana.  Sunday,  26  June  1541,  Francisco 
Pizarro  was  assassinated.    June  1542  Gonzalo  Pizarro  returned  to 


PERU  381 

Quito.  From  28  Oct.  1745  to  February  1746,  earthquakes  occurred 
destroying-  Callao;  1780  to  July  1783,  Tupac  Amaru,  descend- 
ant of  the  Incas,  rebelled;  3  Aug.  1814,  the  cry  of  independence 
was  raised  at  Cuzco ;  September  1820,  the  Argentine  general,  San 
Martin,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  Lord  Cochrane  and  English 
officers  accompanying  him  from  Chile  (q.v.) ;  28  July  1821,  inde- 
pendence was  proclaimed  at  Lima,  after  San  Martin 's  entrance ;  20 
Sept.  1822,  San  Martin  resigned  protectorate ;  1  Sept.  1823,  Bolivar 
arrived  at  Lima ;  6  Aug.  and  9  Dec.  1824  the  Spanish  forces  were 
defeated  at  battles  of  Junin  and  Ayacucho;  24  Aug.  1827,  General 
Lamar  elected  to  presidency ;  16  Oct.  1856  the  existing  constitution 
was  framed,  and  25  Nov.  1860  revised ;  2  May  1866  a  Spanish  fleet, 
sent  to  enforce  alleged  claims,  was  repulsed  at  Callao;  13  Aug. 
1868  and  9  May  1877  destructive  earthquakes  occurred  ;y6  April 
1879  Chile  declared  war  against  Peru ;  8  Oct.  1879  the  Huascar  was 
captured  by  Chilean  ironclads ;  November  1879  battle  of  Tarapaca, 
the  Peruvian  province  of  that  name  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
Chileans;  26  May  1880,  battle  of  Tacna;  7  June  1880,  Chileans 
captured  the  port  of  Arica;  the  Peruvian  army  was  nearly  anni- 
hilated; Chilean  ships  desolated  the  whole  coast;  13  and  15  Jan. 
1881,  Chilean  invading  force  defeated  Peruvians  at  Chorrillos  and 
Miraflores;  17  Jan.  1881,  Chileans  entered  Lima;  20  Oct.  1883, 
treaty  of  Ancon  was  signed  (ratified  in  May  1884),  ceding  Tara- 
paca to  Chile,  and  providing  for  the  occupation  of  Tacna  and 
Arica  by  th^;^hileans  for  10  years  at  the  end  of  which  period  the 
inhabitant/5  should  determine  by  vote  whether  they  would  belong  to 
Chile  or  Peru.  But  it  was  also  provided  that  the  nation  preferred 
by  the  voters  should  pay  $10,000,000  to  the  other  nation;  and 
when  the  time  arrived  for  such  a  referendum  plebiscite,  Peru  was 
unable  to  give  attention  to  the  matter  and  unprepared  to  pay  the 
stipulated  sum,  in  the  event  of  a  favorable  decision./  On  25  Nov. 
1901  an  agreement  was  made  with  Bolivia  for  the  settlement  of 
boundary  disputes  by  arbitration.  In  September  1903  Manuel 
Candamo  was  inaugurated  president  but  he  died  in  May  1904  and 
was  succeeded  temporarily  by  SeiiOr  Calderon,  the  second  vice- 
president,  as  the  first  vice-president  had  also  died.  Elections  were 
immediately  held  and  Jose  Pardo  was  chosen  president  and 
installed  in  September  1904.  On  24  Sept.  1908  occurred  the 
inauguration  of  Augusto  B.  Leguia  as  president.  On  29  May  1909 
President  Leguia  and  several  members  of  the  cabinet  were  cap- 
tured by  a  band  of  desperate  men  in  an  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
government.     After  being  paraded  through  the  streets  of  Lima 


382  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  threatened  with  death  if  he  did  not  resign,  Leguia  was  res- 
cued by  the  loyal  troops  and  the  conspirators  captured  or  put  to 
flight.  ^ 

In  1912  the  Chilean  occupation  or  tenancy  of  Tacna  and  Arica 
was  confirmed,  in  perpetuity,  by  agreement  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. On  6  Dec.  1914  a  severe  earthquake  in  the  department  of 
Ayacucho  killed  a  number  of  people  and  destroyed  many  build- 
ings. In  1915  important  archaeological  studies  were  made  by  an 
expedition  under  the  auspices  of  Yale  University  and  the  National 
Geographic  Society  (of  Washington) ;  the  excavation  of  the  large 
ruins  of  Patallacta  at  Qquente  was  carried  on  with  care,  although 
seriously  hampered  by  unfriendly  action  on  the  part  of  the  Histori- 
cal Institute  of  Cuzco;  and,  before  the  reconnaissance  work  was 
stopped  by  the  government,  addition  was  made  to  the  new  learn- 
ing in  regard  to  the  region  of  the  Machu  Pichu  ruins.  During  that 
year  Provisional  President  Benavides,  ^'  as  a  reply  to  the  charges 
that  he  desired  to  establish  a  dictatorship,"  issued  a  call  for  an 
election;  his  candidate  was  defeated;  Dr.  Jose  Pardo,  coalition 
candidate,  was  elected;  and  Benavides  was  accused,  in  charges 
presented  to  Congress,  ''  of  abuse  of  power,  the  assassination  of 
General  Varela,  treason,  rebellion  against  the  government  of  Bil- 
linghurst,  securing  loans  without  previous  consent  of  Congress 
and  amassing  wealth  while  in  office."  Congress  ordered  an 
investigation.  The  same  body  approved,  in  October,  a  constitu- 
tional amendment  guaranteeing  religious  liberty;  but  President 
Pardo  refused  either  to  sanction  or  to  veto  that  progressive  meas- 
ure (see  section  Education  and  Religion),  and  upon  its  promulga- 
tion by  Congress  a  demonstration  of  hostility  was  made  in  the 
streets  of  the  capital.  (See  section  Money,  Finance  and  Bank- 
ing, p.  387,  for  other  phases  of  the  country's  history.) 


GOVERNMENT 


While  in  its  main  features  the  government  resembles  that  of 
the  United  States,  the  differences  are  important.  Thus,  Congress 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  but  Senators, 
as  w^ell  as  deputies,  are  chosen  by  direct  popular  vote,  and  the 
number  of  Senators  representing  each  .department  in  the  national 
legislature  is  not  invariably  two,  but  from  one  to  four,  the  larger 
number  being  conceded  to  departments  which  contain  more  than 
eight  provinces.  Again,  the  president  is  chosen  by  direct  popular 
vote  for  four  years,  but  he  cannot  serve  for  two  successive  terms ; 


PERU  383 

and,  to  provide  for  such  contingencies  as  the  death  or  disability  of 
the  chief  executive,  two  vice-presidents  are  elected  in  the  same 
manner.  Official  acts  of  the  president  require  for  their  validity 
the  signature  of  a  member  of  his  cabinet  (compare  Paraguay), 
the  cabinet  ministers  being  the  officials  in  charge  of  the  depart- 
ments of  Foreign  Affairs,  War  and  Navy,  Government  and  Police, 
Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  Treasury  and  Commerce,  Public 
Works  and  Promotion.  The  choice  of  supreme  court  judges 
depends  upon  Congress,  and  the  executive  selects  judges  of  the 
lower  courts  from  lists  of  the  candidates  proposed  by  the  higher 
tribunals.  Mr.  Vivian  (see  Bihliography)  observes  that  the  gov- 
ernment is  of  the  centralized,  not  federal,  type.  The  existing  con- 
stitution, promulgated  in  1856,  was  revised  in  1860. 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Service 

The  United  States  maintains  at  Lima  a  minister;  at  Callao  a 
consul-general  and  vice  and  deputy  consul-general;  at  Iquitos  a 
consul;  at  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Paita,  Mollendo,  and  Salaverry,  con- 
sular agents.  Great  Britain's  chief  representative  in  Peru  unites 
the  functions  of  envoy,  minister,  and  consul-general:  at  Callao  and 
at  Iquitos  there  are  British  consuls,  with  vice-consuls  at  Lima, 
Arequipa  and  Mollendo,  and  Callao,  and  a  consular  agent  at  Cerro 
de  Pasco.  Peru  maintains  a  minister  at  Washington  and  a  con- 
sul-general at  New  York;  consuls  at  Los  Angeles,  San  Francisco, 
Honolulu,  New  Orleans,  Baltimore,  Boston,  St.  Louis,  Toledo, 
Portland  (Oregon),  Manila,  Port  Tow^nsend  and  Tacoma;  honor- 
ary consuls  at  Chicago,  Philadeljjhia  and  San  Juan  (Porto  Rico) ; 
vice-consuls  at  San  Diego  and  Norfolk.  Peruvian  representatives 
in  Great  Britain  are  the  envoy  and  minister,  charge  d'affaires, 
attaches,  military  attache,  and  consul-general  at  London ;  consular 
representatives  at  Belfast,  Cardiff,  Dublin,  Glasgow^  Dundee, 
Liverpool,  Queenstown  and  Southampton. 


EDUCATION  AND   RELIGION 

The  most  ancient  university  in  the  New  World,  that  of  San 
Marcos  at  Lima,  was  founded  in  1551 ;  the  university  at  Cuzco  was 
founded  in  1598.  There  are  also  universities  at  Trujillo  and 
Arequipa.  Like  the  neighboring  republic  of  Ecuador,  Peru  lias 
been  honored  by  the  achievements  of  her  historians  and  geogra- 
phers, the  writers  on  constitutional  and  legal  subjects;  poets  and 


384  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

dramatists  and  such  naturalists  as  Rivero  and  Pinerola.  Note- 
worthy are  the  national  agricultural  school,  the  school  of  mines, 
and  school  of  arts  and  crafts  at  Lima.  Instruction  in  the  ele- 
mentary branches  is  free,  and  the  law  provides  that  it  shall  be 
compulsory.  In  1916  the  number  of  public  schools  was  given  as 
about  2,250,  and  the  total  attendance  as  nearly  175,000  pupils. 
High  schools  are  found  in  the  departmental  capitals.  The  Report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  ending  30  June 
1915  (Washington  1915)  contains  statements  to  the  effect  that  the 
importance  of  enforcing  the  law  making  elementary  instruction 
obligatory,  and  the  need  of  modernizing  the  general  scheme  of 
public  instruction,  have  been  appreciated  in  Peru,  and  that  edu- 
cational surveys  are  being  made  as  a  basis  for  improvement  and 
progress.  (For  school  of  mines,  see  Mineral  Resources.)  The 
bishopric  of  Cuzco  was  founded  in  1587,  and  the  see  of  Lima  in 
1541.  The  provisions  of  the  constitution  and  laws  in  regard  to 
worship  are,  naturally,  comparable  with  those  of  Ecuador;  recog- 
nition has  been  accorded  to  Roman  Catholicism  exclusively  until 
recent  years. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

Agriculture 

The  sugar  plantations  give  employment  to  25,000  persons,  and 
the  total  production  is  about  150,000  tons  annually.  This  is  an 
irrigation  crop,  as  are  also  cotton  and  rice.  Cotton  is  being  culti- 
vated on  quite  a  large  scale,  that  variety  which  is  preferred  for 
export  growing  in  the  department  of  Piurji.  In  the  two  coast 
departments  of  Lambayeque  and  La  Liber  tad  rice  is  extensively 
grown,  climate  and  other  conditions  being  very  favorable  for  this 
crop.  About  60,000  acres  in  this  region  are  cultivated  in  rice, 
yielding  on  an  average  1,500  pounds  of  rice  per  acre.  Exports  of 
rice  amounted  to  $305,480  in  1914.  Maize  thrives  in  all  parts 
of  Peru  below  the  frigid  table-lands.  Cacao  and  coffee  are  both 
of  excellent  quality.  The  plantations  of  rubber  are  on  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Andes,  and  in  the  region  bordering  on  the  large 
rivers  of  the  department  of'Loreto.  Other  agricultural  products 
are :  Manioc,  tobacco,  wine,  wax,  honey,  etc.  In  the  river  valleys  of 
the  coast  region  many  kinds  of  fruit  are  grown  with  the  aid  of 
irrigation,  the  best  of  these  being  chirimayas,  grapes,  oranges, 
melons  and  pomegranates.  By  the  law  promulgated  23  Jan.  1917 
loans  are  permitted  to  farmers  and  stock  raisers  on  agricultural 


PERU 


385 


implements,  sawmills,  live  stock,  meat  and  dairy  products,  fruits, 
growing  or  harvested,  timber  and  lumber.  The  annual  interest 
oh  such  loans  shall  not  be  more  than  4  per  cent  greater  than  the 
usual  banking  rate  in  the  community. 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 

The  detailed  statistics  covering  the  foreign  trade  of  Peru 
during  1915,  published  by  the  director-general  of  customs,  place 
the  total  value  of  imports  and  exports  at  $83,794,400  in  comparison 
with. $66,1 63,572  in  1914  and  $74,040,648  in  1913.  The  imports 
during  1915  were  valued  at  $15,064,470  and  exports  at  $68,729,930. 
The  value  of  the  Republic's  commerce  in  recent  years  has  been  as 
follows : 


YEAR 

Importe 

Exports 

YEAR 

Imports 

Exports 

1911 

S26.465,224 
25,015,460 
29,631,038 

$36,119,264 
45,871,504 
44,409,610 

1914 

$23,495,122 
15,064,470 
8,701,420 

$42,668,450 

1912 

1915 

68,729,930 

1913 

1916  (first  6  months).... 

31,510,388 

The  following  table   gives  a  list   of  the   principal  articles 
imported   into  Peru  during  1915  with  their  value: 


Articles 

Agricultural  implements,  etc 

Ammunition 

Barley 

Beverages 

Boats 

Books,  blank  and  printed 

Bricks,  fire 

Buttons 

Cakes  and  crackers 

Candies 

Candles 

Coal 

Cement,  Portland 

China  ware 

Dairy  products 

Disinfectants 

Dyes 

Electrical  apparatus 

Explosives,  dynamite 

Fireworks 

Flour,  wheat,  etc 

Fruits,  canned 

Furniture 

Glass,  bottles,  mirrors,  window,  etc . 

Gold,  coined 

Guano  and  nitrate 

Hats 

Horses 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures 

Jewelry 

Leather 

Leather  goods,  shoes 

Lime  and  lime  products 

Lumber 

Macaroni 

Machinery,  etc 

Meats  and  meat  products 

Medicines,  patent 


1915 

$269 
82 
27 

254 
26 
45 
23 
11 
19 
41 
84 

541 

234 
46 

245 
12 
11 

105 

361 
26 
87 
16 
65 

139 
12 

160 

143 

12 

1,267 

20 

69 

136 
22 

885 

12 

1,014 

423 

202 


,660 
.715 
,720 
,047 
,079 
,380 
,159 
,252 
,115 
,434 
,777 
,758 
,414 
,730 
,282 
,675 
,132 
,130 
,980 
,142 
,928 
,624 
,449 
,902 
,312 
,332 
,995 
,711 
,038 
,629 
,410 
,600 
,098 
,745 
,552 
,317 
,304 
,242 


Articles 
Muscial  instruments .... 

Oakum,  packing 

Oils. 


Opium 

Paints  and  varnishes 

Paper 

Paraffin  and  stearin 

Perfumery 

Pickles 

Potatoes  and  other  vegetables . 
Quinine  and  compounds  of .  .  . 

Rice,  hulled 

Rifles,  sporting 

Rubber  manufactures 

Sardines,  canned 

Scientific  instruments 

Shoe  polish 

Silver,  bars  and  coined 

■Soap,  laundry  and  toilet 

Soda,  caustic  and  cooking 

Stills 

Straw,  macora,  for  hats 

Sugar,  refined 

Tan  bark 

Tea. 


Textiles 

Tinware 

Tobacco,  cigarettes. 
Toys  and  games .  .  . 

Vehicles,  etc 

Watches 

Waters,  aerated. . . . 

Wheat 

All  other  articles . . . 


1915 

$24,547 
16,516 

352,807 
34,222 
66,895 

420,209 

190,699 

116,518 

47,862 

3,178 

28,829 

603,700 
11,562 
35,889 
19,023 
14,595 
28,843 

365,260 
71,012 
43,209 
10,214 
21,582 
32,496 
13,333 

102,080 
,274,838 

116,830 

106,596 
17,515 

173,470 

21,388 

23,364 

,136,630 

,607,858 


Total $15,064,470 


26 


386 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  large  increase  in  the  exports,  from  a  value  of  $42,668,450 
in  1914  to  $68,729,930  in  1915,  was  due  largely  to  the  greater  ship- 
ments of  copper,  silver,  and  gold  in  bars ;  crude  petroleum  and 
kerosene ;  wool ;  sugar ;  rubber ;  rice,  and  other  articles.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  principal  exports,  with  their  value,  during 
1915 : 


Articles 

Alfalfa  seed 

Beans 

Beans,  lima 

Cocaine 

Coca  leaves 

Cocoa  bean 

Coffee 

Cotton 

Cotton  seed 

Cottonseed  cake  and  oil . . . 

Cotton  waste 

Fruits,  fresh  and  dried.  .  .  , 

Hats,  "  Panama  " 

Ivory  nuts 

Oil,  impure 

Onions 

Pepper,  red 

Peas 


Potatoes 

Rice 

Rubber 

Shirtings,  unbleached . 

Sugar 

Gold 

Silver 


27 


1915 

$10,550 
53,016 
79 , 129 
51,411 

146,769 
40,538 

189,696 
,163,791 

4.55,125 

483,818 
14,356 
41,628 

243,325 

179,807 
7,232 
39,038 
63,824 
17,621 
30,483 

788,061 

,937,891 

43,477 

,107,296 

916,096 

677,558 


ARTicLEa  1915 

Tungsten $249,503 

Vanadium 412,967 

other  minerals  and  ores 19,274,283 


Guano. 

Kerosene 

Petroleum,  crude. 

Beeswax 

Butter 

Cattle 

Cochineal.' 

Honey 

Mutton,  dried  .  .  . 

Parchment 

Plumes,  heron .  .  . 

Skins 

Tallow 

Wool ;  alpaca .... 

llama 

sheep 

vicuna .... 
All  other  articles. 


173,252 

729,242 

2,177,392 

11,324 

5,158 

231,548 

16,347 

13,237 

■     6,380 

45,132 

16,425 

776,814 

15,943 

1,696,213 

144,152 

1,066,844 

4,866 

881,342 


Total $68,729,930 


Trade  with  the  United  States 

An  encouraging  feature  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  w4th 
Peru  during  1915  was  the  large  increase  in  sales  of  American 
goods,  which  in  value  not  only  lead  all  other  countries  but 
amounted  to  48  per  cent  of  the  total  imports  of  the  Republic,  in 
comparison  with  32  per  cent  during  1914  and  28  per  cent  in  1913. 
The  United  States  imported  during  1915,  45  per  cent  of  the 
Peruvian  exports,  in  comparison  wdth  34  per  cent  during  1914 
and  33  per  cent  in  1913. 

In  1915  the  United  States  furnished  $7,242,490  of  Peruvian 
imports,  the  United  Kingdom,  $3,224,280;  Hongkong,  $885,445; 
Italy,  $768,087;  and  Chile,  $469,211.  Of  the  exports  in  the  same 
year  the  United  States  took  $31,098,312;  the  United  Kingdom, 
$17,624,634;  Chile,  $14,870,430;  Spain,  $1,541,863;  and  Bolivia, 
$912,403. 

The  chief  manufacturing  industries  are  those  connected  with 
the  mines  and  oil-wells;  with  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  prod- 
ucts, especially  cotton,  sugar,  wine-grapes,  cocoa,  goat  and  kid- 
skins,  and  wool ;  and  finally  with  the  native  arts  and  crafts  —  the 
ponchos,  the  pottery,  straw  hats,  etc.,  made  by  the  Indians.  A 
match  factory  in  Lima,  drawing  its  supplies  from  the  native  woods 
now^  competes  successfully  with  foreign  manufacturers. 


PERU  387 

Character  of  the  Tariff 

The  author  of  Tariff  Systems  of  South  American  Countries 
(see  Bihlio(jraphy)  writes  that  the  customs  tariff,  adopted  in  1910, 
consists  chiefly  of  specific  rates  of  duty.  In  addition  to  the  pre- 
scribed rates  there  is  a  general  surtax  of  eight  per  cent  of  the 
ordinary  duties,  and  on  imports  at  certain  ports  a  surtax  of  two 
per  cent  for  the  municipalities.  Rates  of  duty  are  now  uniform 
throughout  the  country,  including  the  river  port  Iquitos ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  concessions  to  Bolivia  on  strictly  frontier  traffic, 
imports  from  all  countries  are  subject  to  the  same  rates  of  duty. 
Customs  procedure  is  less  complicated  than  in  some  of  the  Latin 
American  countries:  the  charges  are  clearly  defined;  regulations 
clearly  expressed  and,  as  a  rule,  liberally  construed;  the  employ- 
ment of  customs  brokers  is,  therefore,  not  obligatory.  "  Most 
importing  houses  conduct  all  customs  operations  through  one  of 
their  own  employees."  The  Peruvian  practice  in  regard  to  duties 
on  exports  underwent  a  change  when  the  need  for  additional 
revenue  becamp  pressing  after  the  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe, 
export  duties  being  imposed  on  several  additional  products. 


MONEY,  FINANCE  AND  BANKING 

The  monetary  system  (gold  standard)  has  as  its  unit  the  libra, 
divided  into  10  soles  of  100  centavos.  It  contains  7.32238  grammes 
of  fine  gold;  its  par  value  in  terms  of  the  currency  of  the  United 
States  is  $4.8665;  it  has  the  same  value  as  the  English  pound; 
British  gold  is  legal  tender  and  circulates  freely  in  Peru.  Mr. 
Cosby,  in  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Con- 
ditions (New  York  1915),  writes  that  **  under  normal  conditions 
no  premium  exists  on  gold,  since  that  is  the  standard  currency  of 
Peru.  A  premium  is  now  exacted  for  gold,  however."  This  was 
occasioned  by  exchange  conditions  and  an  issue  of  banknotes  under 
governmental  authorization,  to  the  extent  of  $12,500,000  approxi- 
mately. But  "  the  past  experience  of  Peru  with  notes  or  paper 
currency  had  been  disastrous,  and  at  the  first  intimation  of  a  note 
issue  the  gold  in  circulation  went  into  hiding.  The  export  of  gold 
was  prohibited,  and  this,  together  with  a  marked  decrease  in  the 
export  of  raw  products  (copper,  cotton,  sugar,  etc.),  caused  a 
notable  scarcity  of  drafts  on  Europe  and  the  United  States  " — 
as  a  result  of  which  a  premium  of  from  seven  to  10  per  cent  was 
demanded  for  foreign  drafts. 


388  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Delegation  of  Peru  to  the  First  Pan  American  Financial 
Conference  called  attention  to  the  increase  in  national  revenue 
during  the  17  years  from  1896  (when  the  amount  was  $5,643,570) 
to  1913  (when  the  amount  was  $17,089,870) :  somewhat  more,  there- 
fore, than  300  per  cent.  As  chief  sources  of  revenue  we  mention 
the  Pacific  coast  customhouses,  tobacco  monopoly,  tax  on  spirits, 
and  salt  monopoly.  There  was  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  public 
revenues  after  the  exporting  and  importing  nations  of  Europe 
became  involved  in  war;  and  this,  in  so  far  as  it  had  not  been  met 
by  a  proportional  reduction  in  the  government's  expenses,  led 
directly  to  a  situation  fairly  obliging  the  government  to  adopt 
plans  for  the  protection  of  banks  and  private  debtors  (this  includes 
the  moratorium)  and  for  a  budget  of  reasonable  proportions;  it 
led  also  to  that  substitution  of  paper  for  metallic  currency  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  The  collection  of  taxes,  with 
a  single  exception  to  be  noted,  is  delegated  to  a  joint-stock  com- 
pany called  the  National  Tax  Collecting  Company  (capital 
$1,500,000)  which  charges  one  per  cent  on  the  revenue  from  gen- 
eral taxes,  six  per  cent  for  collecting  license  fees  in  the  capital 
and  at  Callao,  and  10  per  cent  for  the  administration  of  the  piers 
at  Tumbes,  Supe,  and  Chala.  The  exceptional  collecting  agency 
just  referred  to  is  the  National  Salt  Company,  another  joint-stock 
and  fiscal  organization:  to  it  the  government  delegates  control 
of  all  the  salt  mines  and  deposits  of  salt  in  Peru.  The  distinguished 
authors  of  the  memorandum  we  cite  said  that  the  national  debt 
was  $28,932,286,  which  shows,  according  to  the  accepted  estimate 
of  the  number  of  inhabitants,  a  per  capita  debt  of  only  $6.42  or 
$6.43.  The  banks  mentioned  were  the  Banco  del  Peru  y  Londres 
(paid-up  capital  $2,500,000  and  reserve  fund  $1,500,000) ;  Banco 
Internacional  (authorized  capital  $2,500,000,  paid-up  capital 
$500,000,  and  reserve  fund  $125,000) ;  Banco  Popular  (authorized 
capital  $1,000,000,  paid-up  capital  $750,000,  cash  reserve  fund 
$310,000) ;  Banco  Italiano  (paid-up  capital  $1,000,000,  reserve  fund 
$446,650,  sinking  fund  $75,000);  Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico 
(a  branch,  for  transactions  in  Peru,  $1,000,000).  The  Commercial 
Code  of  Peru  prescribes  for  foreign  associations  wishing  to  estab- 
lish banks  in  this  country  (paragraph  11,  article  21  and  article  185) 
that  they  ''  shall  produce  and  enter  in  the  register  a  certificate 
issued  by  the  Peruvian  consul  that  they  are  constituted  and  author- 
ized in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  respective  countries,  in 
addition  to  their  constitution  and  the  documents  required  for 
Peruvian  associations.  .  .  .  All  ])anks  must  have  in  their 
vaults  at  least  one-fourth  in  sterling  of  the  amount  of  their  indebt- 


PERU  389 

ediiess  to  the  public."  Banks  must  pay,  "  for  inscription,"  or  as 
initiation-fee,  from  one-f ourtli  to  one-half  per  thousand,  calculated 
on  the  amount  of  the  declared  capital,  and  five  per  cent  on  the  net 
earnings.  The  banking  institutions  of  special  and  distinctive 
characteristics,  to  be  added  to  the  foregoing  list,  are  the  Peruvian 
clearing  house  (Banco  de  Depositos  y  Consignaciones,  capital 
$500,000  subscribed  by  Peruvian  banks),  W.  R.  Grace  &  Co.,  and 
the  Lima  Savings  Bank  (Caja  de  Ahorros,  capital  $100,000  and 
over  $1,000,000  in  deposits).  The  budget  for  1916  estimated 
receipts  at  $14,236,375  and  expenditures  at  $14,867,355, 
approximately. 


NAVIGATION  AND  RAILWAYS 

The  Peruvian  ports  on  the  Maranon  and  Huallaga  rivers  in 
the  east  are  connected  by  steamers  with  those  of  Brazil  and 
Iquitos,  department  of  Loreto,  has  the  advantage  of  regular  serv- 
ice by  direct  freight  and  passenger  steamers  from  New  York  and 
Europe.  Other  river  ports  are  Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga,  and 
Contamana  on  the  XJcayali.  The  chief  Pacific  ports  are  visited 
by  vessels  of  the  Chilean  and  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  companies. 
The  railroads,  1,718  miles  in  extent  (1,300  miles  standard  gauge, 
including  30  miles  of  interurban  electric  lines,  and  the  rest  nar- 
row gauge)  are  in  large  part  owned  by  the  government,  and  65 
per  cent  (1,120  miles)  are  operated,  under  arrangements  of  long 
standing,  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation  (Ltd.),  which  owns  and 
operates  a  line  of  steamers  on  Lake  Titicaca,  the  railroad  con- 
necting that  lake  with  La  Paz,  etc.  The  Central  Railway 
climbs  from  sea-level  at  Callao  to  the  altitude  15,666  feet  on 
its  way  to  Oroya,  over  140  miles  of  track,  and  on  a  short 
branch  line  attains  15,865  feet.  Its  Huancayo  extension  has 
78  miles  of  track.  From  Oroya  a  railway  extends  to  Cerro  de 
Pasco  (see  section  Mineral  Resources).  The  Southern  Railway 
climbs  from  Mollendo  on  the  Pacific  coast  to  Arequipa  (altitude 
about  7,600  feet)  and  thence  up  to  14,666  feet  at  Cnicero  Alto,  and 
so  to  Puno  on  Lake  Titicaca  and,  by  the  Juliaca  and  Sicuani 
branch,  to  Cuzco.  The  Pan  American  Union  handbook  Chile  con- 
tains the  statement  that,  beside  the  Central  and  Southern,  the 
Peruvian  Corporation  also  operates  six  other  railroads  in  Peru,  as 
follows:  Paitta  to  Piura  Railway;  the  Trujillo  Railway;  the  Pacas- 
mayo  and  Guadalupe  Railway ;  the  Chimbote,  the  Pisco  to  lea,  and 
the  Ilo  to  Moquegua  railways.    These,  and  other  short  lines,  serve 


390  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

portions  of  the  littoraL  In  1917  the  government  authorized  the 
Departmental  Board  of  Ancachs  to  construct  an  automobile  road 
between  the  port  of  Casma  and  the  city  of  Huaraz.  The  Depart- 
ment is  authorized  to  contract  a  loan  of  40,000  Peruvian  pounds 
(pound  =  $4.8665),  with  interest  and  amortization  not  to  exceed 
10  per  cent  annually.  The  loan  will  be  guaranteed  by  a  small  tax 
on  freight  transported  over  the  road  and  by  a  yearly  appropriation 
of  £2,000  in  the  departmental  budget.  The  government  has  adopted 
recently  a  scheme  of  road  building  to  apply  to  all  parts  of  the 
republic.  Roads  are  classified  in  four  groups  — national,  depart- 
mental, provincial  and  district,  according  to  the  authority  in 
charge  of  construction.  For  the  national  roads  a  staff  of  road 
engineers  is  organized  and  provided  for  in  the  annual  budget. 
Roads  from  Andamayo  to  Ayo,  San  Miguel  to  Mt.  Pucamarca,  and 
from  La  Mergerada  to  Luricocha  are  already  under  construction. 


POSTAL,  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  SYSTEMS 

There  are  about  800  post  offices  and  340  telegraph  offices ;  and 
the  wireless-telegraph  system  has  stations  at  Iquitos,  Requena, 
Putamayo,  Orellano,  Masisea,  Puerto  Bermudez  and  San  Cristo- 
bal, with  provisional  stations  at  Ilo,  Pisco  and  Chala.  The  tele- 
phone systems  have  more  than  11,000  miles  of  wire. 


MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS 

The  Peruvian  libra=lX)U^  pounds  avoird.;  quint al=101 .44 
pounds;  arroba  =  25.36  pounds,  or  (liquid  measure)  6.7  gallons; 
vara  =  0.927  yard;  /owy/o  =  145.2265  square  yards;  fanegada  = 
5.142  acres.  The  metric  system  was  established  by  law  in  1860, 
but  the  older  terms  are  still  heard. 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 


Peru  has  a  small  but  efficient  army  (about  4,000  men)  to  which 
large  additions  can  be  made  in  time  of  war,  as  every  male  citizen 
is  liable  to  military  service  from  his  19th  to  his  50th  year.  The 
navy  in  1915  comprised  14  vessels.  There  is  a  civil-military  school 
of  aviation  at  Lima. 


PERU  391 

Population 

Though  the  Quichua  language  is  still  spoken  by  a  majority  of 
the  people  of  Peru  (of  whom  57.6  per  cent  are  classed  as  Indians, 
and  24.8  per  cent  mestizos),  this  linguistic  unity  by  no  means 
implies  uniform  characteristics ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  necessary  to 
regard  the  present  Indian  population  as  descendants  of  many 
different  native  races  of  varying  degrees  of  natural  intelligence 
and  physical  vigor,  the  common  tongue  having  been  imposed  by 
the  conquering  Inca  tribe.  Some  of  the  Indians  of  to-day  are 
found  to  be  progressive  —  at  least  sufficiently  so  to  encourage  the 
hope  that  they  may,  little  by  little,  become  useful  citizens  in  a  civi- 
lized country ;  but  other  descendants  of  the  aborigines  seem  utterly 
incapable  and  irresponsible.  The  negro  and  Asiatic  elements  are 
small ;  the  white  element  13.8  per  cent.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
in  1876  was  found  to  be  2,660,881.  As  estimated  by  the  Pan 
American  Union  there  were  about  4,500,000  inhabitants  in  1917. 

Bibliography 

Bingham,  H.,  In  the  Wonderland  uf  Peru  (Washington  1913)  and  The  Ruins 
of  Espiritu  Pampa  (Lancaster  1914) ;  Eaton,  G.  F.,  The  Collection  of  Osteological 
Material  from  Machu  Picchu  (New  Haven  1916)  ;  Hardenburg,  W.  E.,  The 
Putumayo  (with  extracts  from  the  report  of  Sir  Roger  Casement,  London  1912); 
Helps,  A.,  The  Life  of  Pizarro  (London  1869);  Joyce,  T.  A.,  South'  American 
Archceology,  with  special  reference  to  the  Early  History  of  Peru  (London  1912) ; 
Markham,  C.  R.,  A  History  of  Peru  (Chicago  1892),  Contributions  Towards  a 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Quichua  (London  1864),  The  Incas  of  Peru 
(London  1910),  Narratives  of  the  Rites  and  Laws,  etc.,  translated  from  original 
Spanish  manuscripts  (London,  Hakluyt  Society  1873),  Ollanta,  translated  from 
original  Quichua  (London  1871),  Reports  on  the  Discovery  of  Peru,  translated 
and  edited  (London,  Hakluyt  Society  1872),  Vocabularies  of  the  General  Lan- 
guage of  the  Incas  of  Peru  (London  1908)  and  The  War  Beticeen  Peru  and  Chile 
(New  York  1883) ;  Moore,  J.  B.,  Brazil  and  Peru  Boundary  Question  (New  York 
1904);  Pan  American  Union,  Peru  (Washington  1915);  Peixotto,  E.,  Pacific 
Shores  (New  York  1913) ;  Prescott,  W.  H.,  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru  (New 
York  1847);  Rutter,  F.  R.,  Tariff  Systems  of  South  American  Countries  (Dept. 
of  Commerce,  Tariff  Series  No.  34,  Washington  1916)  ;  Spruce,  R.,  Notes  of  a 
Botanist  (ed.  A.  R.  Wallace,  London  1908) ;  Squier,  E.  G.,  Peru  (New  York  1877) ; 
Todd,  M.,  Peru:  a  Land  of  Contrasts  (Boston  1914)  ;  Vega,  Garcilasso  de  la,  First 
Part  of  the  Royal  Commentaries,  translated  and  edited  by  Clements  R.  Markham 
(London,  Hakluyt  Society  1869-71);  Vivian,  E.  C,  Peru:  Physical  Features,  etc. 
(London  1914);  Walle,  P.,  Le  Perou  Economique  (Paris  1908);  Xeres,  F.  de, 
Verdadera  Relacion  de  la  Conquista  del  Peru,  segun  la  primera  edicion  impresa  en 
Sevilla  en  1534  (Madrid  1891). 


392 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Peru  is  divided  politically  into  19  Departments  and  three 
Provinces,  and  these  Departments  in  turn  are  subdivided  into  104  provinces.  The 
Departments  and  three  national  Provinces,  with  their  areas  and  populations, 
capitals  and  populations,  arc  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENTS 


(squ^re'miles)    Population 


Capital 


Population 


Amazonas 

Ancachs 

Apurimac 

Arequipa 

Ayacucho 

Cajamarca 

Cuzco 

Huancavelica 

Huanuco 

lea 

Junin 

Lambayeque 

Libertad 

Lima 

Loreto 

Madre  de  Dios 

Piura 

Puno 

Tacna 

PROVINCES 

Callao 

Moquegua 

Tumbes 

Total 


13,943 
16,562 

8,187 

21,947 

18,185 

12,538 

156,270 

9,251 
14,024 

8,718 
23,347 

4,614 
10,206 
13,310 
288,456 
24,747 
16,825 
41,198 
12,590 


14 
5,549 
1,980 


70,676 
428,703 
177,387 
229,007 
302,469 
442,412 
438,646 
223,796 
145,309 

90,962 
394,393 
124,091 
250,931 
298,106 
100.596 

16,000 
213,909 
537,345 

45,593 


48,118 

42,694 

8,602 


Chachapoyas.  . 

Hararaz 

Abancay 

Arequipa 

Ayacucho 

Cajamarca 

Cuzco 

Huancavelica.  . 

Huanuco 

lea 

Cerro  de  Pasco. 

Chiclayo 

Trujillo 

Lima 

Iquitos 

Maldonado .... 

Piura 

Puno 

Tacna 


Callao 

Moquegua. 
Tumbes .  . . 


4,000 
17,000 

3,000 
35,000 
14,346 
12,000 
15,000 

4,000 

7,500 
10,000 
15,000 
13,000 
15,000 
143,500 
12,000 

3,500 
14,000 

6,000 
15,000 


34,346 
5,000 


722,461 


4,620,201 


Lima 

The  capital  of  Peru  lies  in  a  fertile  plain,  not  very  elevated  but  at  the  western- 
most spur  of  the  Andes,  called  the  Hill  of  San  Cristobal.  It  is  situated  on  the 
river  Rimae  only  eight  miles  from  its  port  Callao.  Historically  Lima  is  of  decided 
interest  because  it  was  founded  by  Pizarro  himself  in  1535,  and  designed  after 
his  own  ideas.  The  city  is  in  the  dry  zone,  but  has  a  pleasant  climate,  seldom 
disturbed  by  rain,  although  in  the  winter  months  there  is  abundant  fog  and 
moisture.  It  contains  many  historic  monuments  and  buildings.  Like  all  other 
Peruvian  cities,  it  is  subject  to  earthquakes  of  more  or  less  violence,  and  this 
affects  the  style  of  construction  and  the  demand  for  building  materials.  Its  public 
works  are  good;  the  city  is  lighted  by  electricity  and  has  an  electric  street  railway 
system.  The  water  supply  and  sewage  systems  are  excellent.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  furniture,  iron  and  copper  articles,  pottery 
and  dyestuffs.  There  are  also  important  manufactures  of  textiles,  sugar,  cocoa, 
liquors,  cotton-seed  oil  and  flour  carried  on  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  connected 
with  Callao  by  two  steam  and  two  electric  railway  lines.  It  has  rail  connection 
with  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Jauja  in  the  interior  and  with  Huaura  and  Salinas  on 
the  coast  to  the  north.  The  city  is  the  official  residence  of  the  United  States 
minister  to  Peru. 

Callao 

The  chief  seaport  of  Peru  and  the  capital  of  a  small  Province  of  the  same  name 
is  situated  on  Callao  Bay,  8  miles  west  of  Lima.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions, the  older  has  narrow,  crooked  streets,  while  the  newer  portion  is  well  laid 
out  with  broad  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.     The  climate  is  tem- 


PERU  393 

perate  but  the  city  is  unsanitary  and  fever-stricken.  Vessels  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  are  seen  in  its  harbor,  which  is  provided  with  a  mole  and  good  wharves, 
capable  of  admitting  the  largest  ships.  The  island  of  San  Lorenzo  forms  a 
natural  breakwater.  The  harbor  is  fortified  and  possesses  splendid  ship-repairing 
facilities,  which  include  a  floating  dock,  300  feet  in  length.  Railway  lines  approach 
the  wharves.  Callao  has  manufactories  of  refined  sugar,  lumber  and  iron,  but  is 
more  important  as  a  commercial  centre.  It  exports  minerals,  bone,  sugar,  hides, 
wool,  cotton,  and  cocoa,  and  imports  mostly  manufactured  articles  and  also  beer 
and  coal.  The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  has  added  to  its  importance.  Of 
the  total  tonnage  entering  and  clearing  from  Pemvian  ports  Callao  has  about  33 
per  cent.  Its  foreign  commerce  exceeds  $20,000,000  a  year.  Iron  docks  are  being 
installed  here  and  also  at  Paita  to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  loading  and  unloading 
of  oil  consumed  by  incoming  and  outgoing  steamers.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consul-general. 

Cuzco 

The  capital  of  the  Department  of  the  same  name  and  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Incas  is  situated  360  miles  southeast  of  Lima,  on  a  section  of  the  Andes, 
11,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  port  of  Mollendo, 
300  miles  to  the  south.  It  is  regularly  built  and  has  many  handsome  buildings. 
The  remains  of  the  Incas  are  still  intact  and  are  of  great  interest  to  the  traveler 
and  antiquarian.  The  surrounding  district  is  a  fertile  agricultural  region  and 
the  city  does  an  import  trade  in  the  regional  products  and  has  also  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  furniture,  sugar,  leather  and  embroidery. 

Other  Cities 

PuNO,  capital  of  the  Department  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the 
west  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  206  miles  northeast  of  Mollendo,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  Southern  Railway  of  Peru.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines  are 
operated  in  the  vicinity.  The  city  has  an  extensive  transit  trade  between  Bolivia 
and  other  countries.  Arequipa,  also  on  the  Southern  Railway,  106  miles  north 
of  Mollendo  is  of  great  interest  to  the  traveler.,  Its  altitude,  7,560  feet,  gives  it 
a  delightful  climate,  and  offers  a  healthful  resting  place  for  the  trip  to  Bolivia 
and  the  highlands.  Here  is  situated  the  Harvard  Observatory  on  Mount  Misti. 
Ayacucho,  170  miles  east  of  Lima,  is  celebrated  as  the  battle  ground  of  the 
last  struggle  of  the  Spanish  Army  against  the  allied  Pei-uvians  and  Colombians 
under  General  Sucre.  Separated  from  the  rest  of  Peru  as  if  in  a  foreign  country 
is  the  Amazon  city  of  Iquitos,  which  serves  the  rubber  district.  It  is  2,500  miles 
from  the  Atlantic,  but  only  348  feet  above  sea  level.  The  mail  and  steamer  route 
is  by  the  Atlantic,  as  ocean  steamers  can  come  all  the  way  to  Iquitos.  Nearly 
all  goods  used  are  imported  and  the  cost  of  living  is  very  high.  The  Bank  of 
London  and  Peru  has  a  branch  here.  Mollendo,  the  second  port  of  the  Republic 
is  450  miles  southeast  of  Callao.  It  has  a  small  population,  but  a  heavy  tonnage 
of  in  and  out  bound  cargo  passes  through  it.  It  has  a  breakwater,  but  no  harbor. 
The  principal  Pacific  ports,  besides  Callao  and  Mollendo,  are  Eten,  Pacasmayo, 
Paito,  and  Chimbote,  the  last  two  of  which  have  good  sheltered  harbors.  The 
numerous  other  ports  are  of  minor  importance,  and  vessels  that  call  anchor  in 
the  open  roadstead.  Ioa,  Pisco,  and  Chinoha  Ai/ta  have  a  large  trade  in  the 
products  of  their  localities.  New  water  supply  systems  are  being  installed  in 
these  cities  by  the  National  government,  which  finances  the  project  by  an  addi- 
tional duty  of  2  per  cent  levied  on  all  merchandise  imported  through  the  custom 
house  of  Pisco. 


URUGUAY 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  Repnblica  Oriental  del  Uruguay,  smallest  of  the  inde- 
pendent countries  of  South  America,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  northeast  by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  southeast  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Argentine 
Republic.  Its  territory  extends  from  lat.  30"  S.  nearly  to  lat. 
35°  S.,  and  the  location  of  its  principal  city  (or,  more  precisely,  of 
the  cathedral  at  Montevideo)  is  given  as  lat.  34°  54'  33"  S.,  and 
long.  58°  32'  32''  W.  Total  area  of  the  republic,  72,210  square  miles 
(about  7,210  square  miles  more  than  the  total  area  of  New 
England).  (For  political  divisions  see  Political  Divisions  and 
Cities,  p.  409.) 

Topography 

The  most  elevated  point  in  the  republic  is  somewhat  less  than 
2,000  feet  above  sea-level ;  the  so-called  mountains  are,  therefore,  to 
be  regarded  rather  as  hills,  which  sometimes  form  chains  —  such 
as  the  Cuchilla  Grande,  which  extends  across  the  country,  the 
Santa  Ana  range,  between  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  the  Cuchilla  de 
Belen,  and  Cuchilla  de  Haedo, —  but  elsewhere  give  to  the  region, 
especially  the  northern  districts,  an  irregular  rolling  or  undulating 
surface.  Forests  or  groves  cover  the  hills  in  the  north  and  gener- 
ally extend  along  the  baiiks  of  the  numerous  small  streams 
[arroyos)  and  the  larger  water  courses.  The  soil  in  the  southwest 
is  of  uncommon  fertility,  being  composed  of  detritus  of  great  depth 

[394] 


URUGUAY  395 

and  rich  alluvial  deposits;  the  southeast  and  south  have  grassy 
slopes  and  good  pasture  lands,  the  hills  here  forming  a  bold  line 
along  the  shore  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  but  not  extending  to  the 
Atlantic  coast.  Important  rivers,  beside  the  great  southern 
estuary,  are:  the  Uruguay,  which  rises  in  the  Brazilian  state  of 
Santa  Catharina,  and  has  a  course  of  about  1,000  miles;  and  the 
Rio  Negro,  which  also  rises  in  Brazil,  and  empties  into  the  Uruguay 
after  flowing  toward  the  southwest  for  about  850  miles.  The  latter 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  republic;  the  former  marks  the 
boundary  with  Argentina;  both  are  navigable  for  vessels  of  light 
draught  (Rio  Negro  55  miles,  Uruguay  200  miles),  and  even  large 
steamships  navigate  the  Uruguay  up  to  Paysandii.  There  are 
several  shallow  lakes,  or  lacunas,  near  the  eastern  coast.  The 
largest  of  these.  Lake  Merin  (or  Mirim),  about  108  miles  long  by 
14  miles  wide,  partly  in  Uruguay  and  partly  in  Brazil,  is  only  of 
sufficient  depth  for  navigation  by  the  light-draught  steamers  that 
maintain  communication  between  the  towns  on  its  shores. 

Climate 

The  southern  part  of  Uniguay  has  a  remarkably  pleasant,  tem- 
perate and  healthful  climate,  resembling,  and  in  evenness  through- 
out the  year  outclassing,  that  of  the  Riviera  of  southern  France 
and  the  northwest  of  Italy.  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown 
in  that  part  of  the  country  most  subject  to  the  climatic  influence  of 
the  ocean  and  the  great  estuary.  Naturally,  such  extremes  are 
more  marked  in  the  northern  inland  regions,  where  the  lowlands  in 
summer  are  decidedly  hot,  the  thermometer  sometimes  recording 
100°  F.  The  cold  season  brings  frost  or  snow  infrequently  to  the 
uplands.  Taking  the  country  as  a  w^hole,  we  note  as  unfavorable 
phenomena  the  storm- winds  called  pamperos  and  hail-storms  that 
too  often  injure  the  standing  crops.  The  average  annual  rainfall 
is  about  37.19  inches;  the  average  annual  temperature,  62°  F.  or 
63°  F.,  approximately;  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  about 
55°  F.,  and  of  summer  between  72°  F.  and  73°  F. 

Fauna  and  Flora 
The  indigenous  animal  kingdom,  although  it  includes  30 
species  of  mammals,  has  only  a  few  really  notable  representatives. 
"■  Those  of  most  commercial  value  are  the  rhea,  or  American 
ostrich,  and  the  fur-seal.  Both  of  these,  until  recently,  were  found 
in  large  numbers,  but,  owing  to  the  systematic  pursuit  of  the  rhea 
and  the  indiscriminate  killing  of  the  seal,  both  were  threatened 


396  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

with  extinction,  until  the  government  took  measures  to  insure 
their  preservation  and  increase.  One  may  have  some  idea  of  the 
vast  number  of  ostriches  that  roamed  the  plains  of  Uruguay  in 
1909  from  the  fact  that,  during  that  year,  more  than  50,000  pounds 
of  ostrich  feathers  were  exported  to  the  United  States  and 
Europe."  (Consult  Zahm,  J.  A.,  Through  South  America's  South- 
land, New  York  and  London  1916).  The  seals  in  large  numbers 
live  and  breed  on  the  islands  near  the  coast,  especially  the  Lobos 
and  Castillos  groups.  More  than  three-fifths  of  the  seals  at  these 
rookeries  are  of  the  fur-bearing  variety,  and  the  islands  are  now 
strictly  preserved,  no  one  being  permitted  to  land  upon  them 
except  the  sealers  during  the  killing  month.  The  number  annually 
slaughtered  for  their  oil  and  skins  has  ranged  between  10,000  and 
21,000  or  22,000.  The  mainland  fauna  includes  the  deer,  otter,  wild 
hog,  carpincho,  fox,  ounce,  wildcat,  ant-eater,  etc.  There  are  over 
500  species  of  avifauna,  including  the  crane,  stork,  swan,  and  wild 
turkey. 

In  the  work  cited  above.  Dr.  Zahm  writes  that,  while  traversing 
the  rich,  undulating  plains  of  Uruguay,  "  everywhere,  within  the 
field  of  view,  there  was  a  wealth  of  verdure  and  bloom  that  ren- 
dered the  landscape  as  exquisite  as  a  picture  by  a  master  ' ' —  the 
most  conspicuous  among  flowers  being  the  flor  nwrala  '^  which  car- 
pets the  landscape  with  glowing  bands  and  patches  of  richest 
purple.  Go  where  one  will,  one  finds  massed  banks  of  the  blazing 
flor  morala  —  flowers  that  grow  in  such  profusion  that  they  extin- 
guish all  competitors.  Small  wonder,  then,  is  it  that  Uruguay  has 
been  called  '  The  Purple  Land. '  "  The  area  of  forests  is  relatively 
small  —  only  about  1,650,000  acres.  Their  hard  and  durable  woods 
are:  The  nandubay  (which,  instead  of  decaying  when  buried  in  the 
earth,  becomes  petrified),  urunday,  lapacho,  coronilla,  espinello, 
quebracho,  araza,  algarroba,  and  lignum  vitae.  Among  the  softer 
woods  are  the  willow  and  acacia.  Native  palms  abound  in  the 
departments  of  Maldonado,  Minas,  Paysandu,  and  in  valleys  of 
the  central  and  northern  districts;  and  the  poplar,  pine,  cypress, 
oak,  eucalyptus,  cedar,  magnolia,  and  mulberry  have  been  success- 
fully acclimated.  Yerba  mate  is  indigenous,  and  430  species  of 
medicinal  plants  haveTeen  classified. 

Mineral  Resources 

The  only  mines  that  have  been  worked  continuously  for  many 
years  are  the  gold  mines  at  Cunapini,  in  the  Department  of  Rivera, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  republic.    Work  began  there  in  1869. 


URUGUAY  397 

The  ore  occurs  in  quartz  veins  intersecting  dioritic  rocks.  In  that 
part  of  Uruguay  the  mineralized  territory  is  extensive.  Another 
auriferous  zone  is  found  near  Soldado,  in  the  Department  of  Minas, 
where  both  gold  and  copper  have  been  extracted  from  pyritif erous 
and  cupriferous  formations.  Copper  has  been  found  also  in  the 
Department  of  Maldonado.  A  large  iron-manganese  deposit,  con- 
taining about  35  per  cent  iron  and  23  per  cent  manganese,  exists  in 
the  Department  of  Rivera,  near  the  gold  mines ;  and  there  are  other 
deposits  of  iron  and  manganese  ore  at  Carrasco.  Talc  of  excel- 
lent quality  is  mined  at  Las  Conchillas,  in  the  Department  of 
Colonia,  near  the  estuary  of  La  Plata.  Along  this  southern  coast, 
especially  in  the  departments  of  Colonia  and  Maldonado,  the  gran- 
ite quarries  command  attention ;  and  in  the  republic  generally  the 
quarrying  industry  is  very  important.  (Consult  Marstrander,  R., 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  13  March  1915).  Coal  and 
petroleum  have  been  found  recently,  the  former  in  the  departments 
of  Montevideo,  Cerro  Largo  and  Santa  Lucia. 


HISTORY 


On  8  Oct.  1515  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  sailed  from  Spain;  he 
explored  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  was  slain,  with 
some  of  his  companions,  by  natives  of  the  Charrua  tribe.  On  2 
Feb.  1520  Magellan  sailed  from  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  after  having 
explored  to  a  limited  extent  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers  in 
his  search  for  a  waterway  across  Terra  Pirma.  On  1  April  1526 
Sebastian  Cabot  set  out  from  Seville;  he  ascended  the  Parana  to 
the  great  falls  and  the  Paraguay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bermejo.  In 
1527  Cabot  ordered  the  construction  of  a  fort  in  the  country  east 
of  the  Uruguay  River.  The  opposition  of  the  natives  to  the  Span- 
ish settlements  was  fierce  and,  during  a  century,  successful:  in 
1603  a  veteran  Spanish  force  was  routed  in  a  pitched  battle  by  the 
Charruas.  In  1624  the  oldest  of  the  towns  which  now  exist  in 
Uruguay  was  founded  on  Rio  Negro.  The  so-called  ''  Banda 
Oriental  "  (that  is  to  say,  the  region  east  of  the  Uruguay  River) 
was  the  subject  of  contention  between  Portugal  and  Spain.  In 
1680  the  Portuguese  colonists  of  Brazil  founded  Sacramento  (now 
Colonia),  thus  confronting  the  Spaniards  at  Buenos  Aires.  In 
1723  the  Portuguese  fortified  the  Bay  of  Montevideo,  but  surren- 
dered to  the  Spaniards  in  the  following  year,  and  families  from 
Buenos  Aires  established  themselves  at  Montevideo  in  1726.     In 


398  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

1735-37  Colonia  was  besieged  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1761  it  capitu- 
lated, but  was  restored  to  Portugal  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763. 
This  did  not  put  an  end  to  Spanish  colonization  there;  on  the 
contrary,  immigration  from  the  north  of  Spain  and  from  Spanish 
settlements  across  the  river  continued  throughout  the  18th  cen- 
tury. On  26  April  and  28  May  1811  Jose  Artigas,  leader  of  the 
revolutionary  party  in  the  Banda  Oriental,  routed  the  Spanish 
forces;  a  confederation  of  the  settlements  east  of  the  great  river 
was  formed,  with  Artigas  as  Protector.  But  the  Portuguese  cap- 
tured Montevideo  and  Maldonado,  and  in  1822  the  region  in  dis- 
pute was  organized  as  the  Cisplatine  Province  of  Brazil.  Artigas 
took  refuge  in  Paraguay,  where  he  died ;  but  his  gallant,  patriotic 
efforts  had  not  been  wasted.  Other  refugees,  who  had  gone  to 
Buenos  Aires,  returned  to  start  a  rebellion  in  the  Cisplatine  Prov- 
ince, and  on  23  Aug.  1825  issued  a  declaration  of  independence. 
On  24  September  and  12  October  in  the  same  year  the  Brazilians 
were  defeated.  Then  the  Argentine  government  intervened.  On  9 
February  and  30  July  1826  Admiral  Brown,  commanding  the 
Argentine  squadron,  failed  in  his  attempts  upon  the  Brazilian 
fleet;  but  in  February  1827  succeeded  in  destroying  the  expe- 
dition sent  by  the  Brazilian  admiral  Lobo  into  the  Uruguay 
Eiver,  and  on  the  20th  of  that  month  the  Marquis  of  Bar- 
baceno,  commanding  Brazilian  forces,  was  defeated  at  Ituzaningo. 
On  27  Aug.  1828  the  treaty  of  Montevideo  was  signed,  and 
the  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay  was  created,  both  Brazil 
and  Argentina  renouncing  their  claims  to  the  country  thenceforth 
to  be  known  as  the  Eastern  Republic  of  the  Uruguay,  or  simply 
Uruguay.  On  18  July  1830  the  constitution  was  adopted,  and  a 
new  declaration  of  independence  issued  —  this  time  guaranteed  by 
both  of  the  strong  neighboring  states.  But,  unfortunately,  the 
political  parties —  the  "  Colorados,"  or  Reds,  and  *'  Blancos,"  or 
Whites  —  kept  alive  the  traditions  of  home-bred  strife.  Thus,  in 
1842,  a  political  chief  secured  Argentine  support,  and  laid  siege  to 
Montevideo;  in  1862  ex-President  Flores,  "  Colorado  "  leader, 
made  use  of  Brazilian  troops  to  take  Paysandu.  On  25  Feb.  1865 
Flores  with  his  Brazilian  allies  took  forcible  possession  of  the 
capital  and  of  the  government :  quite  naturally,  therefore,  Uruguay 
was  drawn  into  the  coalition  formed  to  resist  the  dictator  of  Para- 
gTiay,  Francisco  Lopez.  On  17  Aug.  1865  Flores  defeated  a  divi- 
sion of  Paraguayans  at  Yatay ;  three  years  later  he  was  assassin- 
ated during  a  ''  Blanco  "  rebellion  at  Montevideo;  and  ex-Presi- 
dent Berro, ' '  who,  though  not  one  of  the  assassins,  was  arrested  in 
the  street  with  arms  in  his  hands,"  was  executed,   with  other 


UBUGUAY  399 

rioters.  The  revolution  of  1870-73  ended  in  a  "  Colorado  " 
triumph.  Of  the  long  series  of  disturbances  which  have  followed, 
marking  the  efforts  of  ' '  Blancos  ' '  to  regain  power,  only  one  need 
be  mentioned  at  present  —  the  serious  revolution  which  broke  out 
in  March  1903,  and  continued  in  1904,  despite  the  increased  mili- 
tary force  of  the  government.  Gradually  the  substantially  pros- 
perous republic  has  outgrown  and  subordinated  lawless  political 
factions;  gradually  the  habitual  uprisings  against  the  established 
government  have  become  less  formidable,  losing  the  revolutionary 
character  and  appearing  rather  as  mere  provincial  riots. 

In  December  1908  a  supreme  court  was  established  and  the 
judicial  system  was  reorganized.  The  Montevideo  Port  Railway 
was  inaugurated  on  16  May  1913.  Dr.  Feliciano  Viera  was  elected 
on  1  March  1915  as  President  of  Uruguay  (and  inaugurated  two 
days  later)  for  the  term  ending  1  March  1919. 


GOVERNMENT 


According  to  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  of  18  July 
1830,  the  legislative  branch  of  the  government  is  composed  of  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  former  having  one 
member  for  each  of  the  19  political  divisions  called  departments 
and  the  latter  one  for  each  3,000  inhabitants  or  fraction  exceeding 
2,000.  Together  they  compose  the  general  assembly,  in  which  all 
legislative  power  is  vested,  and  they  meet  annually  from  15  Feb- 
ruary to  15  June.  The  term  of  a  senator  is  six  years,  and  that  of 
a  deputy  is  three.  In  many  respects  the  powers  of  this  Congress 
or  General  Assemblj'  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  but  they  extend  much  farther  in  certain  directions, 
namely,  to  the  granting  of  pardons  and  amnesties  in  extraordinary 
cases  and  electing  the  president  of  the  republic  (see  below).  The 
judicial  power  is  exercised  in  several  courts  of  first  instance  (dis- 
tributed as  civil,  criminal^  for  cases  affecting  the  treasury,  for 
commercial  cases,  police,  and  departmental),  courts  of  appeal,  and 
the  High  Court  of  Justice.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
president,  who  is  chosen  for  a  term  of  four  years  by  a  majority  of 
the  members  of  the  legislature  in  joint  session  of  its  two  chambers. 
The  president  is  ineligible  for  the  term  immediately  following  his 
tenure  of  office.  He  is  aided  by  a  cabinet  of  seven  ministers,  who, 
although  appointed  by  him,  are  responsible  to  the  Congress  as  well. 
The  law  of  3  March  1911,  increasing  the  number  of  cabinet  officers 


400  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

from  five  to  seven,  established  the  following  ministries :  Interior 
and  Worship;  Foreign  Affairs;  Finance;  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction;  Industries,  Labor  and  Communications;  Public 
Works ;  War  and  Marine. 

Reform  of  the  fundamental  law  is  part  of  the  order  of  the  day. 
A  new  constitution,  to  come  into  force  1  March  1919,  was  adopted 
by  the  two  great  political  parties  in  1917.  For  its  basic  principles, 
see  pages  150  and  151. 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Service 

The  United  States  is  represented  in  Uruguay  by  a  minister,  a 
consul,  and  a  vice  and  deputy-consul.  All  reside  at  Montevideo. 
Representatives  of  Uruguay  in  the  United  States  have  the  follow- 
ing residences:  The  minister,  at  Washington;  a  consul-general 
and  a  vice-consul.  New  York  City;  consuls  at  San  Francisco, 
Savannah,  Chicago,  Baltimore,  Boston,  Philadelphia;  vice-consuls 
at  Mobile,  Apalachicola,  Pensacola,  Brunswick  (Ga.),  New  Orleans, 
Pascagoula,  Kansas  City,  Albany,  Galveston,  Port  Arthur  (Tex.), 
Newport  News,  Norfolk  (Va.),  and  Seattle.  Uruguay  also  has  a 
consul  at  San  Juan  and  a  vice-consul  at  Mayaguez,  Porto  Rico. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

This  republic  is  spending  about  $5,000,000  a  year  for  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  the  educational  system.  Primary 
education  is  compulsory,  and  there  has  been  little  or  no  occasion 
for  inflicting  penalties  for  violations  of  the  law  in  regard  to  this 
matter,  since  applications  for  admission  to  the  schools  are  gener- 
ally far  in  excess  of  the  school  accommodations.  There  were  in 
1917  about  1,060  public  schools  with  an  attendance  of  100,000 
pupils,  approximately,  the  enrollment  of  pupils  having  increased 
23  per  cent  between  1908  and  1913  (from  60,863  to  91,746)  and  at  a 
slower  rate  between  1913  and  1917.  The  number  of  rural  schools 
has  nearly  doubled  since  1906,  in  which  year  the  sum  of  $1,000,000 
was  appropriated  for  the  erection  and  improvement  of  school 
buildings.  A  recent  report  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction 
contains  the  statements :  Mixed  schools  have  been  established  "  in 
almost  all  the  rural  districts  which  have  a  sufficient  number  of 
children  of  both  sexes  to  average  an  attendance  of  not  less  than  30 
pupils  '';  and  "  Since  the  permanence  of  pupils  in  rural  schools 
never  exceeds  three  years,  a  simple  program  has  been  outlined 


tJRUGUAY 


401 


Copyright,    Ne\Mii;iii   TiavL-ltalk.s  and   Brown   &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
The  Plaza  and  Harbor  of  Montevideo,  Uruguay 

which  can  be  developed  in  that  short  period,  so  that  when  the  pupil 
leaves  school  he  knows  how  to  read  and  write  and  to  perform  the 
principal  arithmetical  operations;  has  some  acquaintance  with 
geography,  history,  and  the  constitution  of  the  republic;  and  [this 
being  one  of  the  good  traditions  of  South  American  schools]  has 
been  impressed  with  notions  of  the  purest  morality. ' '  All  schools 
in  the  republic  receive  frequent  visits  from  inspectors  who 
report  directly  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  and  these 
visits  are  supplemented  by  medical  inspections.  A  law  of  1907 
authorized  the  establishment  of  schools  for  adults,  the  object  being 
to  overcome  such  illiteracy  as  had  been  the  natural  result  of  the 
scarcity  of  rural  schools  up  to  that  time.  About  50  evening  schools 
have  accordingly  been  established  at  different  centres,  and  these 
are  attended  by  2,000  pupils.  The  department  of  Rocha  leads  in 
the  practical  teaching  of  agriculture,  and  the  same  department  has 
also  established  a  higher  commercial  school.  At  Montevideo  we 
find:  The  Universit}'',  one  of  the  modern  organizations  of  this 
class,  and  of  high  distinction,  with  faculties  of  law,  science,  medi- 
cine, mathematics,  agriculture,  and  commerce;  secondary  schools; 
special  institutions,  such  as  the  National  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  established  in  1910;  and  two  excellent  normal  schools,  one 
for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls.     State  pupils  at  these  normal 

27 


402  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

schools  enjoy  a  pension  of  $15  a  month  as  a  contribution  assisting 
them  to  meet  the  expenses  of  residence  at  the  capital.  The  provision 
made  for  supplying  text-books  or  pedagogical  works  gratuitously, 
under  certain  conditions,  may  also  be  mentioned  as  another  exam- 
ple of  wise  liberality.  The  High  School  of  Commerce  of  Uruguay, 
in  its  three-year  course  —  which  may  be  extended  to  four  years  — 
gives  instruction  in  bookkeeping,  accounts,  geography,  political 
economy,  languages  (particularly  the  English  language),  and 
stenography. 

The  cabinet  officer  known  as  Minister  of  the  Interior  and 
Worship  has  authority  in  relation  to  the  welfare  of  the  clergy  of 
the  Apostolic  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  under  the  constitution 
Roman  Catholicism  is  the  state  religion;  there  is,  however,  com- 
plete toleration,  and  about  one-third  of  the  adult  population  should 
be  classified  as  Protestants,  Liberals,  etc. 


AGRICULTURAL  AND  PASTORAL  INDUSTRIES 

Although  the  soil  is  fertile  and  the  climate  favorable  to  agri- 
culture, less  than  four  per  cent  of  the  country  is  under  cultivation 
(in  1916,  about  2,000,000  acres  out  of  a  total  of  more  than  45,000,- 
000  acres).  Uruguay  is  stilly,  despite  the  efforts  that  have  been 
made  by  the  government  to  extend  the  cultivated  area,  essentially 
a  pastoral  country,  41,350,000  acres  being  devoted  to  sheep,  cattle, 
etc.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are:  Wheat  (average  crop 
200,000  tons) ;  Indian  corn  (average  crop  200,000  tons) ;  linseed 
(average  crop  27,000  tons) ;  oats  (average  crop  27,000  tons) ;  wine 
(average  annual  production  34,000  tons) ;  tobacco  (average  crop 
1,000  tons). 

The  staple  products  of  Uruguay  are  meats,  hides,  and  wool. 
A  live-stock  census  which  was  provided  for  by  a  government  decree 
in  January  1917  shows  the  different  classes  of  cattle  in  each 
department  of  Uruguay,  but  in  submitting  the  figures  the  Director 
of  the  Census  states  that  they  are  to  be  considered  as  only  partial 
statistics.  The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  whole  country  is  given 
as  7,942,212,  the  largest  number  in  any  department,  711,224,  being 
in  Tacuarembo,  and  the  smallest  number,  26,373,  in  the  Department 
of  Montevideo.  Each  of  the  departments  of  Artigas,  Cerro  Largo, 
Durazno,  and  Salto  has  more  than  600,000  cattle;  Paysandii  and 
Rio  Negro  are  in  the  500,000  class ;  Florida,  Minas,  Rivera,  Rocha 
and  Soriano  show  over  400,000  each,  while  the  remaining  depart- 


URUGUAY  403 

ments  have  in  the  neighborhood  of  200,000  or  300,000  each.  The 
taking  of  this  cattle  census  is  only  one  of  various  measures  which 
the  government  of  Uruguay  is  adopting  for  the  development  of  its 
live  stock  industry,  the  chief  source  of  the  country's  wealth.  The 
stock  of  sheep  was  estimated  in  1916  as  about  27,000,000;  hogs, 
over  500,000;  horses  (statistics  of  1915),  500,000.  Live-stock 
statistics  are  prepared,  primarily,  by  the  animal  sanitary 
police,  a  well  organized  force  empowered  to  treat,  to  quaran- 
tine or  to  destroy  diseased  animals.  The  value  of  wool 
sheared  each  year  is  given  as  $25,000,000.  Favorable  conditions  of 
climate  and  pasturage,  together  with  intelligent  methods  of  propa- 
gation, have  induced  that  steady  increase  of  the  flocks  of  sheep 
which  has  made  the  Uruguayan  wool-clip  such  an  important  mat- 
ter. As  statistics  show,  the  sheep  to-day  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  —  Spanish  and  British,  omitting  the  Asiatic  breed.  The 
finest  sheep  in  ihe  -world  came  originally  from  Spain,  and  the 
authorities  of  Uruguay  have  not  only  bestowed  great  care  upon  the 
selection  and  development  of  types  that  thrive  best  under  local  con- 
ditions, but  also  have  spared  no  expense  in  their  search  for  the 
finest  varietiea-^leveloped  in  other  lands.  The  value  of  the 
slaughtered  live-siock  of  all  classes  was  shown  in  statistics  sub- 
mitted to  the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Conference  to  be  less 
than  the  value  of  the  ''  wool  crop  " — about  $22,000,000  as  com- 
pared with  $25,000,000.  But  in  1915,  when  the  total  value  of 
exports  of  the  grazing  and  meat  industry  increased  nearly  50  per 
cent,  wool  exports  showed  no  corresponding  gain.  An  important 
product  of  the  live-stock  industry  is  tasajo  (jerked  beef),  chiefly 
exported  to  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico.  In  1914,  more  than 
11,000  tons  of  tasajo  were  shipped  from  Uruguay  to  other  coun- 
tries, but  in  1915  only  5,334  tons. 


COMMERCE  AND  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES 

The  value  of  Uruguay's  imports  from  all  countries  in 
1915  was  $36,378,925,  and  of  her  exports  to  all  countries,  $76,222,- 
298.  The  value  of  her  imports  from  the  United  States  in  the  same 
year  was  $7,519,654,  and  of  her  exports  to  the  United  States,  $12,- 
148,464.  In  1916  the  six  countries  leading  in  exports  to  Uruguay 
were,  in  the  order  of  total  value  of  such  exports:  United  States 
(which  exported  to  Uruguay,  increasingly  large  quantities  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  binder  twine,  cotton  cloths,  railway  material, 


404 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


and  miscellaneous  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel),  Argentina, 
Great  Britain,  Brazil,  Spain  and  Italy.  The  six  countries  leading 
in  imports  from  Uruguay  in  1916  were :  in  the  order  of  total  value 
of  such  imports:  Italy,  United  States,  France,  Argentina,  Great 
Britain,  and  Spain.  The  following  tables  show  at  a  glance  the 
chief  groups  of  articles  imported  and  exported : 


Imports  by  Groups  of  Articles 


Sept.,  1915,  to  Feb.,  1916,  inclusive. 


Groceries,  etc 

Drygoods  and  notions.  . .  . 

Iron  manufactures,  station- 
ery, ships'  stores  and 
jewelry   

Electrical  supplies 

Musical  instruments 

Furniture  and  upholstery. . 

Shoemakers'  wares,  sad- 
dlery, and  skins 

Building  materials,  etc . .  . 


Pesos 
5,224,587 
2,123,021 


2,200,401 
42,278 
27,589 
51,649 

124,311 
1,843,327 


Dinigs  and  chemical  prod- 
ducts  

Pharmaceutical  specialties 
and  druggists'  sundries. . 

Perfumery    

Inflammables    

Live   animals 

Primary   materials 

Non-dutiable   articles 

Miscellaneous 


Total 


Value  in  currency  of  the  United  States. 


Pesos 
101,229 

112,691 

51,123 

1,102,546 

2,462,404 

2,106,348 

810,832 

158,841 

18,453,177 
$19,191,304 


Exports  by  Groups  of  Articles 

According  to  the  Boletin  del  Ministerio  de  Hacienda,  the 
exports  by  groups  of  articles  for  the  years  1014  and  1915  were  as 
follows : 

1914  1915 

Pesos  Pesos 

Grazing  and  meat  industry,  including  wool 48,014,263  70,535,539 

Agriculture    1,351,190  753,166 

Mine  products   2,525,573  1,109,825 

Fishing  and  hunting 157,234  90,463 

Miscellaneous  products 99,248  561,412 

Ships'   supplies    271,294  240,266 

Total  ■ 52,418,802  73,290,671 

Value  in  currency  of  the  United  States $54,515,554  $76,222,298 


The  foreign  trade  of  Uruguay  has  been  studied  with  a  view  to 
ascertaining  also  the  percentage  of  each  of  the  main  divisions  of 
the  imports  and  exports.  The  result  appears  in  the  following 
table,  which  shows  the  average  of  recent  years,  thus  minimizing  the 
effects  of  such  exceptional  conditions  as  the  war  has  created: 


URUGUAY  405 

Imports  Percent. 

Foodstuffs    19 .  02 

Textiles  and  manufactures  of 18 .  77 

Iron,  steel,  and  products  of 11 .  04 

Stone,  earth,  glass,  etc 11 .  10 

Lumber  and  woods  8 .  15 

Metals,  not  including  iron 8 .  15 

Industrial  oils 3 .  12 

Drugs 2.24 

Live  stock  1 .  94 

Other  products 22.28 

Exports 

Live-stock  products 90 .  24 

Agricultural  pi*oducts 4. 23 

Mineral  products  4 .  60 

Game  and  fishing  products .46 

Shi  J)  provisions .47 

Uruguay's  chief  exports  to  the  United  States  are  leathers, 
meat  products,  and  wool.  Her  principal  imports  from  the  United 
States  are  passenger  automobiles,  cotton  cloths,  drugs  and  chemi- 
cals, flour,  hardware  and  tools,  knit  goods,  iron  and  steel,  lubricat- 
ing oil,  rosin,  sugar,  and  tinplate. 

The  manufacturing  industries  of  Uruguay  are  on  a  small  scale 
as  a  rule,  but  a  noteworthy  exception  is  the  immense  establishment 
of  the  Liebig  Company  at  Fray  Bentos.  In  Montevideo  there  are 
flour  mills  and  boot  and  shoe  factories.  Several  woolen  mills,  brick 
and  tile  works,  and  glass  and  bottle  factories  are  in  operation. 
Other  manufactures  are:  Furniture,  cotton  and  linen  cloth, 
cement,  etc. 


MONEY,  BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

Uruguay's  monetary  system  is  based  on  the  gold  standard,  the 
theoretical  unit  being  the  Uruguayan  gold  peso,  divided  into  100 
centesimos  and  representing  1.697  grammes  of  gold  .917  fine,  or 
say  1.5561  grammes  of  pure  gold.  Its  par  value  in  terms  of  the 
currency  of  the  United  States  is  $1.0342  and  the  par  value  of  $1.00, 
currency  of  the  United  States,  in  terms  of  Uruguayan  currency  is 
$0.96689  pesos.  But,  inasmuch  as  Uruguay  has  never  actually 
coined  the  peso  or  other  gold-piece,  the  circulation  consists  of 
banknotes  and  foreign  gold  coins,  w^hich  are  legal  tender  at  the 
following  rates :  . 


406  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

United  States  Eagle  $9.66  Pesos 

English Sovereign  4.70  " 

German 20  Marks  4.60  '' 

French  20  Francs  3.73  " 

Belgium 20  Francs  3.73  " 

Italy 20  Lire  3.73  '^ 

Spanish   Doblon  4.82  " 

Brazil 20  Milreis  10 .56  " 

Argentine $5.00  Pesos  4.66  " 

Exchange  rates  are  quoted  normally  in  Montevideo  as  follows : 

London 90  d/s  51  ll/16d  =  $1.00  Peso 

London sight  50         y8d=1.00     " 

Paris 90  d/s  Frs.  5.421/2      =1.00     " 

Paris.... sight      "  5.361/2     =1.00     " 

Berlin 90  d/s  Mks.  4.41         =1.00     " 

Berlin sight      "  4.34         =1.00     " 

New  York... sight  U.  S.  Cy.  $1.00         =0.973" 

The  principal  banks  in  Montevideo  are :  Banco  de  la  Republica, 
Banco  Popular  del  Uruguay,  Banco  Comercial,  Banco  Espailol, 
Banco  Frances,  Banco  Alem^'m  Transatlnntico,  Banco  Britanico  de 
la  America  del  Sud,  Banco  Anglo  Sud-Americano,  Banco  de 
Londres  y  Rio  de  la  Plata,  London  &  Brazilian  Bank,  Limited,  and 
a  branch  of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York.  The  first  men- 
tioned is  really  a  state  institution,  its  capital  having  been  con- 
tributed solely  by  the  government.  It  is  administered  by  director?? 
who,  although  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic  with 
the  consent  of  the  Senate,  enjoy  complete  independence.  In  this 
connection  we  quote  the  observations  of  the  Uruguayan  delegation 
to  the  First  Pan  American  Financial  Conference :  "  Its  employees 
are  selected  among  the  most  able  men,  after  having  passed  certain 
examinations,  and  the  principal  officials  of  the  country,  including 
the  First  Magistrate  himself,  take  pride  in  not  interfering  with 
the  independence  of  the  bank,  and  they  do  their  utmost  to  lielp 
increase  its  resources  and  credit.  This  bank,  which  to-day  exer- 
cises a  vital  influence  in  the  economy  of  the  country  by  stimulating 
industries  and  trade,  has  twenty-four  branches  and  agencies  dis- 
tributed among  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the  interior,  and 
consequently  can  claim  from  an  international  point  of  view  the 
financial  representation  of  the  Republic.  In  the  near  future  the 
bank  will  be  in  a  position  to  extend  its  field  of  operations  to  North, 
Central,  and  South  America,  establishing  there  also  agencies  and 
branches,  for  its  capital  is  rapidly  increasing  by  means  of  accumu- 
lated profits." 


URUGUAY  407 

The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1916-17  estimated  expenses  at 
$30,525,402.64  and  receipts  $29,452,776.55.  For  1915-16  the  figures 
were:  $29,477,311.81  for  expenses,  including  interest  on  public 
debts,  and  $29,578,000  for  revenue,  the  chief  sources  of  revenue, 
under  the  conditions  created  by  the  war,  having  been : 

Customs  duties *$12,500,000 

Taxes  on  real  estate 4,400,000 

Commercial  licenses 1,700,000 

Taxes  on  cigars  and  tobacco 1,250,000 

Special  duties  for  public  education 960,000 

Post  office  and  telegraph 700,000 

Taxes  on  alcohol   805,000 

Taxes  on  matches   320,000 

Taxes  on  beer 190,000 

Taxes  on  brandy  80,000 

Taxes  on  sugar    260,000 

Taxes  on  wines    280,000 

Export  duties  on  live  stock 480,000 

Revenue  stamped  paper 580,000 

Stamps  360,000 

Consular  fees  360,000 

*  Custom  duties  yielded  $17,500,000  in  1913-14. 

As  contributors  to  revenue  we  mention  the  following  govern- 
ment institutions :  The  Bank  of  the  Republic,  the  Mortgage  Bank, 
the  Insurance  State  Bank,  and  the  electric  light  and  power  plants, 
capitalized  with  the  proceeds  of  a  $4,500,000  loan  and  constituting 
a  state  monopoly. 

The  public  debts  are :  The  consolidated  debt,  originating  in 
a  loan  of  £19,570,000  at  31^  per  cent  interest  and  1  per  cent  sink- 
ing fund  (the  distribution  of  the  securities  being,  in  1915,  in 
Europe  69.73  per  cent,  and  in  Uruguay  30.27  per  cent) ;  the  conver- 
sion loan  taken  by  the  Banquo  de  Paris  et  des  Pays  Bas  at  90  per 
cent  net  and  sold  to  the  public  at  97  per  cent,  of  which  loan  the 
holdings  in  Europe  amount  to  70.74  per  cent,  and  in  Uruguay 
29.26  per  cent;  the  guaranty  debt,  4  per  cent  (practically  redeemed 
through  purchase  by  the  state  of  the  mortgage  bank  which  had 
these  securities  as  part  of  its  capital) ;  the  unified  interior  debt,  4 
per  cent,  $1,448,650  ($1,100,000  held  in  London  and  the  balance  in 
Uruguay) ;  the  Insurance  State  Bank  loan,  5  per  cent  (the  whole 
amount,  $3,000,000,  belonging  to  the  State, ''  as  the  bank  never  felt 
the  necessity  of  selling  bonds");  the  1915  interior  debt  loan, 
$6,000,000,  issued  at  8  per  cent.  In  March  1917  notice  was  received 
that  the  Uruguayan  Government  was  proceeding  to  the  conversion 
of  the  last-mentioned  loan  (8  per  cent)  into  a  new  conversion  loan 
at  61/2  P^r  cent,  with  a  bonus  of  5  per  cent. 


408  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  railroads  in  Uruguay  radiate  westward  and  northward 
from  Montevideo,  three  lines  connecting  the  country  with  Brazil. 
They  are  in  the  main  of  standard  gauge ;  their  total  length  in  1916 
was  about  1,580  miles,  and  they  carry  annually  about  1,800,000 
passengers  and  1,700,000  tons  of  freight.  Plans  have  been  made 
for  extending  the  system  by  the  addition  of  1,500  miles  of  track. 
The  length  of  tramway  lines  in  operation  is  about  170  miles ;  the 
total  length  of  departmental  wagon  roads  or  bridle  paths,  more 
than  3,000  miles,  and  of  national  highways  about  2,240  miles. 
Efforts  are  being  made  to  put  the  highways  in  better  condition  for 
motor  traffic.  The  river  system  is  extensive  and  of  great  value 
for  transportation,  all  of  the  following  ports  on  the  Uruguay  River 
admitting  vessels  of  nine  (and  some  even  of  14)  feet  draft:  Car- 
melo,  Nueva  Palmira,  Soriano,  Fray  Bentos,  Nuevo  Berlin,  Casa 
Blanca,  Paysandii,  Salto,  and  Santa  Rosa.  On  the  Rio  Negro  the 
chief  port  is  Mercedes;  on  the  San  Salvador  River,  the  port  of 
San  Salvador;  and  small  craft  reach  the  interior  on  a  dozen  or 
more  of  the  Uruguay's  tributary  streams.  Steamship  communica- 
tion between  Uruguay  and  foreign  lauds  is  maintained  by  transat- 
lantic lines  representing  the  chief  nations  of  western  Europe. 
Between  Montevideo  and  New  York  there  is  a  weekly  service; 
local  transportation  lines  keep  the  Uruguayan  coast  in  touch  with 
the  Atlantic  ports  of  Brazil  or  the  river  ports  of  Paraguay,  and 
there  is  a  regular  nightly  steamship  service  between  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Aires. 

Uruguay  has  extended  its  wireless  service  by  establishing  a 
large  station  at  Montevideo,  with  a  range  of  621  miles,  and  other 
stations  identified  with  the  War  and  Marine  Ministry  or  Depart- 
ment. The  number  of  post-offices  in  the  country  is  about  1,200; 
of  telegraph  and  telephone  stations,  about  60. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

The  metric  system  has  been  adopted  officially  (see  Metric 
System)  and  gains  ground  steadily  among  the  people  in  the 
chief  centres  of  population,  displacing  such  antiquated  units  as 
the  libra  (1.0143  pounds);  arroba  (25.35  pounds);  quintal  (101.4 
pounds);  cuadra  (1.8  acres);  fanega  (30  gallons)  etc.  The 
recognized  basis  of  thorough  reform  in  this  respect  is  practical 
demonstration  of  the  greater  convenience  of  the  ncM^  system. 


URUGUAY 


409 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 

The  strength  of  the  army  at  present  is  given  as  slightly  more 
than  8,000  —  600  officers  and  about  7,500  men  —  and  about  ioO,000 
men  receive  training  in  the  national  guard.  For  the  navy, 
additional  ships  are  being  constructed.  The  number  of  vessels  in 
1916  was  12,  with  60  officers  and  600  men. 


POPULATION 


The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1916  was  estimated  at  1,406,000. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  republic  there  are  many  Brazilians, 
who  cross  the  border  from  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul ;  other- 
wise the  population  consists  principally  of  Spaniards  or  people  of 
Spanish  descent  (the  most  numerous  class),  of  Italian  colonists 
and  citizens,  and  of  the  English,  Swiss,  and  German  residents  who 
are  actively  engaged  in  business,  banking,  or  agriculture. 

Bibliography 

Araujo,  0.,  Diccionario  Geogrdfieo  del  Uruyuay  (Montevideo  1912)  and  Nueva 
Historia  del  Uruguay  (Montevideo  1909) ;  Bollo,  S.,  Manual  de  Historia  de  la 
Repiiblica  Oriental  del  Uruguay  (Montevideo  1897)  ;  Bryee,  J.,  South  America 
(New  York  1912) ;  Clemenceau,  G.,  South  America  To-day  (New  York  and  London 
1911) ;  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington 
1915) ;  Hudson,  W.  H.,  The  Purple  Land  (New  ed..  New  York  1916) ;  Koebel, 
W.  H.,  Uruguay  (London  1911);  Pan  American  Union,  C^rwr/wa?/ ;  General  Descrip- 
tive Data  (Washington  1916);  Ross,  G.,  Argentina  and  Uruguay  (New  York  1916). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay  is  divided  into  19  Departments, 
with  their  areas,  populations  and  capitals  are  as  follows: 


These 


DEPARTMENTS 


Area 

(square  miles) 


Population 


Capital 

San  Eugenio ... 

Guadalupe 

Villa  de  Melo .  . 

Colonia 

Durazno 

Trinidad 

Florida 

Maldonado 

Minas 

Montevideo 

Paysandii 

Fray  Bentos .  .  .  . 

Rivera 

Rocha 

Salto 

San  JosS 

Mercedes 

San  Fructuosa .  . 
Treinta  y  Tres .  . 


Population 


Artigas 

Canelones.  .  .  . 
Cerro  Largo. . . 

Colonia 

Durazno 

Flores 

Florida 

Maldonado .  .  . 

Minas 

Montevideo. . . 

Payaandti 

Rio  Negro.  .  .  . 

Rivera , . 

Rocha 

Salto 

San  Jo86 

Soriano 

Tacuaremb6 .  . 
Treinta  y  Tres 

Total 


,394 
,834 
763 
193 
525 
744 
673 
587 
819 
256 
115 
269 
793 
280 
865 
688 
560 
112 
682 


36,340 
107,068 
54,005 
74,458 
51,737 
21,562 
56,917 
37,125 
62,920 
364,343 
60,512 
33,529 
43,342 
43,309 
66,493 
57,011 
51,413 
56,438 
37,192 


10,000 
10,000 

4,000 
15,000 
11,000 

4,000 
10,000 
11,000 

8,995 

377,994 

22,000 

12,000 

8,000 

5,000 
19,788 
13,000 
25,000 

9,000 
10,000 


72,153 


1,316,714 


410  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Montevideo 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  is  situated  on  the  north  shore  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  68  miles  east  of  Buenos  Aires.  It  is  built  on  a  peninsula 
running  west  from  the  mainland  and  inclosing  the  bay  forming  the  harbor.  The 
city  is  well  built  and  has  an  imposing  appearance.  The  climate  is  pleasant  and 
the  public  services  of  the  city  are  excellent.  The  streets  are  wide,  straight  and 
well  paved.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  harbor  is  not  great,  being  only  about 
25  feet,  and  many  of  the  warehouses  and  cranes  are  of  recent  installation.  A 
comprehensive  plan  of  improvement  was  submitted  in  1913,  which  contemplates 
an  expenditure  of  $13,500,000,  and  among  other  things  the  construction  of  a 
dry  dock  large  enough  for  the  biggest  liners,  a  masonry  mole  in  continuation 
of  the  commercial  port  for  cargo  boats  drawing  as  much  as  33  feet,  a  dock  for 
ocean  liners  in  transit  with  39 V2  feet  and  another  for  river  boats,  a  coaling  wharf 
and  a  wharf  for  live  stock.  The  chief  industry  is  meat  packing,  the  products 
forming  a  large  percentage  of  the  exports.  Weaving  and  flour  milling  are  of 
some  importance.  There  are  also  glass  and  cement  factories,  shoe  factories,  30 
tanneries.  Aside  from  these  there  are  establishments  for  making  jiaper,  chocolates, 
matches,  dairy  products,  haberdashery,  mosaics,  furniture,  beer,  tobacco,  and 
several  other  articles  for  home  consumption.  Over  90  per  cent  of  the  imports  and 
70  per  cent  of  the  exports  of  Uruguay  pass  through  Montevideo.  The  total 
value  of  the  city's  imports  and  exports  is  about  $67,000,000  annually,  the  imports 
being  slightly  in  excess  of  the  exports.  The  principal  exports  are  wool,  hides, 
meat  and  meat  extracts,  animal  fat  and  live  stock,  and  the  imports  cotton  goods, 
iron  and  steel,  sugar,  coal,  woodwork,  wines,  machinery  and  chemicals.  The 
railways  of  the  Republic  centre  on  Montevideo,  and  fi'om  it  lead  out  to  the 
northeast,  to  the  north  and  to  the  northwest.  It  is  the  official  residence  of 
the  United  States  minister  to  Uruguay  and  the  seat  of  a  consul-general  of  the 
United  States. 

Other  Cities 

COLONiA,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  nearly  opposite  Buenos  Aires.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  docks  and 
a  dry  dock,  and  has  considerable  trade  with  Buenos  Aires  and  other  river  ports. 
The  only  Atlantic  port  of  any  importance  is  that  at  La  Pai>oma,  60  miles  east 
of  Montevideo,  which  is  small,  the  harbor  being  formed  by  two  breakwaters  and 
an  island.  The  country  back  of  La  Paloma  is  well  settled  and  cultivated  and 
a  railway  line  connects  it  with  Rocha.  Maldonado,  30  miles  east  of  Montevideo, 
is  considered  as  being  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Plate.  The  harbor  has  considerable 
depth  of  water,  but  is  of  little  importance  as  an  ocean  port.  About  250  miles 
from  Montevideo  is  the  port  of  Fray  Bentos,  on  the  Uruguay  River,  which  has 
a  depth  of  water  of  about  30  feet,  and  at  which  40  or  50  ocean-going  vessels 
call  each  year.  The  most  of  the  cargo  is  in  connection  with  the  Liebig  plant, 
or  the  estancieros  near  by,  or  for  the  railways  in  course  of  construction.  It  has 
rail  connection  with  the  interior  and  with  Brazil  and  is  important  as  a  distributing 
centre.  Paysandu  is  also  a  river  port  of  rising  importance.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Uruguay,  170  miles  north  of  Buenos  Aires;  it  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural 
and  pastoral  district.  The  chief  industry  is  the  preserving  of  beef,  especially  ox 
tongues.  It  has  regular  steamer  conmiunication  with  Montevideo  and  Avith  Buenos 
Aires. 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  republic  officially  called  the  United  States  of  Venezuela 
lies  in  the  northern  part  of  South  America  and  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
on  the  east  by  British  Guiana,  on  the  south  by  Brazil  and  Colom- 
bia, and  on  the  west  by  Colombia.  It  extends  from  lat.  0°  45'  N.  to 
12°  26'  N.  and  from  long.  59°  35'  W.  to  73°  20'  W.,  and  has  an 
area  of  approximately  393,976  square  miles,  divided  among  20 
states,  a  Federal  District,  and  two  territories  (see  Political 
Divisions  and  Cities,  page  434). 

Topography 

Nature  has  established  in  this  land  of  varied  physical  char- 
acteristics five  main  divisions:  (1)  The  long  coast-line  with  its 
picturesque  harbors;  (2)  The  highlands  of  all  that  region  south 
and  east  of  the  Orinoco,  which  may  be  called  Venezuelan  Guiana, 
or  Guiana  Highlands;  (3)  The  great  central  area  of  plains  or 
Llanos,  those  wide  expanses,  low-lying,  nearly  level,  grassy  but 
often  treeless  —  with,  at  most,  groups  of  palms  and  small  trees 
near  river  banks;  (4)  The  northeastern  branch  of  the  Andes 
Mountains;  (5)  the  comparatively  small  regions  of  the  Lake  Mara- 
caibo  basin,  etc.  The  coast-line  and  the  Orinoco  alone  would  be 
sufficient  to  give  Venezuela  importance  in  the  world.  Concerning 
the  vast,  more  or  less  unexplored  tract  lying  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Orinoco  and  near  the  headwaters  of  that  river,  Mr.  Dalton 

[411] 


412 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


has  written  that ' '  the  area  is  primarily  one  huge  elevated  plateau 
about  1,000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea,  and  from  this  rise  a  few 
principal  mountain  ranges,  with  some  peaks  over  8,000  feet  high. 
The  highest  ground  is  found  on  the  Brazilian  frontier  beginning 
at  Mt.  Eoraima  (8,500  feet),  where  the  three  boundaries  of  Vene- 
zuela, British  Guiana  and  Brazil  meet,  and  extends  thence  west- 
ward and  southward  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Orinoco.  The  whole 
area  (about  294,600  square  miles)  is  well  watered,"  and  nearly  all 
is  covered  with  forests  "  containing  rubber,  tonka-beans,  brazil- 
nuts,  copaiba,  and  all  the  varied  natural  produce  of  the  South 
American  tropics."  The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco  have  a  total  area 
of  108,300  square  miles.    The  elevation  of  the  Llanos  ranges  up  to 


^  Copyright,    Brown  &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 

Principal  Street  in  Caracas,  Venezueia 


650  feet,  and  more  than  this  in  the  mesas  of  the  central  region  but 
large  tracts  are  less  than  300  feet  above  sea  level.  The  whole  area 
is  traversed  by  numerous  streams  and  rivers.  The  fourth  great 
tract,  the  northeast  spur  of  the  Andes,  divides  it  all  naturally  into 
three  parts  —  the  Caribbean  range,  along  the  shores  of  the  sea  of 
the  same  name,  the  Segovia  Highlands,  linking  the  former  to  the 
higher  mountains  of  western  Venezuela,  and  the  Cordillera  of 
Merida,  or  the  Venezuelan  Andes.  The  total  area  occupied  by 
those  mountain  and  hill-tracts  is  about  41,800  square  miles.  The 
fifth  division  includes,  beside  the  alluvial  area  of  the  lake  of 
Maracaibo,  the  Coro  and  Paraguana  lowlands  and  the  numerous 
islands  in  the  Caribbean  which  belong  to  Venezuela,  and  the  area 
is  estimated  as  about  27,800  square  miles. 


VENEZUELA  413 

From  Roraima  the  Orinoco-Cuyuni  watershed  extends 
northward  within  Venezuela  to  the  Sierra  Piaeoa,  and  thence 
southeast  along  the  Sierra  Imataca  to  the  British  limits  again. 
The  Sierra  Maigualida  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Caura 
and  the  Ventuari.  This  southern  and  southeastern  region  is  well 
watered  by  the  upper  Orinoco  and  the  Ventuari,  with  the  other 
great  tributaries,  the  Cuchivero,  Caura,  Aro,  Caroni,  and  their 
affluents.  And  yet,  large  as  these  rivers  are,  they  are  so  broken 
by  rapids  that  travel  along  them  is  possible  only  in  small  portable 
boats  or  rafts. 

It  is  necessary  to  differentiate  carefully  the  river  system  of 
the  Llanos  region,  where,  north  of  the  Meta,  in  addition  to  many 
smaller  streams  which  broaden  out  into  marshy  lakes  or  cienagas, 
we  find  the  navigable  rivers  Arauca  (the  main  waterway  to  eastern 
Colombia)  and  Apure,  flowing  from  the  Andes  to  the  Orinoco  in 
an  easterly  direction.  The  Apure  receives  many  tributaries  on 
its  left  bank  from  the  Venezuelan  Andes,  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Portuguesa  and  the  Guarico  —  the  latter  flowing  through 
the  state  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  and  receiving  the  waters  of 
at  least  one  stream  that  has  its  source  less  than  30  miles  from  the 
coast  in  longitude  6(^°  Most  important  among  the  Orinoco  tribu- 
taries from  the  north  beyond  the  Apure ^ is  the  Manapire.  The 
waters  of  the  eastern  Llanos  are  carried  northward  by  the  Unare 
and  Aragua  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  About  11,500  square  miles 
are  comprised  in  the  famous  Delta  of  the  Orinoco,  a  region  of 
inundated  forest,  savannah  and  mangrove  swamp,  in  which  the 
water-courses  called  canos  are  not  regarded  as  portions  of  the 
Orinoco  itself. 

Climate  and  Health 

The  marked  climatic  variations  are  occasioned  chiefly  by, 
differences  in  elevation,  latitude  and  vegetation.  The  Guiana 
Highland  region  is,  however,  exceptional  on  account  of  its  com- 
paratively uniform  elevation,  which  tends  to  equalization  of  tem- 
peratures, etc.  Naturally  in  those  parts  of  this  region  where 
mountain  ridges  rise  above  the  general  level  of  the  plateau  the 
temperature  is  lower  than  the  average,  but  these  constitute  a  small 
part  of  the  whole.  There  is  an  important  difference  in  the 
meteorological  conditions  in  the  various  river-valleys  of  the  Ori- 
noco basin,  where  the  '' white-water  "—i  e.,  the  swiftly  flowing 
but  muddy  streams,  with  rocky  beds  —  are  always  accompanied 
by  a  clear  sky  overhead,  and  mosquitoes  and  crocodiles  abound; 
on  the  "  black-water  "—the  deep  and  slow  rivers  — the  sky  is 


414  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

continually  clouded,  but  the  air  is  free  from  mosquitoes.  The 
Orinoco  represents  the  former  type,  the  Rio  Negro  the  latter.  The 
rainy  season  in  the  Guiana  Highland  region  begins  in  April  and 
lasts  till  November;  the  remaining  four  months  are  fairly  dry. 
The  region  of  northern  Venezuela  is  divided  climatically  into  three 
regions,  the  hot,  temperate,  and  cold  zones.  The  hot  zone  or 
Tierra  caliente  ranges  from  sea-level  to  an  elevation  of  about  1,900 
feet,  where  the  mean  annual  temperature  varies  from  74°  Fahr. 
to  91°  Fahr.  The  intermediate  or  temperate  zone,  the  Tierra 
templada,  lies  between  1,900  and  about  7,000  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  within  these  limits  the  mean  annual  temperature  may  fall  as 
low  as  59°  or  60°  Fahr.  The  Tierra  fria,  or  cold  zone,  including 
the  highest  peak  in  Venezuela,  16,423  feet,  has  mean  annual  tem- 
peratures ranging  from  60°  to  zero.  The  Tierra  caliente  includes 
the  greater  part  of  Venezuelan  Guiana,  the  Llanos,  the  coastal 
plains,  the  region  of  the  lake  of  Maracaibo,  the  lower  slopes  and 
part  of  the  central  valleys  of  the  mountains,  and  the  Caribbean 
islands  belonging  to  Venezuela.  On  the  Llanos  the  hottest  regions 
are  the  southern  and  western;  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  and  the  wet 
season  lasts  from  April  to  November.  Maracaibo  has  the  highest 
temperature  of  the  cities  of  the  coastal  region;  there  the  area 
around  the  lake  is  comparatively  free  from  rain  until  August  and 
September.  The  Tierra  templada  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabited  region  of  the  hills.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Carib- 
bean Hills  the  rains  last  during  the  same  months  as  in  the  Llanos, 
but  in  the  Andes,  particularly  to  the  south,  the  seasons  vary,  and 
it  is  generally  considered  that  there  are  two  rainy  reasons  (light 
rains  from  April  to  June  and  heavy  rains  from  August  to  Novem- 
ber) ;  but  this  applies  rather  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  watershed, 
the  western  side  having  an  increasing  similarity  in  seasons  to  the 
Llanos  as  one  descends  toward  those  plains.  Only  the  higher  por- 
tions of  the  Caribbean  Hills  are  included  in  the  Tierra  fria,  but 
between  Tocuyo  and  the  Colombian  frontier  the  greater  part  of 
the  area  is  situated  above  7,000  feet.  There  strong  winds  prevail 
and  the  vegetation  is  sparse.  The  snow  line  being  normally  about 
14,700  feet  above  sea-level,  only  the  peaks  of  the  highest  mountains 
are  snow-capped  throughout  the  year. 

The  death  rate  for  the  whole  republic  is  somewhat  more  than 
25  per  1,000,  and  statistical  tables  show  the  largest  tolls  to  be 
exacted  by  malaria  (paludismo),  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis  and 
gastric  or  nervous  diseases.  The  Delta  region  is,  of  course, 
unhealthful.     Statistics  show  that  the  Llanos  division  is  by  far 


VENEZUELA  415 

the  healthiest,  with  the  Ancles  next,  and  then  the  Caribbean  Hills ; 
and  it  is  true  that,  although  in  some  of  the  coast  towns  situated 
near  swampy  ground  the  death  rate  is  high,  the  northern  coast 
as  a  whole  presents  conditions  favorable  to  health. 

Geological  History  and  Mineral  Resources 

Mr.  Dalton  says  that  the  geological  changes  which  have  played 
their  part  in  the  building  up  of  the  physical  features  of  the  country 
have  left  Venezuela  in  possession  of  splendid  assets  in  respect  to 
the  minerals.  The  Venezuelan  Guiana  Highlands  are  not  only 
formed  of  the  oldest  rocks  in  this  republic  but  represent  one  of 
the  most  ancient  land-surfaces  in  the  world.  "  The  great  elevated 
platform  from  which  rise  the  peaks  and  mountain  chains  of  Vene- 
zuelan Guiana  appears  everywhere  to  be  composed  of  similar 
rocks,  gneisses,  hornblende  schists,  and  granites,  all  containing 
evidence  of  great  antiquity  in  geological  time.  This  complex  is 
considered  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  members  of  the  Archaean  sys- 
tem. Into  its  crevices  and  joints,  dykes  of  quartz-porphyries  and 
felsite  were  forced.  Later  movements  of  the  earth's  crust  pro- 
duced a  shallow  sea  or  series  of  lakes  over  this  same  region,  and 
in  these  w^aters  a  series  of  beds  of  red  and  white  sandstones,  coarse 
conglomerate,  and  red  shale  were  laid  down  to  a  thickness  of  2,000 
feet.  Then  the  area  was  again  elevated  into  dry  land,  and  again 
veins  or  dykes  of  basalt,  dolorite  and  similar  rocks  in  a  molten 
condition  forced  themselves  into  the  fractures  of  gneisses  and 
sandstone  alike.  The  vertical-sided,  flat-topped  mountains  of  Gui- 
ana appear  to  be  the  result  of  protection  that  caps  of  igneous 
rock  afforded  to  the  softer  sandstones  immediately  below.  Such 
portions  of  the  softer  material  as  were  thus  protected  from  the 
effects  of  atmospheric  weatJiering  remain  still  as  upstanding 
masses  of  horizontally  stratified  material,  while  surrounding 
unprotected  masses  have  been  denuded  from  the  ancient  founda- 
tion of  gneiss. 

The  geological  history  of  the  northern  part  of  the  country  has 
been  eventful  in  comparatively  recent  times;  for  although  no  vol- 
canoes, active  or  recently  extinct,  are  known  in  Venezuela,  the 
country  has  repeatedly  sustained  earthquake  shocks.  The  first 
important  tremor  noticed  after  the  discovery  of  the  shores  of  the 
Caribbean  was  that  of  1530,  which  destroyed  the  fortress  of  Cu- 
mana.  Earthquake  and  hurricane  visited  New  Cadiz  in  1543  and 
so  disastrous  were  the  results  that  from  that  day  to  the  present 
Cubagua  has  been  a  desert  island.  In  the  19th  century  there  were 


416'  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

three  earthquakes  of  great  severity.  In  March  1812  a  shock 
destroyed  great  parts  of  Caracas,  La  Guaira,  Barquisimeto, 
Merida,  and  other  towns,  and  in  the  capital  alone  10,000  people 
were  killed.  The  other  two  occurred  on  13  Aug.  1868  and  in  1894. 
With  justice  this  part  of  the  world  has  long  held  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  rich  in  minerals.  Placer  workings  are  the 
chief  source  of  gold  in  the  Guasipati  gold-fields  in  Venezuelan 
Guiana,  but  the  reefs  from  which  it  is  derived  have  been  discovered 
and  worked  at  odd  times ;  and  in  British  Guiana,  where  the  condi- 
tions are  similar,  the  gold  is  generally  found  along  the  later  intru- 
sive dykes,  the  smallest  dykes  being  the  richest,  while  most  gold 
is  found  where  a  basalt  intrusion  crosses  one  of  the  older  ones. 
Coal  of  fairly  good  quality  occurs  in  more  than  one  of  the  Cre- 
taceous and  Tertiary  groups  of  strata,  near  Barcelona,  Tocuyo, 
Coro,  and  Maracaibo,  as  well  as  in  the  Andes.  Iron  is  found  in 
the  gneiss  south  of  the  Orinoco  Delta.  Copper  ores  are  fairly 
common  in  the  northern  cordillera,  and  the  mines  of  Aroa  in  Yar- 
acuy  have  been  worked  for  years.  Asphalt  is  found  in  the  Peder- 
nales  district  and  on  the  shores  of  lake  Maracaibo;  and  in  the 
state  of  Monagas  the  Bermiidez  "  lake  "  of  asphalt  covers  1,000 
acres.  Other  minerals  are :  Galena,  sulphur,  marble,  kaolin,  gyp- 
sum, calcium  phosphate,  opal,  onyx,  jasper,  quartz,  felspar,  talc, 
mica,  staurolite,  asbestos,  antimony,  silver  and  tin. 

Fauna  and  Flora 

Several  species  of  the  prehensile-tailed  capuchin  monkey  are 
known  in  Venezuela,  and  many  other  kinds  are  found  in  the  forests, 
including  the  black  thumbless  spider-monkeys  and  variegated 
spider-monkey;  the  banded  douroucouli,  little  squirrel-monkeys 
and  marmosets,  etc.  Bats  and  vampire  bats  are  abundant.  There 
are  large  specimens  of  the  jaguar  and  puma,  and  (among  other 
large  cats)  the  ocelot,  the  jaguarondi,  and  margay.  In  the  Andes 
the  *'  spectacled  bear  "  is  found;  the  raccoon  tribe  is  represented 
by  the  kinkajou;  the  weasels  by  the  tayra,  the  grison,  etc.  The 
Brazilian  otter  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  the  Llanos.  The  red  Bra- 
zilian and  Ecuadorean  brockets  represent  the  deer;  there  are  two 
species  of  peccary  and  the  manati  is  not  uncommon.  We  mention 
also  the  peculiar  tree  porcupine  and  the  capybara,  or  ''  water- 
hog  ";  the  aguti,  the  sloth,  the  great-maned  ant-eater  or  ant-bear, 
the  lesser  ant-eater,  the  two-toed  ant-eater,  and  the  armadillo;  also 
the  opossums  called  raUpelados  and  the  perrito  de  agua  or  water- 
opossum.     Many  of  the  Venezuelan  birds  are  beautiful,  but  few 


VENEZUELA  417 

have  musical  notes.  Characteristic  are :  The  manikins,  with  their 
gay  plumage;  the  beautiful  orange-red  cock-of-the-rocks ;  the 
umbrella-birds  or  fife-birds ;  the  bell-birds  which  make  a  noise  like 
the  ringing  of  a  bell;  jacmars,  puff-birds,  trogons,  the  king  hum- 
ming-birds; the  great  wood  night-jars  and  the  oil-birds  or  gua- 
charos.  There  are  flocks  of  green  parrots  and  of  blue  and  red  or 
yellow  macaws  in  the  forests.  No  less  than  32  species  of  falcons  or 
eagles  are  known,  and  on  the  river-courses  many  water-birds  are 
found  —  among  these  the  herons  or  garsas,  storks  and  ibises,  rosy 
white  or  scarlet  flamingoes,  curassows  and  guans,  the  hoatzins 
(resembling  pheasants),  etc.  The  snakes  are  very  numerous,  poi- 
sonous varieties  being  the  coral-snake,  rattle-snake,  and  * '  bush- 
master  ",  and  non-poisonous  varieties  the  water-boa  and  anaconda, 
the  cazadora,  and  the  wood-snake  or  sipo.  There  are  11  species 
of  crocodiles;  about  six  genera  of  frogs  and  toads  represent  the 
Amphibians,  and  of  the  former,  one  emits  in  croaking  a  sound 
resembling  a  human  shout  so  nearly  that  *  *  a  number  of  them  give 
the  impression  of  a  crowd  at  a  football  match."  Among  the  fish, 
the  well-known  carihe,  ferocious  as  its  name  implies,  and  the  elec- 
tric eel,  or  temhlador,  certainly  receive  more  than  their  propor- 
tionate and  appropriate  share  of  attention  in  travellers'  accounts, 
the  life  in  the  seas,  rivers  and  lakes  being  abundant  and  varied. 
Insects  of  the  forest  regions  (one-half  of  the  entire  country)  natu- 
rally resemble  those  of  the  Brazilian  selvas  —  the  gorgeous  butter- 
flies and  brilliant  fireflies,  the  monkey-spiders,  etc. 

Within  the  vast  forests  of  southern  Venezuela,  the  plants 
range  from  the  alpine  shrubs  and  reindeer  moss  of  some  of  the 
high  plateaux  and  hills  to  the  bamboos  and  orchids  of  the  river 
banks.  Forest  giants  and  timber  trees  are :  The  Mora,  with  dark- 
red,  fine-grained  wood ;  the  mahogany  and  a  tree  resembling  rose- 
wood; the  very  large  ceiba  and  mucurutu  or  cannon-ball  tree. 
Specially  important  products  of  the  forests  are  the  Brazil  nut, 
the  tonka-bean  (sarrapia),  balata,  copaiba-balsam,  rubber  and  cin- 
chona or  quinine.  In  the  hot  lowlands  the  chief  products  are  cacao, 
sugar,  plantains,  bananas,  cassava,  maize  and  cocoanuts,  with  dye- 
woods  and  tanning  barks,  including  dividivi,  logwood,  mangrove 
and  indigo.  In  the  cooler  uplands  (lower  Tierra  templada)  coffee, 
cotton,  cocoa,  etc.,  flourish  near  the  fields  of  wheat  and  potatoes ; 
and  a  single  garden  may  produce  both  roses  and  bougainvilleas ; 
a  single  orchard,  both  papayas  and  quinces.  The  higher  part  of 
the  Tierra  templada  shows  us  both  palms  and  pines  —  in  brief,  a 
greater  variety  of  plant  life  than  can  be  found  in  the  hot  lowlands. 
28 


418  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

HISTORY  OF  VENEZUELA 

Dr.  H.  J.  Spinden,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, writes  in  the  Scientific  American,  19  Aug.  1916,  that  the 
region  now  called  Venezuela  ''  is  generally  recognized  (by  archae- 
ologists) as  the  point  of  departure  for  the  original  culture  of  the 
West  Indies. ' '  It  is  probable,  also,  that  long  before  the  discovery 
of  the  New  World  the  tribes  or  peoples  of  the  mainland,  from  the 
plateau  of  Bogota  to  the  valley  of  Mexico,  held  communication  with 
tribes  inhabiting  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes  and 
the  Caribbean  Hills.  Nevertheless  the  aborigines  had  advanced 
very  little  beyond  mere  savagery  when  Columbus,  on  31  July 
1498,  coasted  along  the  south  side  of  the  Peninsula  of  Paria.  In 
1499  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  Amerigo  Vespucci  and  others  set  sail,  and, 
after  landing  several  times  on  the  peninsula  just  mentioned,  con- 
tinued the  voyage  westward  to  Coquibacoa  (lake  of  Maracaibo), 
where  the  Indian  pile-dwellings  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  attracted 
special  attention,  recalling  Venice,  on  a  very  small  scale;  and 
(perhaps  by  Amerigo's  suggestion)  the  name  Little  Venice,  or 
Venezuela,  was  bestowed  upon  that  region. 

Another  group  of  voyagers  in  the  same  year  touched  at  Mar- 
garita Island  and  obtained  pearls  from  the  natives.  In  1500  about 
50  adventurers,  sailing  from  Hispaniola,  established  a  settlement 
on  Cubagua  Island,  near  Margarita,  and  naturally  an  uncontrolled 
exploitation  of  the  pearl  fisheries  began.  At  Cumana,  Manjar 
and  a  point  near  Barcelona  on  the  mainland  coast,  there  were 
settlements  of  a  different  character  in  1513,  1518  and  1520:  Fran- 
ciscan and  Dominican  monks,  engaged  in  missionary  work  at 
these  continental  stations,  laid  down  their  lives  as  martyrs  in  a 
noble  cause.  It  was  after  studying  the  situation  here  that  Bartol- 
ome  de  las  Casas  used  all  the  force  of  his  great  talent  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  traffic  in  Indian  slaves.  Nueva  Cordoba,  the  modern 
Cumana,  was  founded  in  1521 ;  Cori  in  1527.  The  rule  of  the  Wel- 
ser  (the  bankers  of  Augsburg  to  whom  Charles  V  granted  the  privi- 
lege of  exploiting  the  province  of  Venezuela)  was  endured  during 
two  miserable  decades,  practically  ending  in  1545,  though  the 
grant  was  not  formally  withdrawn  until  1558.  In  1561  occurred 
the  rebellion  of  Lope  de  Aguirre.  Caracas,  or  Santiago  de  Leon 
de  Caracas,  was  founded  in  1567  (presumably,  though  the  exact 
date  has  not  been  recorded)  beside  the  Villa  de  San  Francisco 
which  Faxardo  had  built  in  1560.  In  1595  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
first  visited  these  regions  of  the  "  Oronoca  ",  as  he  wrote  the 
name    (compare  Archceologia,  Vol.   XVI,   pp.   188-192,  London, 


VENEZUELA  419 

Society  of  Antiquaries,  1812).  Berrio  y  Orufia  in  1615  led  an  expe- 
dition from  San  Thome,  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Caroni,  in  quest 
of  the  fabled  city  of  Manoa.  In  1656  a  station  was  again  founded 
at  Barcelona  by  Franciscan  monks,  and  organized  attempts  to 
civilize  the  Indians  were  so  largely  successful  that  within  150 
years  the  Franciscans  founded  38  towns  with  25,000  Indian  inhab- 
itants. Other  orders  established  missions  in  1686.  The  Univer- 
city  of  Caracas  was  founded  by  Philip  V  in  1721.  The  whole  of 
what  is  now  Venezuela  (with  the  exception  of  the  Maracaibo 
region)  was  in  1731  included  in  a  new  Capitania-General,  to  which 
Maracaibo  was  added  in  1777. 

The  first  definite  attempt  at  revolt  from  the  mother  country 
occurred  in  1797.     Its  leaders  were  captured  and  executed.     A 


Copyright,    Brown  &   Dawson,    N     Y. 

The  Grand  Salon  of  the  Federal   Building, 
Caracas,  Venezuela 

Venezuelan  gentleman,  Don  Francisco  Miranda,  invaded  the  colony 
at  Ocumare  25  March  1806.  Repulsed  by  Captain-General  Vas- 
concelos,  he  retired  to  Trinidad  and  about  five  months  later  made 
an  unsuccessful  landing  at  Coro.  The  first  Venezuelan  congress 
(44  deputies  elected  by  seven  provinces)  met  on  2  March  1811; 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  by  the  deputies  took  place  on  5 
July  1811.  The  seven  provinces  were  at  that  time  said  to  be 
regarded  as  forming  a  confederation  of  free,  sovereign,  and  inde- 
pendent states;  nevertheless,  when  leaders  of  the  revolution  were 
sufficiently  strong  to  declare  a  constitution  on  21  Dec.  1811,  power 
was  granted  by  that  instrument  to  the  central  government  to 
revise  the  provincial  constitutions.     On  25  July  1812  Miranda, 


420  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

who  had  been  appointed  dictator  by  congress,  capitulated  with 
4,000  men  to  the  royalist  leader  Monteverde  who  was  in  command 
of  only  3,000 ;  four  years  later  he  died  in  prison  in  Spain.  In  1813 
Simon  Bolivar,  Venezuelan  aristocrat,  then  30  years  of  age,  became 
the  leader  of  the  patriots.  Initial  successes  were  his;  but  a 
rising  of  half-breeds  of  the  Llanos  under  Boves,  in  behalf  of  the 
royalists,  delayed  the  conclusion  of  the  struggle  for  years.  Boves 
with  royalist  forces  defeated  Bolivar,  who  retired  to  the  Antilles ; 
an  expedition  of  15,000  men  was  sent  from  Spain  under  Morrilio ; 
in  1815  the  defeat  of  the  patriots  seemed,  from  the  viewpoint  of 
their  European  contemporaries,  absolutely  assured.  But  Simon 
Bolivar  had  gained  a  purely  American  point  of  view^  —  he  planned 
such  campaigns  as  should  liberate  all  of  Spanish  South  America ; 
and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  to  his  brilliant  leadership  and  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  British  Legion  must  be  ascribed  the  prompt  liberation 
of  one-half  of  it.  On  March  1818  Col.  Daniel  O'Leary  arrived 
with  troops  raised  in  London,  consisting  largely  of  veterans  of 
the  Napoleonic  w^ars  —  tried  soldiers  destined  to  play  an  all- 
important  part  in  the  liberation  ..of  Venezuela.  Elections  were 
arranged  in  the  autumn,  and  on  15  Feb.  1819  Congress  was 
installed  in  Angostura.  In  June  Bolivar  set  out,  accompanied  by 
Col.  James  Rook  and  the  British  Legion,  on  his  famous  march  to 
New  Granada  (Colombia) ;  defeated  the  royalists  in  the  battle  of 
Boyaca  on  7  August,  and  on  17  Dec.  1819  inaugurated  the  Great 
Colombian  republic,  embracing  the  largest  part  of  northwestern 
South  America.  The  last  stage  of  the  struggle  began  on  28  April 
1821.  Bolivar  was  in  Tinaquillo,  with  6,500  men.  His  generals 
were:  Paez,  in  command  of  the  British  unit,  and  the  Bravos  de 
Apure;  Cedeho,  with  one  brigade  of  La  Guardia,  and  the  Tira- 
dores,  Boyaca  and  Vargas  battalions;  Playa,  with  a  regiment  of 
English  rifles,  the  other  brigade  of  La  Guardia,  the  Granaderos 
and  Vencedores  de  Boyaca;  and  Anzoategui,  with  one  cavalry 
regiment  under  a  Llanero  leader.  The  decisive  battle  of  Cara- 
bobo,  a  victory  for  the  patriots,  was  fought  on  24  June  1821  by 
that  force  of  6,500,  the  opposing  royalists  numbering  5,000  men. 
The  latter  occupied  a  position  difficult  to  reach,  and  their  defeat 
in  such  circumstances  proved  to  be  such  a  crushing  blow^  that, 
although  casual  fighting  continued  for  a  while,  the  end  was  in 
sight.  On  8  Oct.  1823  the  last  of  the  royalist  adherents 
capitulated. 

Finding  her  position  in  the  Great  Colombia  Union  unsatis- 
factory, Venezuela  withdrew  from  it  on  13  Jan.  1830.  Bolivar,  to 
whom  the  Congress  had  given  dictatorial  power  in  1828,  retired 


VENEZUELA  421 

from  office  on  1  March  1830  and  died  of  phthisis  on  17  Dec.  1830 
at  Santa  Marta.  In  April  1831  the  new  Congress  of  Venezuela 
assembled  and  elected  General  Paez  as  President  of  an  inde- 
pendent Republic  of  Venezuela;  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Bogota, 
and  Caracas  became  once  more  the  capital  on  25  May.  On  24 
March  1854,  President  Jose  Gregorio  Monagas  promulgated  a 
decree  abolishing  slavery  in  Venezuela.  Public  works  ''  of  some 
magnitude  "  and  a  £1,500,000  European  loan  was  authorized  in 
1863;  the  new  Federal  constitution  was  adopted  28  March  1864. 
Guzman  Blanco,  provisional  President  in  1879,  was  formally 
elected  in  1880;  and  it  has  been  said  truly  that  he  was  "  either 
actually  or  virtually  President  "  throughout  the  period  from 
1880  to  1892.  Ex-President  Crespo  secured  re-election  as  Guzman 
Blanco's  successor;  and  it  was  during  his  administration  that  the 
arrest  by  the  Venezuelan  authorities  of  two  inspectors  of  the 
British  Guiana  Police  on  the  Cuyuni  River  brought  to  a  crisis  the 
long-standing  dispute  in  regard  to  the  boundary  between  the 
British  and  the  Venezuelan  possessions. 

We  should  bear  in  mind  here  the  fact  that  during  many  years 
protests  had  been  made  by  the  representatives  of  Venezuela 
against  the  encroachments  of  residents  aiid  officials  from  British 
Guiana.  The  contentions  of  the  two  parties  were :  On  the  part  of 
Venezuela,  that  the  Dutch,  to  whom  the  British  were  successors, 
had  only  claimed  jurisdiction  on  the  east  side  of  the  Essequibo 
River;  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  that  the  Dutch  had  in  1759 
and  1769  put  forward  the  claim  that  their  territory  included,  not 
merely  the  Essequibo  River,  but  the  whole  of  the  basin  drained  by 
that  river  and  its  tributaries.  The  British  Government  refused  to 
consent  to  arbitration  of  the  boundary,  failing  agreement  by 
Venezuela  that  such  parts  of  the  Pjssequibo  Valley  as  had  been 
effectively  occupied  by  British  colonists  should  be  recognized  as 
British  territory.     Then  came  the  arrest  mentioned  above. 

Crespo  appealed  to  Washington  for  protection.  President 
Cleveland  took  up  the  cause  of  Venezuela,  and  in  December  1895 
sent  his  famous  messages  to  Congress,  in  which  he  declared  that 
any  forcible  action  by  Great  Britain  would  constitute  a  casus  belli 
with  the  United  States.  Great  excitement  prevailed  in  Caracas, 
associations  being  formed  for  the  boycott  of  British  goods  and  for 
national  defence:  but,  wiser  counsels  prevailing  on  both  sides, 
diplomatic  relations  were  resumed  in  1897.  Jose  Andrade  became 
President  in  1898.  The  boundary  matter  was  submitted  to  arbi- 
tration, and  finally  settled  on  3  Oct.  1899  by  the  award  of  the 
tribunal  of  Paris. 


422  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Cipriano  Castro,  who  had  assumed  the  executive  power  late 
in  October  (and  did  not  receive  contirmation  by  a  constituent 
assembly  until  February  1901),  was  in  office  when  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  and  Italy  declared  a  blockade  of  Venezuelan  ports 
(January  1903)  to  enforce  payments  by  Venezuela  to  compensate 
foreigners  for  the  damage  to  property  sustained  by  them  during 
various  revolutions.  Castro's  government  agreed  to  the  arbitra- 
tion of  the  claims  by  third  parties,  and  protocols  with  all  the 
countries  were  signed  within  a  few  months.  Castro  was  again 
elected,  with  General  Gomez  as  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents,  and 
served  two-thirds  of  his  term;  but  in  1909  he  sailed  for  Europe, 
and  then  General  Gomez  interpreted  correctly  the  preference  of 
his  people  when  by  a  coup  d'etat,  he  secured  without  bloodshed 
his  own  safety  and  the  presidential  power.  He  was  established  as 
Constitutional  President  by  virtue  of  the  election  of  April  1910. 
The  Gomez  government  survived  two  rebellions  in  1913,  the  first 
an  uprising  in  the  State  of  Trujillo,  and  the  second  an  insurrec- 
tion in  the  southwest  in  favor  of  Castro,  the  Ex-President.  The 
insurrectionary  forces  were  dispersed.  On  19  April  1914  Con- 
gress elected  Gen.  V.  Marquez  Bustillos  as  provisional  President 
of  the  republic.  A  new  constitution  went  into  effect  19  June  1914. 
On  3  May  1915  the  Congress  by  unanimous  vote  elected  General 
Gomez  as  President  of  the  Republic  for  the  term  1915-1922. 


GOVERNMENT 


Venezuela  is  a  federal  union  of  states  that  retain  autonomy 
in  their  internal  government,  certain  limited  powers  only  being 
vested  in  the  federal  government.  The  constitution  now  in  force 
is  that  of  13  June  1914.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a 
congress  of  two  houses  —  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  — 
the  former  consisting  of  40  members  elected  by  the  Legislative 
Assemblies  of  the  States  for  three  years,  2  for  each  state,  Vene- 
zuelans by  birth  and  over  30  years  of  age ;  the  latter  composed  of 
deputies  chosen  from  each  state  and  the  Federal  District  by  a 
direct  vote  and  for  three  years,  1  deputy  for  each  35,000  inhab- 
itants, and  an  additional  deputy  for  each  additional  15,000. 
Deputies  hold  office  three  years,  must  be  Venezuelans  by  birth, 
and  over  21  years  of  age.  Congress  meets  on  April  19  of  each 
year,  the  sessions  lasting  70  days. 


VENEZUELA 


423 


The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President  and  a  cabinet 
of  ministers,  who  act  in  conjunction  with  the  President.  The 
President  is  elected  by  the  National  Congress  for  seven  years; 
and  must  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth  and  over  30  years  of  age,  and 
is  eligible  for  the  constitutional  period  immediately  following  that 
in  which  he  holds  office.  During  the  temporary  absence  of  the 
President,  the  office  is  occupied  by  the  minister  of  state  designated 
by  him.  In  case  there  is  no  president,  the  power  is  exercised  by 
the  president  of  the  Federal  and  Cassation  court,  who  must  then 
immediately  convene  the  Congress  to  elect  a  new  President  for 
the  remaining  term  of  the  office.  The  cabinet  is  appointed  and 
renewed  by  the  President  and  is  responsible  to  him  alone.     It  is 


Treasury    Department,    Caracas,    Venezuela 

(Courtesy    of    the    I'an    American    Union) 


composed  of  seven  Ministers,  in  charge  of  the  Departments  of 
Interior  Relations,  Foreign  Relations,  Finance  and  Public  Credit, 
War  and  Marine,  Fomento  (Promotion),  Public  Works,  and  Public 
Instruction.  The  Federal  judiciary  comprises  the  Supreme  Fed- 
eral and  Cassation  court,  and  courts  of  first  instance  established 
in  the  states,  the  Federal  District  and  the  territories.  The  justices 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  seven  in  number,  are  elected  by  the  National 
Congress  for  a  term  of  seven  years,  and  the  court  meets  annually. 
Each  of  the  22  states  has  a  legislative  assembly  whose  mem- 
bers are  elected  in  conformity  with  the  respective  state  institu- 
tions. The  executive  power  of  each  state  consists  of  a  president 
and  a  secretary-general.    The  states  are  divided  into  disti'icts  and 


424  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  latter  into  municipalities,  each  district  having  a  Municipal 
Council,  and  each  municipality  a  communal  board.  The  Federal 
Territories  are  administered  by  governors  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic,  the  governors  in  turn  appointing  their 
secretaries.  The  Federal  District  comprises  the  city  of  Caracas, 
the  capital  of  the  Republic,  together  with  the  parishes  of 
El  Recreo,  El  Valle,  La  Vega,  Antimano,  Macarao,  Macuto,  and 
El  Departmento  Vargas. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Attendance  at  schools  of  primary  grades  is  compulsory  and 
free.  The  public  schools  are  maintained  by  the  nation,  the  state, 
or  the  municipalities,  according  to  circumstances.  There  are 
about  1,500  elementary  schools  with  an  attendance  of  50,000 
pupils.  Of  secondary  schools  there  are  102  (58  for  boys  and  38 
for  girls,  the  others  admitting  both  sexes),  while  Caracas  has  a 
normal  school  for  young  women  and  another  for  young  men,  for 
the  practical  instruction  of  each  sex.  There  are  34  national 
schools  for  higher  instruction,  and  the  Government  subsidizes  21 
other  schools  of  this  grade.  A  degree  is  given  at  the  end  of  a 
four  years'  course.  Caracas  has  its  famous  university  and 
Merida  the  University  of  Los  Andes,  both  having  faculties  of 
political  and  ecclesiastical  sciences.  The  university  at  Caracas 
has  faculties  of  medicine  and  mathematics,  while  in  the  capital 
there  is  also  a  school  of  engineering.  Instruction  in  the  fine  arts, 
in  arts  and  crafts,  and  military  and  naval  matters,  is  given  in 
speciaL  organizations.  Moreover,  there  are  commercial  schools  in 
Caracas,  Ciudad  Bolivar  and  Maracaibo,  in  which  both  day  and 
night  classes  are  held.  The  Government  has  established  at  Puerto 
Cabello  a  practical  school  of  naval  construction  which  is  main- 
tained in  connection  with  the  docks  and  shipyards.  In  the  City  of 
San  Cristobal  there  has  been  inaugurated  the  Simon  Bolivar  School 
of  Political  Science.  At  Caracas  a  school  of  mathematics  with 
courses  in  higher  mathematics  and  sciences  has  been  opened ;  and 
there  has  been  added  to  the  School  of  Commerce  at  Caracas  an 
institute  for  the  study  of  modern  languages. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  in  spite  of  the  apathy  of  some  of 
the  states  and  the  decreased  public  revenues  during  the  European 
war,  earnest  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Venezuelan  Government  to 
extend  the  school  provision  and  improve  the  entire  system  of 


VENEZUELA  425 

education  have  been  continued.  A  recent  report  of  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  dwelt  upon  the  need  of  a  new  order  of  rural 
education.  It  was  pointed  out  that  small  model  farms  should  be 
attached  to  such  schools,  the  distinguished  official  observing:  ''  If 
this  plan  is  followed  throughout  the  Republic  and  the  small  farm 
schools  provided  with  competent  instructors,  the  benefit  in  the 
development  of  agricultural  industry,  the  basis  of  new  public 
wealth,  will  be  great." 

The  National  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  for  boys  maintained 
at  Caracas  offers  a  select  course  in  the  general  subjects  of  primary 
education,  together  with  training  for  various  trades.  In  the  gen- 
eral course  mathematics  is  extended  to  include  geometry,  and 
lineal  drawing  forms  a  special  feature.  The  trade  courses  are 
numerous,  including  typewriting,  lithographing,  industrial  model- 
ing, bookbinding,  metal  work,  ironwork,  carpentry,  tapestry,  wood- 
work, forging,  electrical  engineering,  telephoning,  management  of 
automobiles,  etc. 

The  Woman's  School  of  Arts  and  Trades,  Caracas,  is  also  a 
national  institution,  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction.  Applicants  for  admission  to  the  school  as  regular 
students  must  have  completed  the  five  years '  course  of  elementary 
instruction  as  shown  by  a  certificate  of  proficiency.  While  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  state  religion,  there  is  toleration  of  other 
forms  of  worship.  The  archbishop  of  Caracas  has  five  suffragan 
bishops. 


ARMY  AND   NAVY 


Under  the  provisions  of  a  recent  law  of  the  national  Congress, 
the  standing  army  of  Venezuela  numbers  about  9,000  men,  includ-         ^  V 
ing  commissioned  officers.    The  active  army  has  infantry,  artillery,  a^  v^ 


and  cavalry.  It  contains  20  battalions  of  infantry,  with  400  men 
to  a  battalion,  and  eight  battalions  of  artillery.  In  addition,  there 
are  reserves  estimated  to  number  about  100,000  men.  The  Vene- 
zuelan navy  consists  of  two  cruisers,  the  Mariscal  Sucre  and 
General  Salom;  three  gunboats,  Miranda,  Jose  Felix  Ribas,  and 
Salias;  an  army  transport,  the  Zamora,  the  brigantine  Antonio 
Diaz,  and  another  small  craft,  the  San  Carlos.  The  personnel  of 
the  navy  comprises  about  500  officers  and  men. 


^ 


426  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


AGRICULTURE  AND  CATTLE  RAISING 

Over  200,000  acres  are  devoted  to  coffee,  on  estates  in  the 
northern  and  western  zones  of  the  country,  and  the  value  of  the 
exports  of  coffee  annually  is  about  $14,000,000  (average  of  the 
years  1913-1916,  inclusive).  Both  cacao  and  sugar  are  produced, 
the  number  of  cacao  plantations  being  about  5,000  and  the  annual 
output  of  sugar  about  3,000  tons.  Cotton  is  cultivated,  and  is 
almost  altogether  consumed  in  the  textile  mills  operating  in  Valen- 
cia, Caracas  and  Cumana. 

The  live  stock  has  always  been  a  source  of  national  wealth, 
and  it  is  thought  that  the  extensive  llanos  toward  the  south  and 
in  the  drainage  area  of  the  Orinoco  Kiver  will,  when  better  util- 
ized, be  regarded  as  among  the  best  grazing  lands  in  America. 
Modern  refrigerating  plants  lately  established  in  Puerto  Cabello 
and  in  Barranco  on  the  Orinoco  have  given  impetus  to  the  raising 
of  cattle  for  the  export  meat  trade.  Estimates  of  the  live  stock  in 
1915-16  were  as  follows :  More  than  2,000,000  cattle,  about  1,700,- 
000  goats,  177,000  sheep,  191,000  horses,  etc.  The  agricultural  and 
pastoral  industries  employ  about  60,000  laborers. 

A  presidential  decree  of  12  March  1917  created  an  experiment 
station  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  with  a  gardeii  of  acclimatiza- 
tion, to  be  located  on  lands  near  the  city  of  Caracas.  The  purposes 
for  which  it  was  created  were  stated  to  be :  The  study  of  improved 
methods  of  cultivation  of  the  principal  agricultural  products  of 
the  country;  introduction,  selection,  and  distribution  of  seeds; 
experiments  in  reforestation;  report  upon  soils  suitable  to  each 
kind  of  cultivation  and  the  crops  to  each  region;  and  practical 
work  for  the  training  of  agricultural  foremen  and  forest  rangers. 


MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES 

As  a  rule,  Venezuela  imports  all  manufactured  materials  that 
are  required ;  there  are,  however,  several  sawmills  and  lumber  fac- 
tories, using  native  woods,  and  tanning  factories  where  leather  of 
good  quality  is  prepared.  Two  paper  factories  have  proved  com- 
mercially profitable.  The  mills  of  Valencia,  Caracas,  and  Cumana 
turn  out  cotton  cloth  and  many  finished  articles  of  clothing.  In 
Cumana  there  has  recently  been  established  a  factory  for  the 
extraction  of  cocoanut  oil  and  cocoa  butter,  and  exportation  of 


VENEZUELA 


427 


these  products  has  already  taken  place.  Other  products  are: 
Matches,  chocolate,  beer,  glass,  cigarettes,  etc.  Increase  in  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  was  noted  (1916-17)  in  the  States  of  Zulia 
and  Yaracuy. 


COMMERCE 

Venezuela's  foreign  trade  for  the  year  1915  amounted  to 
$36,874,663,  of  which  $13,470,236  represented  imports,  and  $23,404,- 
427  exports.  The  figures  for  the  preceding  year  were :  Imports, 
$13,987,465;  exports,  $21,520,534;  total,  $35,507,999.  The  decrease 
for  the  year  in  imports  was  $517,229,  and  the  increase  in  exports, 
$1,883,893,  or  a  net  increase  of  $1,366,664.  The  latest  available 
statistics  show  imports  (by  values  and  countries)  as  follows: 


1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

United  States 

$5,219,558 

5,382,388 

1,337,044 

1,857,564 

666,351 

597,329 

4,465 

2,560 

$6,832,438 

4,433,473 

1,671,002 

2,616,400 

926,445 

720,639 

11,926 

1,545 

$6,944,136 

4,296,295 

1,586,207 

1,093,656 

722,645 

555,633 

12,849 

838 

$6,015,445 

2,893,097 

1,456,493 

777,638 

481,687 

547,528 

14,028 

1,833 

$7,943,219 

United  Kingdom 

Netherlands 

France 

Spain 

2,906,539 
788,433 
654,530 
651,608 

Italy 

484,826 

Colombia 

31,886 

Cuba 

6,994 

Sweden 

1,324 

Porto  Rico 

212 

209 
4,297 

319 

Argentina 

286 

Panama 

33,795 

272 

Costa  Rica 

97 

Ecuador 

550 

China 

451 

4,261 

126,664 

Austria-Himgary 

Belgium 

7,316 

142,668 

1,192 

3,199,389 

2,032 
228,563 

1,435 

156,488 

17,482 

1,589,966 

Denmark 

Germany 

3,195,945 

2,586,986 
264 

Other  countries 

Total 

$18,394,889 

$20,568,939 

$18,030,104 

$13,987,465 

$13,470,236 

In  1916  the  value  of  merchandise  imported  by  Venezuela  from 
the  United  States  was  nearly  $12,000,000.  The  principal  articles 
imported  during  recent  years  (from  all  sources,  including  the 
United  States)  were:  Agricultural  implements  and  machinery, 
automobiles  and  accessories,  bagging,  butter,  cotton  textiles,  drugs 
and  m-edicines,  flour,  lard,  machinery  (other  than  agricultural), 
rice,  tanned  or  unmanufactured  skins,  stearin,  thread,  and  wines. 
The  chief  articles  noted  in  February  1917  as  imports  from  the 
United  States  were  cotton  cloths,  flour,  leather,  and  iron  and  steel. 


428  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  exports  by  countries  were  as  follows : 


Countries 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


United  States 

Netherlands 

France 

United  Kingdom .  .  .  . 

Spain 

Italy 

Denmark 

Colombia 

Norway 

Sweden 

Cuba 

Porto  Eico 

Panama 

Austria-Hungary . .  .  . 

Belgium 

Dominican  Republic . 

Germany 

Turkey 


083,261 
063,595 
162,172 
067,808 
308,334 
142,505 


95,410 


153,504 
4,681 


283,630 
50,129 


4, 


Total . 


269,211 
144 


$9,907,604 

712,351 

6,914,175 

1,636,261 

1,464,377 

212,501 

1,276 

72,247 


4,376 

6,171 

834 

271,260 

114,766 

'3^942^709 


$8,475,531 

709,343 

9,988,044 

2,207,738 

1,369,421 

252,507 

6,398 

415,227 

1,930 

11J386 

3J838 

395,896 
82,762 

'5;563i768 


$9,378,668 

907,636 

6,018,826 

1,426,946 

1,091,498 

283,159 

100^369 

1^332 

561 

832 

366,571 

13,173 

1,299 

1,929,664 


13,170,113 

3,199,183 

2,978,060 

2,041,221 

1,079,943 

523,632 

256,346 

45,545 

44,962 

41,687 

19,670 

2,132 

1,933 


$22,684,384 


$25,260,908 


$29,483,789 


$21,520,534 


$23,404,427 


The  principal  articles  of  export  for  1915,  with  approximate 
values,  were:  Coffee,  $12,173,781;  cacao,  $5,015,429;  cattle  hides, 
$1,707,275;  balata,  $817,952;  gold,  $1,326,648;  goat  and  kid  skins, 
$263,572;  asphalt,  $340,702 ;  beef  cattle,  $259,890;  sugar,  raw,  $177,- 
699;  copper  ore,  $218,800;  rubber,  $145,682;  dividivi,  $94,763; 
chicle,  $322,388;  beef,  frozen,  $280,470;  heron  plumes  (aigrettes), 
$172,371;  pearls.  $50,558;  tonka  beans,  $115,273. 

In  foreign  trade  there  is  a  growing  preference  for  the  metric 
system  of  weights  and  measures,  which  was  adopted  bv  decree  of 
18  May  1912. 


MONEY,  BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  monetary  system  is  based  on  the  gold  standard,  the  unit 
being  the  bolivar,  divided  into  100  centimes,  and  weighing  0.32258 
grammes  of  gold  .900-fine,  or  say  0.29032  grammes  of  pure  gold. 
The  par  value  of  the  bolivar  is  $0.19295,  currency  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  par  value  of  $1.00  in  terms  of  Venezuelan  cur- 
rency is  B  5.18262.  In  January  1912,  the  Government  of  Vene- 
zuela issued  a  decree  tixing  the  value  of  the  foreign  gold  coin  cir- 
culating in  the  country  and  specifying  that  public  offices  must 
receive  and  pay  out  these  coins  at  the  following  rates : 


VENEZUELA  4^9 

Bolivars 
20  Franc  piece  of  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzerland,  (fractions  in  pro- 
portion)   20.00 

English  Sovereign  or  £  Sterling  (Half-sovereign  in  proportion) 25.25 

Spanish  gold  onza,  onza  patriota.  Central  American  onza  of  any  year, 

Colombian  onza,  etc 80 .  00 

United  States  twenty-dollar  gold  piece  (fractions  in  proportion) •  ■  104. 00 

German  double  crown  or  20  mark  piece  (fractions  in  proportion) 24.75 

Double  condors  of  Colombia  (fractions  in  proportion) 100 .  00 

Mexican  onza,  weighing  33.770  grammes  .875-fine  gold 100.00 

Spanish  Isabelina  of  25  pesetas  (fractions  in  proportion) ■  • 25.00 

The  principal  gold  in  circulation  is  Venezuelan  gold  of  the 
same  weight  and  fineness  as  that  of  the  Latin  Monetary  Union. 
Probably  more  American  gold  is  in  circulation  in  Venezuela  than 
any  other  foreign  gold  coin. 

The  exchange  rates  as  normally  quoted  in  Venezuela  are  (for 
checks) : 

American  gold 3-days'  sight 

B  5.22  to  5.25=$1.00 

American  gold 60-days'  sight 

B  5.15  "   5.18=$1.00 

Since  the  war,  foreign  exchanges  have  advanced  in  value  in 
terms  of  Venezuelan  currency.  (Consult  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin 
American  Monet ary  Systems  and  Exchange  Conditions  (New 
York  1915). 

The  three  principal  banking  institutions  are:  The  Bank  of 
Venezuela  (capital  B  12,000,000,  headquarters  at  Caracas  and 
agencies  at  14  other  points  in  Venezuela,  issue  of  bank  notes  con- 
stantly under  $400,000) ;  Bank  of  Maracaibo  (capital  B  1,250,000) ; 
Bank  of  Caracas  (capital  B  6,000,000,  branches  in  some  of  the 
important  Venezuelan  commercial  centres,  circulation  of  bank 
notes  to  the  amount  of  about  one-tenth  of  the  issue  allowed  by  its 
charter). 

In  April  1915  Mr.  L.  Elwyn  Elliot  wrote : 

"  For  the  last  four  years  Venezuela  has  been  in  the  agreeable  position  of  i^ossess- 
ing  a  substantial  surplus  of  national  revenue  over  expenditure,  and  as  a  part  of  this 
ready  cash  has  been  preserved  in  the  country's  exchequer  no  doubt  it  will  assist  in 
tiding  over  such  financial  disintegration  as  resulted  from  the  European  war  out- 
break. Since  the  year  1910  this  surplus  has  varied,  but  there  has  always  been  an 
addition  to  the  national  fund;  in  1912  it  amounted  to  nearly  $2,500,000  gold." 

The  budget  estimates  for  1915-16  were:  Revenue  $7,918,900 
and  expenditures  $7,840,480. 


430  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

It  remains  to  present  the  following  synopsis  of  Venezuelan 
loans  and  statement  of  the  public  debt : 

1820.     Debt   contracted   while   JCcuador   and   Venezuela   formed   part    of   greater 
Colombia.     It  amounted  to  £547,783,  for  which  debentures  were  issued. 

1822.  Loan  by  Graham  &  Powels  for  £2,000,000.    Issue  at  80  per  cent,  6  per  cent 

interest  per  annum.    A  portion  of  this  loan  was  used  to  cancel  the  debt  of 
1820. 

1823.  Loan  of  $30,000,000.     General  revenue  and  tobacco  revenue  pledged  as  a 

guaranty. 

1824.  Loan  of  £4,750,000  by  B.  A.  Goldsmith  &  Co.,  of  Hamburg.     Issue  at  85 

per  cent.     Interest  rate  of  6  per  cent  per  annum. 
1834.     An  apportionment  was  made  in  this  year  for  the  public  debt  of  greater 

Colombia,  Venezuela  assuming  28.5  per  cent,  or  £1,888,396. 
1848.     (Conversion  of  active  debt  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent  per  annum. 
1856.     Venezuela  received  $1,140,000  in  4.5  per  cent  Peruvian  bonds,  as  proportion 

of  debt  from  Pei'U. 
1862.     Loan  issued  at  London  for  £1,000,000,  at  the  rate  of  interest  of  6  per  cent 

per  annum,  2  per  cent  sinking  fund.    Rate  of  issue,  63  per  cent.     Pledge 

was  given  of  55  per  cent  of  import  duties  collected  at  La  Guaira  and 

Puerto  Cabello. 
1864.     General  Credit  &  Finance  Co.,  of  London,  took  loan  of  £1,500,000,  at  60 

per  cent  issue  and  6  per  cent  interest. 
1872.     Decree  by  which   custom  receipts  were  divided  into   100   units,  of  which 

27  per  cent  was  allotted  for  the  service  of  the  external  debt. 
1889-1891.     Public  debt  of  Venezuela  is  divided  into  4  classes:     Domestic,  diplo- 
matic, foreign,  and  bonds.     In  1891  the  total  debt  of  Venezuela  was  as 

follows : 

Domestic  (5  per  cent),  consolidated $7,595,227 

Foreign  (3  per  cent),  external.  . .  .  •  • 13,450,675 

Diplomatic  (13  per  cent) 1,000,000 

1  per  cent  monthly  debt •  • 647,499 


$22,693,401 


Less  than  14  per  cent  of  revenues  was  pledged  for  the  service  of  these 
obligations. 
1895.     German  loan  of  50,000,000   bolivars  by  Diskonto-Gesellschaft,   of   Berlin, 
at  80  per  cent  issue.     Bonds  bearing  5  per  cent  interest  and  1  per  cent 
sinking  fund. 

1902.     Consolidation  of  various  internal  debts  by  issue  of  bonds  for  65,000,000 
bolivars   at   6   per   cent. 

1902.     Debt  of  allied  powers,  by  virtue  of  protocols  signed  at  Washington,  totaling 
$7,147,386. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Vene- 
zuela to  the  Congress,  dated  April  1915,  gave  the  following  resume 
of  the  public  debt : 


VENEZUELA  4S1 

Internal  debt : 

I.  National  internal  consol,  6  per  cent  — 

Bolivars. 

First  issue 23,927.47 

Second  issue  16,772 .  12 

Bolivars. 
40,699.59 

II.  1  per  cent  bonds,  eighth  issue 38,165.62 

III.  National  internal  3  per  cent  consol 59,068,721.47 

IV.  National  internal  consol,  no  interest 1,135,644.83 

V.  Treasury  bonds  to  bearer 349,102. 13 

Bolivars. 

60,632,333.64 

External  debt : 

I.  National  3  per  cent  diplomatic  (by  diplo- 
matic conventions)    9,723,291. 61 

II.  Provisional  certificates   (Spain) 1,600.00 

III,  Diplomatic    debt    (3    per   cent),    conver- 
sion and  is.sue  of  1905 101,267,650 .  00 

110,992,541.61 


Or  a  total  indebtedness  of 171,624,375 .  25 

This  is  equivalent  to  .$33,000,000,  which  is  a  per  capita  debt  of  about  $11. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  total  length  of  railways  in  operation  in  Venezuela  is  534 
miles  and  the  number  of  lines  is  12  (5  national  and  7  foreign),  with 
an  invested  capital  of  approximately  $40,000,000.  There  are  sev- 
eral points  along  the  coast  from  which  railways  extend  into  the 
interior,  but  only  in  one  locality  have  these  lines  been  connected. 
In  the  extreme  west  there  are  three  lines  approaching  lake  Mara- 
caibo,  but  they  are  independent  of  each  other  and  serve  quite 
different  areas  of  the  country.  Passing  along  the  coast  there  are 
several  short  lines,  facilitating  traffic  between  the  interior  and  the 
sea;  these,  too,  bear  no  relation  to  each  other.  The  only  place  in 
the  Republic  where  an  extensive  development  has  taken  place  is 
near  the  capital,  Caracas,  and  in  the  most  populous  districts  of 
the  country.  From  the  two  most  important  ports  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  Puerto  Cabello  and  La  Guaira,  railways  pass  to  the  interior, 
one  to  Valencia  and  the  other  to  Caracas.  Between  these  two 
interior  points  a  third  railway  has  been  built,  so  that  this  rich 
and  productive  district  is  well  supplied,  comparatively,  with 
transportation  facilities. 


432  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Street  railways  (electric)  are  in  operation  in  the  capital.  The 
government  is  giving  special  attention  to  the  maintenance  and 
improvement  of  its  public  roads  and  highways.  At  present  two 
important  roads  are  in  process  of  construction,  one  31  miles  long, 
from  Caracas  to  Guatire,  and  the  other  36.6  miles  long,  from  Mara- 
cay  to  Ocumare.  The  projected  Great  Western  Highway,  more 
than  700  miles  long  and  designed  to  link  Caracas  with  San  Cristo- 
bal, is  the  greatest  public  work  the  country  has  ever  planned.  It 
will  give  access  or  facilitate  approach  to  vast  areas  in  seven 
states. 

The  waterways  form  important  means  of  communication  and 
transportation,  there  being  no  less  than  70  navigable  rivers  in  the 
country,  with  a  total  navigable  length  of  over  6,000  miles,  of  which 
the  Orinoco,  the  third  largest  river  in  South  America,  with  its 
tributaries,  furnishes  nearly  4,000  miles.  Other  navigable  rivers 
are  the  Meta,  the  Apure,  the  Portuguesa,  the  Yaracuy,  and  the 
Escalante,  all  of  which  are  navigated  by  steamships  for  consider- 
able distances.  The  Zulia-Catatumbo  River  flows  into  lake  Mara- 
caibo  and  is  navigable  for  small  steamers,  while  the  majority  of 
the  other  rivers  are  navigable  for  steam  launches  and  flat-bottom 
boats  only. 

A  regular  steamship  service  is  maintained  on  the  Orinoco, 
Apure,  and  Portuguesa  between  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  principal  port 
on  the  Orinoco,  and  the  interior,  as  well  as  points  along  the  coast. 
Ocean-going  vessels  enter  lake  Maracaibo,  which  covers  an  area  of 
8,000  square  miles,  and  is  navigable  in  its  entirety.  Lake  Mara- 
caibo is  connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  and  the  Caribbean 
Sea  by  means  of  a  strait  34  miles  in  length  and  from  5  to  9  miles 
wide.    Lake  Valencia  is  navigated  by  small  steamers. 

With  its  coast  line  of  more  than  2,000  miles,  Venezuela  pos- 
sesses no  less  than  50  bays  and  32  ports.  The  most  important  of 
the  latter  is  La  Guaira.  Other  ports  at  which  ocean-going  vessels 
call  regularly  are  Puerto  Cabello,  Carupano,  Guanta,  and  Cumana, 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  on  the  Orinoco  River,  373  miles  inland,  and  Mara- 
caibo, on  lake  Maracaibo,  are  the  most  important  inland  ports. 

A  regular  service  is  maintained  by  several  lines  of  steamers 
between  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  Venezuelan  ports,  and 
European  lines  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  have  La  Guaira  as  a  port 
of  call. 

The  Fluvial  and  Coastwise  Navigation  Company  of  Vene- 
zuela has  arranged  with  the  government  to  establish  a  regular 
semi-monthly  steamship  service  on  the  Orinoco  River  and  its 
tributaries,   extending   to   Port   of   Spain,   Trinidad,   as  well   as 


VENEZUELA  433 

between  Ciudad  Bolivar  and  Maracaibo,  touching  at  Cristobal 
Colon,  Port  Sucre,  Cariipano,  Guanta,  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello, 
La  Vela,  and  possibly  at  intermediate  points. 

There  are  nearly  300  post  offices  scattered  throughout  Vene- 
zuela, and  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph  are  both  steadily 
increasing  in  use.  The  number  of  telegraph  stations  is  given  as 
211,  with  wire  extending  5,455  miles.  The  telephone  services  have 
about  13,000  miles  of  wire. 


POPULATION 


The  number  of  inhabitants  was  about  2,850,000  in  1917  — 
averaging  rather  more  than  seven  to  the  square  mile.  As  Mr. 
Dalton  has  written,  the  Indians  have  in  general  been  absorbed  into 
the  Spanish-speaking  nation.  Aboriginal  inhabitants  who  pre- 
serve their  habits  and  racial  customs  unchanged  are  found  prin- 
cipally or  only  along  the  northwest  frontier  and  in  the  forests  of 
the  southeast  and  south.  The  Goajiros  dwell  as  an  independent 
tribe  among  the  mountains  along  the  Colombian  frontier;  the 
Caribs  inhabit  forests  along  the  banks  of  the  Caroni  and  the 
Upper  Orinoco  and  its  tributaries;  and  in  the  remote  southern 
regions  of  forest  and  highland  there  are  about  16  tribes  of  other 
native  races. 

Bibliography 

Anuario  Estadistico  de  Venezuela  (Caracas  1915);  Arbitration  Tribunal  1897, 
Boundary  between  British  Guiana  and  Venezuela  (London  1899) ;  Beebe,  M.  B.,  and 
C.  W.,  Our  Search  for  a  Wilderness  (New  York  1910) ;  Cleveland,  G.,  The  Venezue- 
lan Boundary  Controversy  (Princeton  1913)  ;  Dalton,  L.  V.,  Venezuela  (London 
1912);  Fortoul,  J.  Gil,  Historia  Constitucional  de  Venezuela  (Berlin  1907-1909); 
Gonzalez  Guinan,  F.,  Historia  Contempordnea  de  Venezuela  (Caracas  1909-11); 
Humbert,  J.,  Les  Origines  Venezueliennes  (Bordeaux  1905) ;  Humboldt,  A.  de, 
Personal  Narrative  of  Travels  to  the  Equinoctial  Regions  (London  185^53) ;  Pan 
American  Union,  Venezuela  (Washington  1916)  ;  Picon-Febres,  G.,  La  Literatura 
Venezolana  en  el  Siglo  diez  y  nueve  (Caracas  1906);  Ralston,  I.  H.,  and  Doyle, 
W.  T.  S.,  Venezuelan,  Arbitrations  of  1903,  including  Protocols  (Washington 
1904);  Sanchez,  M.  S.,  Bibliografia  Venezolanista  (Caracas  1914);  Schomburgk, 
R.  H.,  Reisen  in  Guiana  und  am  Orinoko  (Leipzig  1841)  ;  Sievers,  W.,  Zweite 
Reise  in,  Venezuela  (Hamburg  1896) ;  Universidad  Central,  Caracas,  Catdlogo  de 
la  Biblioteca  de  la  Universidad  (Caracas  1875);  Veloz  Goiticoa,  N.,  Venezuela 
(Washington  1904);  Venezuelan  Arbitration  before  the  Hague  Tribunal  (Wash- 
ington 1905). 

29 


434 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

Venezuela  is  divided  into  a  Federal  District,  20  States  and  two  Tei-ritories. 
These,  as  far  as  possible  with  their  areas,  populations,  capitals  and  populations 
are  given  herewith.  The  total  area  is  about  393,852  square  miles  and  the  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  2,816,484. 


STATES 


Area 
(square  miles) 


Population 


Capital 


Population 


Anzodtegui 

Apure 

Aragua 

Bolivar 

Carabobo . 

Cojedes 

Falcon 

Guarico 

Lara 

M6rida 

Miranda 

Monagas 

Nueva  Esparta 

Portuguesa 

Sucre 

Tdchira 

Trujillo 

Yaracuy 

Zamora 

Zulia 

Federal  District 

TERRITORIES 

Amazonas 

Delta-Amacuro 


16,703 

29,529 
2,161 

91,868 
1,794 
5,712 
9,572 

25,630 
7,642 
4,361 
3,068 

11,155 
490 
5,867 
4,554 
4,284 
2,856 
2,740 

13,587 

25,283 
743 


108,736 
15,517 


31,000 
19,500 
28,000 
52,217 


139,110 

iosiios 


124,596 
177,855 


182,614 


Barcelona 

San  Fernando  de  Apure . 

La  Victoria 

Ciudad  Bolivar 

Valentia 

San  Carlos 

Coro 

Calabozo 

Barquisimeto 

MIrida 

Ocumare  del  Tuy 

Maturin 

La  Asunci6n 

Guamare 

Cumand 

San  Cristdbal 

Trujillo 

San  Felipe 

Barinas 

Maracaibo 

Caracas 


San  Fernando  de  Atabapo 
Tucupita 


13,000 

5,000 

14,000 

11,686 


9,452 
6,000 


13,366 
'4^358 


4,000 
12,225 
16,797 
10,481 
17,959 

6,000 
34 , 740 
90,000 


3,000 
4,500 


Caracas 

The  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela  is  situated  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Coast  Range,  about  8  riiiles  inland  and  at  an  elevation 
of  3,000  feet.  It  stands  on  a  plain  bordered  by  high  mountains,  and  has  a  delight- 
ful climate,  the  average  temperature  for  the  year  being  about  68°  F.  It  is  built 
on  the  usual  plan  of  Latin- American  cities,  with  streets  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles,  but  the  otherwise  level  contour  is  relieved  by  three  gullies  which 
descend  to  the  Guaire  River,  flowing  at  the  foot  of  the  city.  The  streets  are 
narrow  but  well  paved  and  shaded,  and  there  is  a  good  tramway  system,  run 
by  electricity  obtained  from  two  water-power  plants  some  miles  away.  The  city 
is  subject  to  earthquake  shocks,  and  the  buildings  are  consequently  nearly  all 
built  of  adobe  and  are  of  a  single  story,  with  the  patio  or  courtyard  in  the 
centre,  though  in  the  public  buildings  being  erected  reinforced  concrete  is  being 
used  more  and  more  and  is  increasing  in  popularity.  The  greatest  objection  to 
the  city  as  a  place  of  residence  is  the  lack  of  a  good  sanitation  system,  and 
yellow  fever  prevails  there  at  times.  There  are  no  manufacturing  industries  except 
a  few  to  supply  articles  for  local  consumption.  It  is,  however,  the  centre  of  the 
export  trade  of  the  district,  which  produces  cacao,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc.  It  is^  the 
residence  of  the  United  States  minister  to  Venezuela  and  the  seat  of  a  consular- 
agent  of  the  United  States.  The  seaport  of  the  city  is  La  Giiaira,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  railway  that  winds  around  the  mountains  for  23  miles.  Many 
good  roads  are  in  course  of  construction  in  Caracas  and  the  neighboring  country. 
The  city  is  also  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to  Puerto  Cabello  and  Valencia. 


VENEZUELA  435 


La  Guaira 

The  principal  port  of  the  Republic  is  situated  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  about  eight  miles  from  Caracas.  Its  climate 
for  most  of  the  year  is  very  hot  and  the  average  temperature  is  about  84°  Y. 
for  the  year.  Recent  sanitary  improvements  have  lessened  its  unhealthfulness. 
It  holds  first  place  in  point  of  imports  and  fourth  place  in  exports.  The  harbor 
has  a  long  sea  wall  which  gives  good  anchorage  to  ocean  vessels,  the  total  number 
of  which  is  over  380  annually  of  645,000  tons.  This  breakwater  has  been  widened 
into  jetties  for  loading  and  unloading  cargo.  Manufactured  goods  form  the  bulk 
of  its  import  trade  and  the  exports  consist  of  coffee,  cacao,  and  skins.  The  total 
value  of  its  foreign  commerce  is  approximately  $13,000,000  yearly.  The  city  has 
manufactures  of  hats,  boots,  cigars  and  cigarettes  and  other  articles  for  home 
consumption.  Steamship  lines  connect  it  with  North  American  and  European 
ports  and  it  is  the  terminus  of  a  cable  to  Curacoa.  A  railway  connects  it  with 
Valencia  and  Caracas.    A  consul  of  the  United  States  is  stationed  here. 

Puerto  Cabello 

The  second  port  of  Venezuela  is  situated  on  the  Golfo  Triste,  55  miles  west 
of  Caracas,  with  wliieh  it  has  rail  connection.  Its  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthful, 
but  it  has  a  good  harbor  protected  by  a  chain  of  islands  and  fortified.  It  ranks 
second  in  exports  and  third  in  imports.  The  exports  valued  at  several  millions 
of  dollars  include  coffee,  cocoa,  hides  and  skins,  frozen  meat,  rubber,  sugar,  and 
various  other  articles;  the  imports  consist  of  textiles,  foodstuffs,  and  other  manu- 
factured articles.  There  is  a  floating  dry  dock  here  capable  of  docking  vessels 
of  4,000  tons,  and  a  shipbuilding  plant  in  which  vessels  125  feet  long  have  been 
built.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Its  population  is  estimated  at 
18,282. 

Maracaibo 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  Zulia  is  situated  on  a  sandy  plain  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  strait  which  connects  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  with  lake  Maracaibo. 
It  is  well  built,  has  tramways,  electric  lights,  telephones  and  manufactures  of  hats, 
shoes,  candles,  soap  and  lumber.  The  climate  is  hot  but  healthful.  Its  principal 
importance  is  as  a  shipping  point  for  the  exports  of  the  surrounding  region  of 
western  Venezuela  and  a  part  of  eastern  Colombia.  It  has  a  fine  deep  harbor 
and  the  finest  dockyards  in  the  Republic;  the  entrance,  however,  is  obstructed  by  a 
shifting  bar.  Its  foreign  trade  approaches  $3,500,000  annually.  The  exports 
include  coffee,  cocoa,  quinine,  dyewoods,  sugar  and  hides.  The  port  has  steam- 
ship connection  with  the  United  States  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 
There  is  usually  one  sailing  a  week  for  the  lake  ports  of  La  Ceiba,  Santa  Barbara, 
and  Encontrados,  which  serve  the  States  of  Trujillo,  Merida,  and  El  Tachira,  in 
Venezuela  and  of  Santander  in  Colombia. 

Maturin 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  Monagas  is  situated  on  a  savanna  west  of  the 
Delta  of  the  Orinoco,  40  miles  inland  from  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  It  is  connected 
by  a  highway  with  the  port  of  Cumana  to  the  northwest  and  is  the  cx)mmercial 
centre  of  the  plains  west  of  the  Delta.  The  climate  is  healthful  with  an  average, 
annual  temperature  of  80°  F.  In  the  surrounding  plains  stock  raising  and  the 
cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar  cane,  cocoa,  cereals  and  fruits  are  carried  on. 


MEXICO 


By.  John  H.  Cornyn 

NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  United  States  of  Mexico  is  situated  between  14°, 30', 42" 
and  32°,  42"  North  lat.,  and  between  86°,  46',  8"  and  117°,  7% 
31"  long,  west  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  and 
embraces  18°,  11',  18"  of  latitude  and  30°,  21',  23"  of  longitude. 
Its  total  area  is  767,326  square  miles,  and  its  boundaries  are  the 
United  States  on  the  north,  Guatemala  and  Belize  on  the  southeast, 
the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  south  and  west,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  east.  Its  coast  line  on  the  east  is  1,772 
miles  in  length  and  on  the  west  or  Pacific  side,  4,594  miles.  The 
northern  or  United  States  boundary  was  fiLxed  by  treaty  2  Feb. 
1848  and  30  Dec.  1853,  and  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  following  that  river  a  distance  of 
1,136  miles  beyond  El  Paso,  Texas ;  thence  to  a  point  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  one  marine  league  due  south  of  the  southernmost  point  on 
the  Bay  of  San  Diego.  The  total  length  of  the  northern  boundary 
line  is  1,833  miles.  The  Guatemalan  boundary  line  was  fixed  by 
treaty  27  Sept.  1883  and  1  April  1895 ;  and  the  Belize  line  by  treaty 
iigned  8  July  1893,  and  ratified  19  April  1897.  The  length  of  the 
southern  boundary  of  Mexico  is  642  miles. 

By  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  ratified  2  Feb.  1848, 
and  the  Gadsden  treaty  of  30  Dec.  1853,  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United 
States  930,590  square  miles  of  her  territory,  or  163,264  more  than 
half.  The  first  named  treaty  involved  362,487  square  miles  of 
domain  now  part  and  parcel  of  the  United  States  as  follows: 

[436] 


MEXICO  437 

Texas,  265,780  square  miles;  Colorado  (in  part),  18,000;  Kansas 
(in  part),  7,766;  New  Mexico,  65,201 ;  Oklahoma,  5,740.  Under  the 
terms  of  the  second  or  Gadsden  treaty  the  United  States  acquired 
522,568  square  miles,  which  are  now  held  as  follows:  Arizona, 
82,381;  California,  157,801;  Colorado  (in  part),  29,500;  Nevada, 
112,090;  New  Mexico,  42,000;  Utah,  84,476;  Wyoming  (in  part), 
14,320.  By  virtue  of  the  same  treaty  a  later  addition  was  ceded, 
consisting  of  31,535  square  miles  to  Arizona,  and  14,000  to  New 
Mexico. 

Topography 

In  the  length  of  coast  line  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California 
leads  with  1,864  miles,  Yucatan  following  with  615,  Sonora  524, 
Sinaloa,  317,  Tepic  and  Jalisco  311,  Veracruz  286,  Guerrero  286, 
Oaxaca  255,  Tamaulipas  249,  Campeche  224,  Chiapas  137,  Tabasco 
119,  Colima  99,  and  Michoacan  81.  The  greatest  length  of  the 
republic  is  from  northwest  to  southeast,  1,942  miles ;  and  the  great- 
est width,  east  and  west,  is  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Fuerte,  762  miles,  and  the  narrowest  is  from 
the  bar  at  Coatzacoalcos,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  to  San  Francisco 
de  mar,  on  the  Pacific, — 134  miles. 

Mexico,  California  and  Tehuantepec  are  the  principal  gulfs  on 
the  Mexican  coast,  the  first  named  being  the  largest  in  the  world. 
In  the  commercial  development  of  this  continent  they  have  per- 
formed and  still  perform  a  most  important  part.  Mexico's  great 
mass  is  the  lofty  Rocky  Mountain  plateau,  which  fills  it  nearly  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  leaving  but  a  narrow  strip  of  coast.  Entering  from 
Guatemala  (where  a  spur  connects  with  the  limestone  and  coral 
table-land  of  Yucatan),  the  system  trends  west,  forming  a  table- 
land 150  miles  wide  at  Oaxaca,  with  a  steep  descent  and  slender 
coast  on  the  Pacific,  but  a  more  gradual  one  by  terraces  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  in  Tabasco  and  Veracruz.  This  spreads  out  and 
stretches  northward  to  the  vast  plateau  of  Anahuac,  4,000  to  8,000 
feet  high,  where  the  oceanic  relations  are  reversed,  the  Atlantic 
side  being  precipitous  and  the  Pacific  terraced.  There  is  no  single 
range  corresponding  to  the  Andes  or  northern  Rockies;  the 
so-called  cordilleras  are  merely  the  outer  escarpments  of  the  pla- 
teau, though  often  far  above  its  mean  level.  Loftiest  of  these  is 
the  Sierra  Madre  of  the  Pacific,  traceable  at  a  mean  elevation  of 
over  10,000  feet  from  Oaxaca  to  the  United  States.  It  skirts  the 
western  coast  within  from  60  to  70  miles  of  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  California ;  thence  onward  a  far  wider  coast  land  has  silted 
up.    Along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  the  correspondent  cordilleras 


438  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  Tamaulipas  and  Nuevo  Leon,  6,000  feet  in  mean  elevation.  The 
southern  central  plateau  maintains  its  height  of  7,000  to  8,000  feet 
with  great  persistency  to  within  40  miles  or  less  of  the  Atlantic. 
Through  Lower  California  is  a  similar  ridge  some  3,000  feet  high. 
The  plateau  is  not  a  level  surface;  railroad  elevation  north  from 
the  capital  varies  by  4,500  feet,  declining  northward;  while  the 
centre  is  intersected  by  short  secondary  ridges  and  valleys,  mostly 
with  the  north-northwest  trend.  Most  important  of  these  is  the 
Anahuac  cordillera,  surrounding  the  valleys  of  Mexico  and  Puebla; 
its  culminating  point  is  the  Nevado  de  Toluca  (''  snow  peak  "), 
15,163  feet.  But  across  this,  and  generally  confounded  with  it,  is 
a  newer  transverse  ridge  from  ocean  to  ocean,  traced  by  five  active 
or  recently  quiescent  volcanoes  and  several  extinct  cones,  among 
which  are  Popocatepetl  17,882  feet  and  Ixtaccihuatl  17,338  feet  in 
the  centre,  southeast  of  Mexico  City,  and  Orizaba,  eastward  bor- 
dering Veracruz  state,  18,696  feet.  On  the  Pacific  side  is  Colima 
volcano,  12,989  feet ;  and  the  line  runs  out  to  the  Revillagigedo  vol- 
canic islands.  The  sierras  of  Guerrero,  Oaxaca,  and  Chiapas  are 
nearly  parallel  to  this. 

The  other  high  mountain  peaks  of  the  republic  are:  The 
Malinche,  between  the  state  of  Tlaxcala  and  Puebla,  14,643  feet; 
the  Coffre  de  Perote,  Veracruz,  14,042;  Ajusco,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  13,075;  Taucitaro,  12,661  and  Petam- 
ban,  12,300,  in  Michoacan;  Derrumbadas,  11,801,  Ocelazin,  11,480 
and  Penal  10,744,  in  Puebla;  Cempoaltepec,  11,139  Oaxaca; 
Lanitos,  11,021,  Guanjuato;  Tzirate,  11,022,  Michoacan;  Zumate, 
10,994,  and  Navajas,  10,289,  Hidalgo;  and  Laurel,  10,138,  Aguas- 
calientes.  The  mountains  of  Mexico  are  exceptionally  picturesque 
and  interesting,  affording  innumerable  views  beautiful  in  the 
extreme. 

Rivers 

Mexico  ^possesses  comparatively  few  rivers,  and  of  these  not 
many  are  large  and  deep  enough  to  be  of  commercial  importance. 
Many  of  those  marked  on  the  map  of  the  republic  are  either  wholly 
or  practically  dry  a  part  of  each  year.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  northern  half  of  the  country.  The  most  important  rivers  are : 
The  Rio  Grande  (Bravo  del  Norte),  which  forms  the  northern 
boundary  line  of  the  republic  for  1,097  miles,  the  Panuco,  which 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  the  state  of  Mexico  and  empties  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Tampico,  is  360  miles  in  length;  the  Papaloa- 
pan,  the  source  of  which  is  in  the  mountains  of  Oaxaca,  and  which 
crosses  the  state  of  Veracruz,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at 


MEXICO  439 

Alvarado ;  the  Coatzacoalcos,  which  also  has  its  source  in  the  state 
of  Oaxaca,  and  crosses  the  state  of  Veracruz,  emptying  into  the 
Gulf  at  Coatzacoalcos,  its  length  being  186  miles;  the  Grijalva, 
which  rises  in  Guatemala,  crosses  the  states  of  Chiapas  and 
Tabasco,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  327  miles  in  length;  the  Usu- 
macinta,  which  also  has  its  source  in  Guatemala,  crossing  the 
Mexican  state  of  Tabasco  and  emptying  into  the  Gulf  a  short 
distance  south  of  Frontera,  its  length  being  450  miles.  Official 
reports  state  this  to  be  ''  the  most  navigable  river  in  Mexico." 

The  Tuxpan  River,  which  has  its  source  in  the  state  of 
Hidalgo,  crosses  Puebla  and  Veracruz  and  empties  into  the  Gulf 
at  Tuxpan.  It  is  navigable  for  small  boats;  the  Lerma,  457  miles 
in  length,  which  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Tenango,  in  the  state 
of  Mexico,  crosses  Jalisco  and  Tepic  and  empties  into  the  Pacific 
at  San  Bias ;  the  Balsas,  428  miles  long,  the  source  of  which  is  in 
Pueblo  and  which  crosses  Mexico,  Morelos,  Guerrero  and 
Michoacan,  empties  into  the  Pacific  at  Zacatula,  in  the  latter  state ; 
The  Yaqui,  391  miles  long,  which  rises  in  the  Tarahumari  moun- 
tains, TiTBie  state  of  Sonora,  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  California 
a  short  distance  below  Guaymas ;  the  Fuerte,  335  miles  long,  which 
rises  in  ^the  state  of  Chihuahua,  crosses  the  state  of  Sinaloa  and 
empties  into  the  Gulf  of  California  at  Bocas  de  Ahome;  the  San 
Pedro,  298  miles;  Nazas,  279;  Ures,  260,  and  Sinaloa,  260. 

Lakes  and  Lagocns 

The  principal  lakes  of  Mexico,  none  of  which  are  large,  are 
Chapala,  in  Jalisco,  a  beautiful  body  of  water  some  51  miles  long 
and  18  miles  wide,  the  shores  of  which  have  become  a  favorite 
summer  resort  for  wealthy  residents  of  Mexico  City,  Guadalajara 
and  other  parts  of  the  republic;  Patzcuaro  (in  Michoacan),  around 
which  there  clusters  a  wealth  of  historic,  artistic  and  poetic  inter- 
est; Cuitzeo,  in  the  same  state;  Xochimilco,  and  Texcuco,  in  the 
Federal  District  and  state  of  Mexico;  Tepancuapan,  in  Chiapas; 
Tequesquitongo,  Coatelelco  and  Hueyapan,  in  Morelos ;  Catemaco, 
in  Veracruz;  Caivel  and  Carpintero,  in  Tamaulipas;  Encantedo, 
in  Tabasco;  Bacular,  in  Yucatan;  Uriria,  in  Guanajuato,  and  Mez- 
titlan,  in  Hidalgo.  The  principal  lagoons  are  the  Terminos,  in 
Jalisco  and  Michoacan ;  Tamiahua,  in  Veracruz ;  Madre  in  Tamaul- 
ipas; Mezcaltitlan,  in  Tepic;  Coyutlan,  in  Colima;  Tecpan  and 
Coyuya,  in  Guerrero;  Superior  and  Inferior  in  Oaxaca;  Paras, 
Coyote  and  Agua  Verde,  in  Coahuila;  Guzman,  Jaco,  Patos,  and 
Santa  Maria  in  Chihuahua;   Chalco,  Xaltocan,   San   Christobal, 


440 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Mexico   City,  from   Tower  of  Cathedral 


Zumpango  and  Lerma  in  the  state  of  Mexico;  Meztiilan  and 
Apan,  in  Hidalgo,  and  Santa  Ana,  in  Tabasco.  There  are  numer- 
ous other  and  smaller  lakes  and  lagoons  in  the  republic,  which  are 
of  much  local  importance,  but  which  do  not  appear  on  the 
ordinary  maps. 

Valleys 

The  principal  valleys  of  the  republic  are  those  of  Toluca, 
Mexico,  Cuernavaca,  Puebla,  Oaxaca,  San  Francisco  and  Orizaba, 
all  of  w^hich  are  extremely  rich  in  soil  and  most  favorably  situated 
as  to  climate  and  other  conditions  affecting  their  products,  which 
include  very  nearly  every  article  grown  in  other  parts  of  the 
American  continent. 

Climate 

The  chief  natural  glory  of  Mexico  is  its  climate,  which,  though 
not  as  invigorating  as  that  of  some  other  countries,  is  one  of  the 
most  delightful  in  the  world.  In  few  localities  is  there  ever 
intense  cold  or  intolerable  heat.  It  is  seldom  that  death  results 
from  freezing,  and  sunstroke  is  practically  unknown.  In  the  trop- 
ics, or  hot  country,  the  temperature  varies  from  77°  to  82°  Fahr., 
in  the  shade,  w^hile  on  the  central  plateau,  w^hich  includes  the  capi- 
tal city,  it  is  much  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than 
in  the  United  States.  In  Mexico  City  the  maximum  summer  tem- 
perature in  the  shade  is  85°,  and  winter  temperature  72°;  in 
Puebla,  84°  and  75°  ;  in  Oaxaca  94°  and  83°  ;  in  Jalapa  89°  and  87°  ; 
in  Queretaro  90°  and  80°;  in  Guanajuato  91°  and  82° ;  in  Pachuca 
80°  and  77° ;  in  Saltillo  89°  and  76° ;  in  Merida  103°  and  92° ;  in 


MEXICO  441 

Mazatlan  91°  and  84°.  The  average  night  temperature  in  Mexico 
City  from  June  to  October  is  about  55°.  -The  warmest  months  of 
the  year  in  that  city,  are  April  and  May, —  the  last  two  months  pre- 
ceding the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  which  there  extends  from 
June  to  November.  In  the  regions  near  the  gulfs  and  the  Pacific 
ocean,  the  rains  are  much  heavier  and  more  frequent,  and  begin 
earlier  and  end  later.  The  average  rainfall  on  the  coasts  is  44 
inches  and  on  the  table-lands  24  inches.  In  Mexico  there  are  but 
two  seasons, —  the  rainy,  or  summer,  and  the  dry,  or  winter.  The 
temperatures  of  the  spring  and  autumn  months  differ  very 
slightly,  and  the  seasons  merge  into  each  other  quite  impercepti- 
bly. The  nights  are  always  cool,  except  in  the  hot  country,  where 
they  are  seldom  uncomfortable,  the  gulf  and  Pacific  breezes  com- 
pensating for  the  heat  of  the  day.  There  are  no  radical  or  sudden 
changes  of  temperature;  no  prolonged  term  of  heat  or  cold  or 
storm;  and  on  the  table-lands  all  seasons  are  so  nearly  alike  that 
most  persons  wear  clothing  of  the  same  weight  all  the  year. 
Except  in  the  northern  states,  artificial  heat  is  seldom  provided, 
either  in  homes  or  places  of  business,  even  in  mid-winter. 

In  few  other  countries  is  to  be  found  such  diversity  of 
climate  as  in  Mexico,  whose  west  coast  littoral  extends  across 
18  parallels  of  latitude,  and  where  the  altitudes  of  the  towns  and 
cities  range  all  the  way  from  26  feet  above  the  sea  at  Veracruz, 
to  8,760  at  Toluca,  each  plateau  or  step  in  the  ascent  illustrating 
in  its  fruits,  foliage  and  flowers  the  influence  of  every  climatic 
phase  and  condition.  The  white  peaks  of  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl 
and  Ixtaocihuatl  look  down  upon  a  broad  panorama  of  indescrib- 
able beauty  to  be  seen  only  in  this  land  of  perpetual  spring.  The 
summer  rains  on  the  upper  plateaus  intensify  the  green  of  the 
verdure,  increase  the  number  and  beauty  of  the  flowers,  develop 
the  fruits,  sweeten  the  atmosphere,  and  drive  away  disease.  The 
sun's  rays,  being  always  perpendicular,  in  the  middle  of  the  day 
are  very  intense.  In  the  shade,  however,  it  is  never  uncom- 
fortable. 

Flora  and  Fauna 

The  physical  conformation  of  Mexico  is  most  favorable  to  the 
development  of  a  wonderfully  rich  and  varied  economic  flora.  In 
the  hot  lands  or  coast  regions,  from  the  sea  level  to  an  altitude  of 
1,500  or  2,000  feet,  cocoanuts,  cacao,  vanilla,  peppers,  nutmegs, 
ginger,  cloves  and  other  spices  and  all  the  fruits  of  tropical  coun- 
tries are  successfully  and  profitably  grown;  while  sugar  cane, 
coffee,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  hemp,  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  bananas. 


442 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


mangoes,  apples,  peaches,  papayas,  pears,  plums,  figs,  cherries, 
grapes,  zapotes,  pineapples,  mameys,  pomegranates,  yams,  sweet 
potatoes,  Irish  potatoes,  most  of  the  edible  roots,  and,  in  fact 
about  all  the  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables  grown  anywhere 
are  found  and  successfully  cultivated  in  altitudes  up  to  and 
including  the  valley  of  Mexico,  7,500  feet  above  the  sea.  Wheat, 
corn  and  most  of  the  grains  of  commerce  produce  crops  in  some 


Copyright,        C.   B.   Waite 
Cacao  Trees  in   Mexico 

of  the  states,  twice  or  three  times  in  a  year, —  notably  in  Vera- 
cruz, Tabasco,  Chiapas,  Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Michoacan,  Jalisco, 
Mexico.  Fifty-two  species  of  cereals  and  vegetables,  87  of  fruits, 
100  of  odoriferous  flowers,  56  of  building  woods,  21  of  cabinet 
woods,  8  of  gums,  three  of  resins,  12  of  forages  and  113  of  medi- 
cinal plants  reach  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  Mexico. 

Flowers  of  almost  innumerable  varieties,  from  the  gorgeous 
orchid  of  quaint  and  curious  form  and  wonderful  combination  of 
colors,  to  the  modest  daisy,  violet  and  tuberose,  grow  wild,  in 
extravagant  profusion,  all  the  year  round,  the  range  of  altitudes 
meeting  the  requirements  of  all  the  members  of  the  floral  kingdom. 
The  flower  markets  of  Mexico  City,  which  are  chiefly  supplied 
from  the  chinampas  (gardens  in  the  bed  of  the  half -drained  lakes 
of  the  neighborhood),  are  among  the  objects  of  interest  most 
enjoyed  by  the  visiting  tourist,  and  they  eloquently  testify  to  the 
beauty  and  brilliancy  of  the  Mexican  flora.   This  country  has  been 


MEXICO  443 

deservedly  named  ''  the  land  of  flowers,"  for  everywhere  and  all 
the  year  there  are  flowers  of  every  hue  and  color. 

In  the  forests  of  the  republic,  especially  in  the  tropical  lands, 
are  found  many  varieties  of  trees  the  timber  of  which  possesses 
great  value  for  building  or  cabinet  purposes.  Pine  of  several 
varieties,  balsam,  ligimm  vitae,  Spanish  cedar,  mahogany,  oak, 
"rosew^ood,  mesquite,  olive,  palm,  almond,  fir,  sesame,  cedar,  cam- 
phor, india  rubber,  copal,  cacao,  12  species  of  dye  woods  and  17 
varieties  of  oil-bearing  trees  are  among  the  varied  products  of  the 
country.  The  arboreal  vegetation  of  the  country  embraces  114 
different  species  of  woods. 

Included  in  the  fauna  of  Mexico  are  the  American  lion  or 
puma,  jaguar,  ocelot,  wildcat,  wolf,  coyote,  bear,  wild  boar,  sloth, 
monkey,  hare,  rabbit,  squirrel,  armadillo,  deer,  beaver,  otter,  mole, 
marten,  leopard,  turtle,  which  are  principally  found  in  the  sparsely 
settled  mountains  and  in  the  forests  of  the  tierra  caliente.  None 
of  these  are  much  hunted,  the  Indians  o-f  the  country  having  little 
or  no  taste  for  this  kind  of  sport. 

In  the  tropics  there  are  many  varieties  of  rich  plumaged  birds, 
and  song  birds  are  found  in  all  altitudes.  Parrots  and  paraquites 
abound  in  the  coast  regions  and  are  highly  prized  for  their  talking 
qualities  and  brilliant  colors  of  green,  yellow  and  red.  Among  the 
many  species  of  song  birds  are  the  zenzontla  or  mocking  bird,  the 
clarin  and  the  nightingale.  The  birds  of  prey  include  the  eagle, 
hawk,  turkey  buzzard  and  owl.  The  cotorra,  talking  loro,  hum- 
ming bird,  sparrow,  blackbird,  turtle  dove,  woodpecker,  swal- 
low, magpie,  heron,  falcon,  kite  and  great  numbers  of  others,  which 
inhabit  the  forests  or  fields  where  there  is  abundance  of  insect  and 
other  food  for  their  sustenance,  are  found  in  Mexico.  In  all  locali- 
ties where  there  are  fresh  water  lakes,  lagoons,  ponds  or  rivers 
there  are  great  numbers  of  wild  ducks  and  geese,  and  in  the  forests 
the  wild  turkey  abounds.  Wild  bees  are  nmnerous,  and  the 
Indians  derive  quite  an  income  by  securing  their  honey  and  mar- 
keting it  in  the  cities  and  towns.  Of  domestic  or  barnyard  fowls 
the  number  and  variety  are  very  extensive,  and  their  consumption 
by  the  people  of  the  country  is  enormous. 

The  waters  of  the  Mexican  gulfs,  lakes,  and  rivers  are  well 
stocked  with  many  varieties  of  fish  of  excellent  quality,  the  most 
prized  being  the  red  snapper.  The  markets  of  Veracruz,  Tampico 
and  other  coast  cities  daily  display  a  tempting  supply  and  variety 
from  the  gulfs,  the  Pacific  and  the  accessible  rivers,  and  large 
quantities  are  shipped  to  inland  points  by  railway,  in  refrigerator 


444  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

cars.    In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Tampico  many  tarpon  of  large 
size  are  caught. 

Of  reptiles  there  are  many  varieties,  both  venomous  and 
harmless,  especially  in  the  southern  forests.  In  the  first  named 
class  are  included  boas,  covals,  and  rattlesnakes.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  scorpions,  tarantulas  and  lizards,  some  of  the  latter 
being  so  large  as  to  be  utilized  by  the  natives  as  an  article  of  food. 


HISTORY  OF  MEXICO 

Pre-Conquest  Period 

THE  history  of  Mexico  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
distinct  parts,  aboriginal  Mexico  under  the  domination 
of  its  native  Indian  rulers,  from  the  border  land  of  pre- 
historic times  to  1521;  Spanish  occupation  from  1521  to  1821; 
and  independent  Mexico  from  1821  to  the  present. 

A  score  of  distinct  aboriginal  tongues  and  more  than  100 
dialects  still  spoken  within  the  confines  of  the  Mexican  republic  are 
evidence  of  the  presence  of  numerous  races  that  overran  the  coun- 
try at  various  periods  during  its  prehistoric  existence.  These 
early  races  seem  to  have  had  considerable  influence  upon  the  tradi- 
tions, mythology  and  customs  of  the  people  who  followed  them  into 
the  country.  From  the  confused  movement  of  the  shadowy  peoples 
of  the  past  stand  forth  the  forms  of  several  more  or  less  distinctly 
cultured  races  whose  written  and  traditional  records,  legends  and 
folk-lore  reach  back  to  the  dim  border  land  beyond  which  all  is 
mythical.  During  the  early  semi-historical  part  of  this  period 
the  great  Nahua  race,  beginning  its  many  years  of  wandering 
from  the  north,  crossed  the  Mexican  boundary  in  the  sixth  century 
and  continued  southward.  These  migrations  were  participated  in 
by  numerous  tribes  or  nations.  The  first  of  these,  the  Toltecs, 
came  from  the  land  of  Old  Tlapallan  under  the  leadership  of 
their  high  priest  and  chief,  Heumatzin,  he  of  the  big  hands,  and 
arrived  at  Tulancingo  (a  short  distance  north  of  Mexico  City)  in 
720,  after  176  years  of  wandering.  Soon  afterwards  they  estab- 
lished populous  centres  at  Tula  (San  Juan),  Teotihuacan,  Cholula 
and  numerous  other  places  and  extended  their  power  over  a  wide 
reach  of  country.  They  are  said  to  have  been  a  highly  civilized 
race,  to  have  been  builders  of  great  and  handsome  cities  and  to 
have  extended  organized  commerce  for  hundreds  of  miles  beyond 
their  own  territory  which,  at  the  height  of  their  power  and  pros- 


MEXICO  445 

perity,  stretched  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  and  far 
southward  to  th<3  border  of  the  domains  of  the  Maya  of  Yucatan, 
Chiapas  and  Campeche.  They  had  a  settled  form  of  government 
and  complicated,  far-reaching  codes  of  laws,  which  included  mili- 
tary, political,  social  and  religious  regulations;  and  these,  in  their 
turn,  were  supported  by  racial  customs  and  dogmas. 

While  the  Nahua  held  the  central  portion  of  what  is  modern 
Mexico,  the  Maya  and  other  kindred  races  occupied  the  south, 
stretching  from  Campeche,  Yucatan  and  Chiapas,  south  and  west 
to  the  Pacific  and  into  Guatemala,  where  they  established  a  civili- 
zation rivaling  that  of  the  Toltecs.  Between  the  Maya  on  the  south 
and  the  Toltecs  on  the  north  lay  the  Zapoteca  and  the  Mixteca, 
almost  as  far  advanced  as  they  in  the  arts  and  sciences  and  the 
principles  of  government.  All  four  peoples  were  skilled  workers 
in  metals  and  excellent  makers  of  pottery  and  woven  fabrics. 
They  recorded  their  histories,  traditions,  religious  formulas, 
tribute  rolls  and  important  events  in  complicated  hieroglyphics, 
which  varied  with  the  different  races.  They  were  good  agricul- 
turists, excellent  builders  and  organizers  and  they  maintained 
extensive  and  well  apportioned  armies  and  systems  of  public 
instruction.  All  education  was  in  the  hands  of  the  priests  and 
administered  from  the  temples,  thousands  of  which,  rising  from 
high,  truncated,  pyramidal  structures,  covered  the  land.  These 
temples  were  specially  immerous  and  of  notable  magnificence  in 
the  Aztec  land  and  Yucatan. 

Civil  wars,  internal  dissensions,  famine  and  plague  are  given 
as  the  causes  of  the  disruption  of  the  Toltec  empire  which  came 
to  an  end  in  1116,  after  nearly  400  years  of  existence.  A  part  of 
the  Toltec  population  is  said  to  have  migrated  southward  and  to 
have  entered  the  land  of  the  Maya.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
many  remained  behind  and  lost  their  identity  in  the  Chichimeca 
and  other  less  cultured  races  who  occupied  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
and  surrounding  country.  From  this  union  sprang  the  famous 
Texcocans,  whose  capital,  Texcoco,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
preserved  the  civilization  of  the  early  Nahua  and  finally  became 
the  most  noted  centre  of  culture  in  the  Mexican  empire. 

The  Aztecs,  Texcocans,  Tepanecas,  Chalcos  and  Tlaxcalans 
are  the  most  notable  of  the  Nahuatl  tribes  who  took  possession  of 
the  country  deserted  by  the  Toltecs.  Of  these  the  most  important 
are  the  Aztecs,  who  began  their  wanderings  from  Aztlan,  their 
old  home  in  the  north,  about  a  century  after  the  Toltecs.  Six  hun- 
dred years  later  they  arrived  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  where  they 
eventually,  after  many  struggles  and  privations,  established  them- 


446  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

selves  on  two  little  islands  in  Lake  Texcoco,  and  founded  their 
capital,  Tenochtitlan,  the  Place  of  Tenocli,  their  priestly  leader 
and  mighty  warrior,  or  Mexico,  the  Place  of  Mexitli,  their  war  god. 

The  Aztecs  prospered,  grew  in  numbers  and  extended  their 
power  over  the  Chalcos  and  other  tribes  bordering  on  the  lakes  of 
the  Valley  of  Mexico  and,  forming  an  alliance  with  the  Texcocans 
and  the  Tepanecas,  carried  their  conquering  arms  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  and,  from  some  distance  north  of  Mexico 
City,  southward  past  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  almost  to  the 
border  of  modern  Guatemala,  where  they  encroached  upon  the 
land  of  the  Maya.  The  creation  of  this  vast  empire  which,  in 
extent  and  power,  outrivalled  that  of  the  Toltecs,  was  due  to  the 
skill,  intelligence,  executive  ability  and  warlike  prowess  of  a  line 
of  kings  which  began  with  Acamapitzin,  Prince  of  the  Eeeds 
(1376-1404),  50  years  after  the  founding  of  Tenochtitlan.  The 
other  Aztec  rulers  in  succession,  up  to  the  arrival  of  Cortes,  were : 
Huitzilihuitl,  Hummingbird's  Feathers  (1404—17),  Chimalpopoca, 
Smoking  Shield  (1417-27),  Ixcoatl,  Obsidian  Knife  (1427-40), 
Moctezuma  I,  Wrathy  Chief  (1440-69),  Axayacatl,  The  Fly 
(1469-81),  Tizoc,  Lame  Leg  (1481-86),  Ahuizotl,  Water-rat  (I486- 
1502)  and  Moctezuma  II  (1502-20),  all  of  whom  worked  zealously 
for  the  upbuilding  of  the  Aztec  empire  and  the  beautifying  and 
extension  of  their  capital. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Moctezuma  II  Spanish 
navigators  had  been  exploring  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Mexican 
coast  and  several  had  touched  on  the  mainland  of  Yucatan  and 
Campeche.  In  1519  Hernan  Cortes,  inspired  by  the  dream  of 
conquering  a  great  and  rich  land,  of  which  reports  had  been 
brought  to  Cuba,  set  out  with  a  small  military  force  on  his  daring 
expedition  to  the  uplands  of  Mexico.  On  the  way  he  defeated  the 
Tlaxcalans,  ,an  independent  nation,  and  the  Cholulans,  who 
formed  a  semi-dependent  province  of  the  Aztec  empire.  From 
these  he  recruited  a  considerable  native  army,  with  which  he  con- 
tinued his  march  to  Mexico  City,  where  he  was  reluctantly 
received  by  Moctezuma  II  and  quartered  in  one  of  the  royal  pal- 
aces. He  finally  succeeded  in  making  a  prisoner  of  the  Aztec 
ruler,  who  was  killed  a  short  time  afterwards  (30  June  1520) 
either  by  the  Spaniards  or  by  the  Mexicans  themselves.  The 
presence  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  city,  the  death  of  the  emperor 
and  the  profanation  of  the  shrines  of  their  deities  enraged  the 
Aztecs  to  such  an  extent  that  they  rose  against  Cortes  and  he  was 
forced  to  leave  the  city  by  night.  In  the  retreat  he  lost  his  cav- 
alry, artillery  and  most  of  his  infantry.    After  recruiting  a  new 


MEXICO  447 

army  and  obtaining-  additional  war  equipment,  Cortes  returned 
and  laid  siege  to  the  City  of  Mexico  wliich  he  captured  (13  Aug. 
1521)  and  continued  the  conquest  of  the  domains  of  the 
Moctezumas. 

Under  Spanish  Rule 

Immediately  after  the  surrender  of  Tenochtitlan  the  govern- 
ment of  Mexico  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquistadores  who, 
being  purely  military  governors,  administered  the  affairs  of  the 
land  by  means  of  military  law.  Gradually  the  large  cities  were 
granted  local  government  similar  to  that  of  Spain  and  the  prov- 
ince was  divided  into  districts  controlled  by  the  central  govern- 
ment in  Mexico  City.  In  1528  auditors  (oidores)  were  introduced 
to  keep  a  check  on  the  Captain  General,  Cortes.  They  soon  suc- 
ceeded him  and  continued  to  govern  the  country  until  1535,  when 
Antonio  de  Mendoza  became  the  first  viceroy.  He  was  a  very 
earnest  and  capable  man  and  at  once  proceeded  to  replace  with  an 
orderly  and  settled  form  of  government  the  hap-hazard  methods 
of  the  oidores  and  military  leaders. 

Spain  monopolized  the  trade  of  Mexico,  or  "  New  Spain  "; 
commerce  to  and  from  the  colony  could  be  carried  only  in  Span- 
ish bottoms;  nothing  was  permitted  to  be  grown  in  Mexico  that 
might  in  any  way  come  into  competition  with  products  from 
Spain.  Only  native-born  Spaniards  could  hold  office  under  the 
government  in  New  Spain.  The  establishment  of  manufactures 
of  all  kinds  was  discouraged  or  prohibited.  Yet  Spain  gave  her 
colonies  a  strong  government  and  one  that  was  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  the  mass  of  Indians  and  mestizos  who  composed  the 
greater  part  of  the  population  of  Mexico,  for  it  was  much  like  the 
kind  they  had  been  accustomed  to  for  centuries  under  their  native 
rulers.  The  encouragement  of  literature  and  art,  the  beautifying 
of  the  cities  and  towns,  the  extension  of  great  highways  of  com- 
merce, the  improvement  of  harbors,  the  establishment  of  high 
schools,  colleges,  and  a  provincial  university  and  the  practical 
eradication  of  the  native  religion  with  the  human  sacrifices  were 
far-reaching  benefits  which  Spain  bestowed  upon  Mexico.  But 
the  evils  of  her  administration  outran  the  good  —  for  example,  in 
the  establishment  of  peonage  and  the  concentration  of  the  Indians 
in  centres,  towns,  camps  or  ranches  under  the  pretence  of  civil- 
izing and  Christianizing  them.  The  masses  of  the  population, 
their  aboriginal  laws  and  codes  of  morality  gone  by  the  board, 
soon  lost  their  pride  of  race  and  descended  to  a  condition  of 
slavery  bringing  with  it  debauchery,  a  loss  of  interest  in  life  and 


448  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

a  consequent  loss  of  ambition.  These  and  scores  of  other  abuses 
created  discontent  throughout  the  viceroyalty,  which  was  des- 
tined to  show  itself  in  vigorous  protests  and  insurrection  against 
Spanish  authority.  An  unsuccessful  revolutionary  plot  in  the  cap- 
ital in  1808  was  followed  by  the  uprising  of  Hidalgo,  the  patriot 
priest  of  Dolores,  on  16  Sept.  1810.  Hidalgo,  after  a  wonderfully 
successful  initial  campaign  which  brought  him,  with  an  army  of 
100,000,  almost  to  the  gates  of  the  capital,  was  finally  defeated, 
captured  and  executed  the  following  year.  The  w^ar  of  liberation 
dragged  on  with  varying  success  until  1821,  when  the  life  of 
independent  Mexico  began. 

Independent  Mexico 

The  first  government  of  independent  Mexico  consisted  of  a 
council  of  six,  with  Gen.  Augustm  Iturbide,  the  commander  of  the 
revolutionary  army,  as  president.  On  19  May  1822  Iturbide  was 
proclaimed  emperor;  and  on  21  July  he  and  his  wife  were 
crowned  in  the  cathedral  of  the  capital.  But  dissensions  soon  set 
in  and  Iturbide  was  forced  to  abdicate  and  to  leave  the  country. 
On  returning  to  Mexico  in  1824,  he  was  arrested,  tried  and  shot 
as  a  traitor.  Then  followed  many  kaleidoscopic  political  changes 
in  which  the  personal  ambition  of  military  leaders  played  the 
foremost  part. 

Santa  Anna,  who  became  President  in  1833,  was  looked  upon 
as  a  good  soldier,  took  the  field  against  the  Texas  revolutionists 
with  an  army  of  6,0(X)  trained  men.  Successful  at  first,  he  was 
defeated  in  1836,  captured  and  taken  to  the  United  States,  but  was 
allowed  to  return  to  Mexico  the  following  year.  For  more  than  a 
generation,  from  the  first  days  of  the  republic  to  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century,  the  figure  of  Santa  Anna  appears  ever  in  the 
foreground  of  the  political  life  of  Mexico  guiding  the  destinies  of 
the  nation  or  watching  political  moves  from  either  voluntary  or 
forced  retirement.  Shortly  after  his  return  from  the  United 
States  the  French  government  sent  a  squadron,  to  Vera  Cruz  to 
enforce  the  payment  of  claims  against  Mexico  held  by  French  citi- 
zens. Santa  Anna,  who  had  gone  into  one  of  his  periodical  retire- 
ments, came  forth  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force  to 
oppose  the  French,  who  finally  withdrew.  Santa  Anna  claimed  the 
honor  of  having  driven  them  from  the  country.  This  claim  and 
the  fact  that  he  lost  a  leg  in  the  encounter,  made  him  once  more  a 
national  figure  and  a  popular  hero,  although  Mexico  had  been 
forced  to  comply  with  the  French  demands. 


MEXICO  449 

Bustamante,  recalled  from  exile,  became  President  in  1837,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  in  Texas.  The  struggle  between 
ambitious  military  leaders  became  more  intense.  Santa  Anna, 
Parades,  Bustamante,  Farias,  Herrera,  Nicolas  Bravo  and  others 
played  their  several  parts  on  the  constantly  changing  stage.  The 
admission  of  Texas  to  the  American  Union  as  a  State  29  Dec.  1845 
roused  the  resentment  of  Mexico  against  the  United  States  to  a 
high  pitch.  James  K.  Polk,  who  succeeded  Tyler  as  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  an  ardent  expansionist  and  included  in  his 
plan  of  expansion  the  acquisition  of  California,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  then  Mexican  territory.  Claims  amounting  to  several 
million  dollars  were  held  by  American  citizens  against  the  Mexican 
government,  which  was  unable  to  meet  them.  Polk  proposed  to 
settle  these  claims  in  exchange  for  Mexican  territory,  paying  in 
addition  to  Mexico  $25,000,000  in  cash.  In  November  1845,  John 
Slidell  was  sent  as  diplomatic  representative  to  Mexico  City,  with 
instructions  to  press  the  matter  of  the  cession  of  Mexican  territory 
to  the  United  States.  But  the  Mexican  authorities,  having  learned 
in  advajice  of  Slidell 's  commission,  did  not  receive  him.  Polk  was 
ready  to  ask  Congress  to  declare  war  against  Mexico  in  May  1846 
when  the  news  reached  Washington  that  armed  Mexicans  had 
already  crossed  the  border  and  killed  a  number  of  Americans.  War 
was  declared  against  Mexico,  13  May.  General  Taylor,  in  com- 
mand of  American  forces  on  the  Rio  Grande,  was  ordered  into 
Mexico.  In  September  1846,  he  defeated  a  Mexican  army  and  cap- 
tured Monterey  and,  on  22  February,  he  fought  a  drawn  battle 
at  Buena  Vista  (Angostura).  A  month  later  Gen.  Winfield  Scott 
arrived  at  Vera  Cruz,  which  he  captured,  29  March,  and  began  the 
long  and  toilsome  march  toward  the  upland  plateau  and  the 
capital  of  Mexico,  which  he  reached  six  months  later.  After  the 
capture  of  Molino  del  Rey,  Churubusco  and  Chapultepec,  fortresses 
defending  the  capital,  Scott's  army  entered  the  City  of  Mexico.  In 
the  meantime  American  forces  had  taken  possession  of  California 
and  New  Mexico  without  opposition.  In  February  1847,  a  treaty 
was  signed  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  near  the  Mexican  capital, 
between  representatives  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States  by  the 
provisions  of  w^hich  California  and  New  Mexico  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States. 

Santa  Anna,  who  had  again  become  dictator  of  Mexico  while 
the  country  was  at  war  with  the  United  States,  retired  to  Jalapa, 
and  General  Herrera  became  President,  3  June  1848.     He  was 
30 


450  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

succeeded  (January  1851)  by  General  Arista,  who  was  forced  out 
of  office  by  Santa  Anna. 

A  new  constitution  for  the  republic  which  became  law  on 
5  Feb.  1857  figured  in  every  conflict  during  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury. Comonfort  repudiated  it,  thus  estranging  his  own  following 
without  gaining  the  support  of  his  opponents.  He  was  forced  to 
flee  the  country,  and  his  departure  gave  rise  to  internal  dissen- 
sions not  finally  settled  for  years.  Benito  Juarez,  president  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  claimed  the  presidency  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  constitution.  War  divided  the  people  and 
devastated  the  land  and  the  reactionary  party  forced  Juarez  from 
the  capital.  In  tlie  midst  of  all  this  civil  trouble,  a  real  danger 
threatened  the  republic  from  without.  In  1861  England,  France 
and  Spain  entered  into  an  agreement  known  as  the  Treaty  of 
London,  by  which  they  were  to  send  a  three-fold  fleet  to  Vera 
Cruz  to  demand  of  Mexico  guarantees  for  the  payment  of  her  for- 
eign debt  and  for  the  safety  of  their  subjects  in  Mexican  territory. 
This  fleet,  which  appeared  at  Vera  Cruz  on  8  Dec.  1861,  captured 
the  port  and  proceeded  to  Orizaba,  where  a  conference  was  held 
with  Juarez ;  who  agreed  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  powers. 
England  and  Spain  at  once  withdrew  their  troops  from  the  coun- 
try. But  the  French,  who  had  a  secret  understanding  with  the 
Mexican  reactionary  party,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Miramon,  who 
had  disputed  the  presidency  with  Jutirez,  remained  in  Mexico  with 
the  avowed  purpose  of  settling  its  social  and  political  difficulties. 
The  French  army  soon  began  its  march  toward  the  uplands ;  but  it 
was  defeated  before  the  walls  of  Puebla  and  forced  to  retreat  to 
Orizaba. 

The  Archduke,  Maximilian  of  Austria,  and  his  consort,  who 
had  been  selected  by  Napoleon  III  as  emperor  and  empress  of 
Mexico,  arrived  in  Vera  Cniz  24  May  1864.  In  the  capital  they 
were  welcomed  and  crowned  with  great  ceremony.  The  protest  of 
the  United  States  compelled  the  withdrawal  of  French  troops 
from  Mexico,  and  Maximilian,  left  to  his  fate,  was  compelled  to 
surrender  at  Queretaro  in  1867.  He  was  tried,  found  guilty  of 
treason  to  the  Mexican  people  and  shot  on  the  Hill  of  the  Bells 
iiear  Queretaro  together  with  his  two  generals,  Miramon  and 
Mejia,  19  June  1867.  The  concerted  action  of  the  Army  of  the 
North  under  Escobedo  and  the  Army  of  the  East  under  Porfirio 
Diaz  defeated  the  Imperialists ;  Mexico  City  surrendered  to  Diaz 
21  June,  two  days  after  the  execution  of  Maximilian;  and  on  15 
July  Juarez  returned  to  the  capital  amid  the  rejoicing  of  the  popu- 
lace.   But  opposition  to  the  Juarez  government  soon  developed  and 


MEXICO  451 

his  administration  was  troubled  by  constant  uprisings  and  disaf- 
fection. Juarez  died  suddenly  19  July  1872,  shortly  after  he  had 
been  re-elected  President.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sebastian  Lerdo 
de  Tejada,  who  served  one  term  and  was  forced  out  of  office  shortly 
after  his  re-election  by  Gen.  Porfirio  Diaz  who  defeated  the  Lerdist 
party  at  the  battle  of  Tecoac,  marched  upon  the  capital  and  was 
there  proclaimed  provisional  president,  24  Nov.  1876,  and  later 
constitutional  president.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office, 
30  Nov.  1880,  he  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  Manuel  Gonzalez,  who 
continued  the  Diaz  policy  of  encouraging  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways and  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  rural  police  charged  with 
the  protection  of  the  country  from  revolutionary  and  robber 
bands. 

Diaz  succeeded  Gonzalez  in  the  winter  of  1884  and,  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  he  continued  to  be  the  one  great  power 
in  Mexico.  He  found  the  country  in  debt  and  the  income  of  the 
administration  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  on  it.  He 
increased  the  revenue  of  the  nation  over  400  per  cent;  he  built 
railways,  highways,  roads  and  harbors;  he  drained  the  Valley  of 
Mexico  and  made  the  pest-ridden  coast  towns  places  of  resort.  He 
encouraged  foreigners  to  settle  in  or  invest  in  the  country  and  to 
contribute  their  part  to  his  program  of  expansion  and  develop- 
ment ;  and  he  created  a  credit  for  the  nation  and  steadily  increased 
and  improved  it.  He  introduced  system  and  encouraged  honesty 
in  the  public  service  and  prevented,  to  a  very  great  extent,  malver- 
sation of  public  funds,  which  had  been  so  noticeable  during  pre- 
vious administrations,  by  the  introduction  of  a  rigid  and  modern 
system  of  accounting  and  by  holding  the  heads  of  the  departments 
accountable  for  the  funds  passing  through  their  hands.  With 
Diaz  the  Indian  and  mestizo  elements,  constituting  fully  85  per 
cent  of  the  population,  began  to  come  into  their  own.  Thus  a  new 
social  life  was  created  in  Mexico  under  his  regime,  and  in  it  the 
mestizo,  for  the  first  time,  began  to  play  a  prominent  part. 

Diaz  found  public  instruction  neglected  and  practically  non- 
existent and  he  set  to  work  to  remedy  this  defect.  Training 
schools  for  teachers  were  established  and  the  higher  schools  and 
colleges  were  increased  and  improved  with  a  view  to  supplying, 
through  them,  the  teaching  body  for  new  primary  and  secondary 
schools.  Though  lack  of  funds  hampered  this  work,  the  results 
achieved  bore*  fruit  in  the  rapid  increase  of  the  standard  of 
intelligence  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities.  Under  Diaz  the 
resources  of  the  country  were  developed;  commerce  threw  off  its 
provincialism  and  became  national  and  international,  and  new 


452  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

industries  sprang  up  throughout  the  land.  But,  with  a  govern- 
ment which  had  absolute  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  country  so 
long  as  that  of  Diaz,  abuses  were  bound  to  creep  in.  About  the 
President  had  grown  up  a  strong  personal  party  the  members  of 
which,  while  professing  intense  admiration  for  him  and  his  gov- 
ernment, succeeded  in  enriching  themselves,  their  relatives  and 
friends  through  concessions  and  privileges  secured  through  their 
close  connection  with  the  administration.  The  spread  of  public 
instruction  and  the  rise  of  the  Indian  and  mestizo  to  public  prom- 
inence introduced  into  the  political  equation  a  new  and  restless 
element  which  Diaz  had  constantly,  throughout  his  long  regime, 
to  curb,  control  and  discipline.  The  discontent  increased;  Mexican 
exiles  in  the  United  States  used  every  means  in  their  power  to 
hasten  the  overthrow  of  the  man  they  characterized  as  autocratic 
and  tyrannical.  Ramon  Corral,  the  vice-president,  who  was 
looked  upon  as  the  leader  of  the  sinister  influence  at  work  in  the 
party  surrounding  the  president,  was  singled  out  as  the  special 
object  of  attack  of  the  anti-government  agents.  Diaz,  in  the  face 
of  the  impending  storm,  supported  Corral,  who  was  re-elected  in 
1910.  During  the  month  of  September  1910,  the  one-hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  declaration  of  Mexican  independence  was  cele- 
brated throughout  the  republic  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony 
and  special  representatives  of  foreign  nations  gathered  in  the 
capital  to  lend  dignity  to  the  occasion.  But  scarcely  had  the 
month  of  national  rejoicing  ended  when  political  unrest  began  to 
show  renewed  activity.  Francisco  I.  Madero,  who  had  presented 
himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  opposition  to  Diaz 
and  had  been  arrested  on  the  charge  of  sedition  and  finall}' 
released  from  prison  and  ordered  to  leave  the  country  after  the 
elections  had  been  held,  furnished  the  necessary  leader  to  the 
exiles  in  the  United  States  and  their  many  sympathizers  in 
Mexico.  The  active  revolutionary  propaganda  already  begun  was 
intensified  and  agents  of  the  insurgent  party  spread  their  doc- 
trines throughout  Mexico  and  induced  uprisings  in  Vera  Cruz, 
Puebla,  Chihuahua,  Durango  and  other  cities  and  -towns  of  the 
republic;  and,  as  Madero  crossed  the  border  to  head  the  insur- 
gents, similar  outbreaks  took  place  south  of  Mexico  City  while 
revolutionary  bands  gathered  in  force  in  the  north  near  Torreon, 
Gomez  Palacio  and  Parral.  The  inauguration  of  Diaz  as  Presi- 
dent 1  Dec.  1910  increased  the  revolutionary  centres  and  quick- 
ened their  activities,  thus  compelling  the  government  to  weaken 
its  strength  by  distributing  its  forces  over  a  large  and  constantly 
increasing  area  of  territory.    Radical  changes  were  effected  in  the 


MEXICO  453 

Diaz  cabinet  and  attempts  were  made  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
revolutionists,  as  American  troops  were  ordered  concentrated  along 
the  Mexican  border ;  for  this  move  was  taken  in  Mexico  to  mean  a 
threat  of  intervention.  The  government  otfered  to  enter  into 
peace  negotiations  with  the  insurgents,  but  attempts  made  to  this 
end  proved  abortive  and  w^ere  suspended  6  May.  Juarez  fell  to 
the  insurgents  10  May,  and  Diaz,  urged  to  save  the  country  from 
further  bloodshed  and  the  danger  of  intervention,  resigned,  25 
May,  and  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Francisco  de  la  Barra,  secre- 
tary of  foreign  affairs,  as  president  ad  interim  pending  an  elec- 
tion. Two  wrecks  later  Madero  entered  the  capital  where  he  was 
enthusiastically  received.  So  powerful  was  his  influence  that  the 
de  la  Barra  administration  was  forced  to  consult  him  in  every 
important  move  made.  On  15  November  Madero  was  unani- 
mously elected  President  of  Mexico ;  but  scarcely  had  he  assumed 
office  when  opposition  began  to  develop  and  revolutionary  intrigue 
to  show  itself  within  his  own  party.  Zapata  revolted  in  Morelos 
and  Gen.  Bernardo  Reyes  attempted  an  unsuccessful  insurrection. 
Gen.  Pascual  Orozco,  one  of  the  foremost  revolutionary  leaders, 
rebelled  and  captured  Juarez  12  Feb.  1912.  Gen.  Felix  Diaz  took 
Vera  Cruz,  but  was  himself  captured,  tried  and  condemned  to  be 
shot  —  a  sentence  which  was  commuted  to  confinement  in  the 
penitentiary  near  Mexico  City.  In  the  meantime  Madero  found 
himself  unable  to  control  the  turbulent  characters  who  surrounded 
him,  to  establish  a  stable  governjiient  or  to  carry  out  the  prom- 
ised reforms. 

GeneralMondragon,  backed  by  his  own  troops  and  the  students 
of  the  Military  Training  School  at  Tlalpam,  a  suburb  of  the  capi- 
tal, rose  against  the  government,  9  Feb.  1913,  marched  to  the 
military  prison  and  set  free  General  Reyes,  and  from  there  to  the 
penitentiary  and  liberated  Gen.  Felix  Diaz.  Practically  unop- 
posed the  three  generals  entered  the  capital,  where  Reyes  was. 
killed  in  an  attack  on  the  National  Palace.  The  revolutionists 
seized  The  Citadel,  a  strong  fortress  and  ammunition  depository, 
while  the  Madero  forces  took  possession  of  the  National  Palace, 
Chapultepec  and  other  points  in  and  around  the  city.  Both  fac- 
tions bombarded  one  another  almost  continuously  for  10  days, 
when  Gen.  Victoriano  Huerta,  commander-in-chief  of  the  govern- 
ment forces,  brought  the  conflict  to  a  dramatic  close  by  the  seizure 
of  Madero  and  Pino  Suarez,  the  vice-president,  who  were  forced 
to  resign  their  respective  offices.  Pedro  Lascurain,  minister  of 
foreign  relations,  succeeded  to  the  jjresidency.  He  appointed 
Huerta  his  minister  of  foreign  relations  and  resigned  in  his  favor. 


454  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Thus,  in  one  day,  Mexico  had  three  presidents.  On  the  morning 
of  23  February  Madero  and  Pino  Suarez  were  murdered,  pre- 
sumably  by  agents  of  the  Huerta  government.  For  this  act, 
Venustiano  Carranza,  governor  of  Coahuila,  disavowed  the  new 
government  and  issued  the  Plan  of  Guadalupe  which  called  for 
reforms  in  the  administration,  equitable  taxation,  extension  of  the 
educational  system  and  the  solution  of  the  land  problem  (March 
26).  President  Wilson  dispatched  John  Lind  to  Mexico  City  as 
his  personal  representative  with  a  view  to  bringing  the  opposing 
parties  together;  but  Huerta 's  refusal  to  be  eliminated  as  a  presi- 
dential candidate  and  his  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  110  con- 
gressional deputies  and  the  forcible  dissolution  of  Congress  (10 
and  11  October)  made  any  compromise  impossible.  A  new  elec- 
tion held  on  26  October,  under  pressure,  resulted  in  the  selection 
of  Huerta  as  President.  The  new  congress,  which  met  on  15 
November,  in  view  of  a  protest  from  Washington,  declared  void 
the  election  of  President  and  Vice-President  but  confirmed  Huerta 
in  the  office  of  Provisional  President.  The  Constitutionalists 
determined  to  make  no  compromise  with  Huerta,  and  the  war  went 
on.  Villa  took  Juarez  15  November;  other  important  places  fell 
and,  early  in  1914,  Villa  captured  Ojinaga,  after  the  Federal 
garrison  of  4,600  had  retreated  across  the  American  border.  Then 
turning  southward  he  took  Torreon  in  April,  while  Mazatlan  and 
Tampico  surrendered  to  the  Constitutionalists  in  May,  and  Car- 
ranza set  up  his  government  in  Saltillo. 

Huerta  found  himself  in  constantly  increasing  difficulties  on 
account  of  his  defiance  of  the  United  States.  These  difficulties 
had  culminated  when  sailors  from  the  U.  S.  S.  Dolphin  had  been 
arrested  in  Tampico  10  April  and  marched  through  the  city  under 
armed  guard.  For  this  insult  Admiral  Mayo  demanded  that  the 
Mexican  government  should  order  a  salute  to  the  American  flag. 
This  Huerta  refused  to  concede;  and  President  Wilson  laid  the 
matter  before  Congress  20  April,  requesting  authority  to  use  the 
forces  of  the  nation  to  enforce  Mayo's  demand.  While  Congress 
was  debating  this  request  American  marines  were  forcibly  landed 
in  Vera  Cruz  to  prevent  the  entrance  at  that  port  of  a  shipment  of 
arms  from  the  steamer  Ipiranga.  At  this  juncture  Argentina, 
Brazil  and  Chile,  known  as  the  A.  B.  C.  powers,  offered  to  serve 
as  mediators.  The  offer  was  accepted  and  the  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives of  these  powders  at  Washington  met  at  Niagara  Falls, 
Canada,  20  May  to  24  June,  without  being  able  to  find  a  solution 
for  the  troubled  conditions  in  Mexico.  On  the  day  they  adjourned 
Gonzales  took  Zacatecas  and,  two  weeks  later,  Obregon  entered 


MEXICO  455 

Guadalajara;  and  in  July,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Manzanillo  and  several 
smaller  places  fell  to  the  Constitutionalists.  Huerta,  forced  to 
resign,  15  July,  was  succeeded  by  Francisco  Carbajal,  minister  of 
foreign  relations,  who  at  once  entered  into  communication  with  the 
Constitutionalists  and  resigned  in  favor  of  Carranza,  13  August. 
Two  days  later  Obregon  took  possession  of  the  capital,  where 
Carranza  arrived  on  20  Aug.  1914. 

With  the  elimination  of  Huerta  and  the  success  of  the  Con- 
stitutionalists, bitter  dissensions  appeared  in  the  heterogeneous 
elements  composing  the  party.  A  convention  of  generals  called 
to  meet  in  Mexico  City  on  1  October  served  only  to  intensify  the 
trouble  and  the  convention  was  moved  to  Aguascalientes,  where, 
dominated  by  Villa,  it  disallowed  the  claims  of  Carranza  and 
elected  General  Gutierrez  Provisional  President.  It  was  also 
decided  to  march  upon  Mexico  City  and  compel  Carranza  to  bow  to 
the  will  of  the  Convention,  In  the  face  of  this  threatened  danger, 
the  latter  went  to  Puebla  and,  from  there,  to  Vera  Cruz  on  the 
w^ithdrawal  of  the  American  forces  from  Mexico  23  November. 
Zapata  and  Villa  at  once  occupied  the  capital  and  Gutierrez  set  up 
his  government  there  (3  December).  In  January  1915  the  Conven- 
tion, disowning  Gutierrez,  proceeded  to  govern  Mexico  City  in  its 
own  name ;  but  the  approach  of  Obregon  with  a  strong  force  com- 
pelled the  Convention  to  abandon  the  capital,  which  was  occupied 
(28  January)  by  the  Carranza  commander,  who  in  turn  was  forced 
to  retreat  before  a  Zapatista  horde,  10  March.  Two  weeks  later 
Villa  recognized  as  Convention  Provisional  President  Gen.  Roque 
Gonzalez  Garza. 

One  of  the  dramatic  incidents  of  the  year  was  the  siege  of 
Naco,  Sonora,  by  General  Mayortena.  Five  Americans  were 
killed  and  50  or  more  wounded  by  shots  coming  across  the 
border.  Washington  warned  both  the  contending  parties  to 
refrain  from  firing  into  American  territory.  Early  in  January 
General  Scott,  representing  the  American  government,  and  Villa 
held  a  conference  at  which  it  was  agreed  to  withdraw  the  contend- 
ing forces  from  Naco.  In  the  meantime  the  Convention  party  was 
faring  badly  in  the  north.  Guadalajara  fell  to  Carranza  and  Villa 
was  defeated  at  Celayo  in  March.  Other  disasters  followed  and 
finally  Washington  notified  the  Constitutional  and  Convention 
parties,  2  June,  that  unless  peace  were  restored  soon,  the  United 
State  would  be  compelled  to  support  some  man  or  group  of  men 
capable  of  bringing  order  out  of  chaos.  Meanwhile  raids  were 
being  frequently  made  across  the  Texas  border  by  bands  from 
Mexico  and  finally,  on  the  night  of  9  March,  1916,  an  armed  band 


456  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  Villistas  attacked  Columbus,  N.  M.,  killing  eight  soldiers  and  a 
number  of  civilians.  Washington  at  once  acted,  17  March,  and  sent 
into  Mexico  12,000  troops  under  General  Pershing  with  orders  to 
take  Villa  dead  or  alive.  Carranza  refused  a  request  from  the 
American  government  for  permission  to  ship,  over  the  North- 
western Railway,  supplies  to  Pershing's  forces  which  were  finally 
compelled  to  come  to  a  halt  at  Parral,  where  several  American 
soldiers  were  killed  and  others  wounded  in  a  surprise  attack. 

In  April  General  Scott,  Chief  of  Staff,  who  had  been  sent  to 
the  Mexican  border  to  report  to  Washington  on  the  situation,  held 
a  conference  with  General  F  nston,  commander  of  the  American 
forces  on  the  frontier,  and  General  Obregon,  Mexican  Minister  of 
War.  The  latter  insisted  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  American 
punitive  expedition  from  Mexico,  and  this  was  conditionally  agreed 
to,  2  May.  Carranza,  charging  the  American  government  with  bad 
faith  and  asserting  that  the  presence  of  United  States  troops  in 
Mexico  proved  a  constant  source  of  irritation  and  weakened  the 
hands  of  the  Mexican  authorities,  refused  to  ratify  the  agreement. 
Washington  replied  by  reviewing  the  course  of  events  in  Mexico  and 
charging  that  the  Mexican  government  apparently  did  not  wish  to 
see  the  border  raiders  captured.  On  18  June  the  American  militia 
was  ordered  to  the  Mexican  border  two  days  after  General  Trevino 
had  been  enjoined  by  Carranza  to  prevent  the  movement  of  the 
Pershing  expedition  in  any  direction  except  homeward  and  to  oppose 
the  entrance  of  further  American  troops  into  Mexico.  In  pursuance 
of  this  order  an  American  force  of  some  90  troopers  was  attacked 
at  Carrizal  and  a  number  of  officers  and  troopers  killed  and  17  taken 
prisoners.  On  a  peremptory  demand  from  Washington  the  latter 
were  released,  22  June,  1916.  Carranza  began  to  show  a  more 
friendly  front,  and  proposed  the  naming  of  commissioners  by  the 
American  and  Mexican  governments  to  consider  the  issue  between 
them,  12  July.  This  proposition  was  accepted  and  Luis  Cabrera, 
Minister  of  Finance,  Ignacio  Bonillas,  Minister  of  Communica- 
tions and  Alberto  Pani,  head  of  the  National  Railways,  represent- 
ing Mexico,  met  in  New  London,  Conn.,  with  Franklin  K.  Lane, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Judge  George  Gray  and  Dr.  J.  R.  Mott. 
After  many  subjects  had  been  discussed  Carranza  declined  to 
approve  any  form  of  agreement,  and  finally  the  troops  of  the 
United  States  were  withdrawn  from  Mexico  without  having 
accomplished  any  definite  result. 

A  constituent  assembly  whose  members  were  chosen  at  elec- 
tions supervised  by  the  Carranza  army  met  at  Queretaro.  That 
assembly  made  radical  changes  in  the  constitution  of  1857  which 


MEXICO  457 

were  promulgated  on  5  Feb.  1917  and  went  into  operation  1  May 
1917.  A  congress  was  elected  and  began  its  sessions  on  15  April 
1917,  on  which  occasion  Carranza  declared  that  the  nation  would 
continue  to  be  neutral  in  the  European  conflict. 

Bibliography 

Carson,  W.  E.,  Mexico,  the  Wonderland  of  the  South  (revised  ed.,  New  York 
1914) ;  Cortes,  H.,  Letters  of  Cortes  (New  York  1908)  and  Cartas;  Diaz  del  Castillo, 
B.,  Historia  Verdadera  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Nueva  Enpana  (Mexico  1870),  True 
History  of  the  Conquest  (translated  from  the  original  Spanish,  London  1908),  and 
The  Mastering  of  Mexico,  Told  by  Kate  S'  phens  (New  York  1916) ;  Franck, 
n.  A.,  Tramping  through  Mexico  (New  York  l916) ;  Fyfe,  H.  H.,  The  Real  Mexico 
(London  1914);  Hagar,  G.  J.,  Plain  Facts  about  Mexico  (New  York  1916); 
Humboldt,  A.  de.  Political  Essay  on  the  Kingdom  of  New  Spain  (London  1811); 
Lane,  F.  K.,  The  President's  Mexican  Policy  (New  York  1916);  Lumholtz,  C, 
Unknown  Mexico  (New  York  1902),  and  New  Trails  in  Mexico  (New  York  1912) ; 
MacHugh,  R.  J.,  Modern  Mexico  ( Ivondon  1914)  ;  Preseott,  W.  H.,  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Mexico  (New  York  1847)  ;  Rowe,  L.  S.,  The  Scope  and  Limits  of 
our  Obligations  toward  Mexico  (American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  Annals,  Vol.  LIV,  pp.  219-235,  Philadelphia  1914) ;  Terry,  T.  P.,  Terry's 
Mexico  (City  of  Mexico  1909),  and  Mexico;  an  Outline  Sketch  of  the  Country,  its 
People  and  their  History  (Boston  1914) ;  Winter,  N.  0.,  The  Fundamental  Causes 
of  the  Present  Situation  in  Mexico  (Clark  University,  Latin  America,  New  York 
1914). 


GOVERNMENT 


The  constitution  of  Mexico  is  based  upon  that  of  the  United 
States  which  it  very  much  resembles.  The  republic  is  formed  of 
free  and  sovereign  states  which,  for  administrative  matters  con- 
cerning the  interests  of  the  nation  as  a  whole,  are  united  under  a 
federal  government.  In  virtue  of  the  constitution  of  5  Feb.  1857, 
the  national  power  resides  in  the  people,  who  are  the  source  of  all 
public  authority.  The  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  country 
is  carried  on  by  the  national  government,  for  the  federation,  and 
by  each  state  government  for  its  own  state.  But  no  state  law  may 
conflict  with  the  general  good  as  expressed  by  the  laws  of  the 
federation. 

Slavery  is  prohibited  by  the  constitution  and  all  persons  born 
in  the  republic  are  free  and  equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  and 
every  one  has  a  right  to  freedom  of  thought,  profession  and  occu- 
pation. In  so  far  as  it  is  consistent  with  private  rights  and  the 
exigencies  of  state,  the  press  is  free.  In  Mexico  one  may  publish 
As^hat  he  pleases,  for  there  is  no  press  censorship;  but  the  citizen 


458  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  the  government  are  protected  by  libel  laws.     Newspaper, 
magazine  and  other  presses  cannot  now,  as  formerly,  be  confiscated 
as  instruments  of  crime. 
.  The  right  to  associate  together  for  any  lawful  undertaking, 

'  business  or  enterprise,  and  the  complete  individuality  of  every 
law-abiding  citizen  of  the  republic  or  resident  therein  are  recog- 
nized and  all  may  leave  or  enter  the  country  without  passport. 

Mexico  being  a  republic,  hereditary  honors  and  titles  of  nobil- 
ity are  not  recognized  and  no  one  is  permitted  to  accept  or  wear 
them  unless  by  special  act  of  Congress. 

Arms  may  be  carried  for  lawful  personal  defence  in  certain 
parts  of  the  country,  whereas  in  others  a  permit  to  do  so  must  bo 
obtained;  for  the  law  recognizes  that  in  mining  camps,  wild  moun- 
tainous regions  and  unsettled  parts  of  the  republic,  arms  are 
necessary  for  self-protection,  and  here  a  permit  is  not  exacted. 
Search  without  warrant  is  prohibited,  and  a  policeman  may  not 
enter  a  private  house  without  authorization  from  the  police  court, 
unless  it  be  in  pursuit  of  a  well-known  criminal  or  one  caught  in 
the  act  of  breaking  the  law. 

Privileged  tribunals  such  as  were  customary  during  the 
Spanish  occupation  of  the  country  are  strictly  prohibited;  and 
every  man,  be  he  priest  or  layman,  citizen  or  administrative  offi- 
cer of  the  government,  is  ruled  and  governed  by  one  common  law. 
The  passage  of  laws  contrary  to  the  interests  of  the  nation  is  pro- 
hibited, and  no  treaties  can  be  made  with  foreign  countries  for 
the  extradition  of  political  offenders.  According  to  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  law  of  the  land  offences  against  law  and  order  are 
K\V  ^^^^^^^  i^^^o  ^^0  great  classes,  civil  and  criminal. J  No  one  may  be 
/  imprisoned  for  offences  coming  under  the  first  of  these  heads 
This  provision  includes  debts  and  other  monetary  obligations, 
provided  there  is  nothing  criminal  about  their  contraction.  A 
person  once  arrested  must  be  brought  to  trial  within  three  days 
and  just  cause  shown  for  his  detention,  or  he  must  be  set  free. 
Whipping,  torture,  mutilation  and  other  punishments  of  a  like 
nature,  common  enough  in  previous  periods  of  the  history  of  the 
country,  are  declared  contrary  to  law.  All  punishments  except 
those  of  a  correctional  nature  must  be  administered  by  judges  of 
the  criminal  courts.  The  death  penalty  is  practically  never  exacted 
in  Mexico  in  times  of  peace;  it  is  stipulated  in  the  con- 
stitution, however,  that  it  may  be  applied  in  cases  of  high  treason, 
premeditated  murder,  parricide  and  highway  robberies ;  but  never 
for  political  offences,  except  in  time  of  war.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, about  the  only  cases  in  which  it  is  exacted,  in  normal  times, 


MEXICO 


459 


Copyright,    C.   B.   Waite 


Post  Office,  Mexico  City 


are  those  of  offences  of  a  most  serious  nature  against  military 
authority.  In  all  legal  actions  one  may  appeal  from  a  lower  to  a 
liigher  court  until  the  supreme  court  of  the  nation  is  reached  and 
giv^es  its  decision,  which  is  final.  But  in  cases  of  the  death  pen- 
alty, an  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  clemency  of  the  President  of 
the  Republic.  Once  a  man  has  been  tried  and  acquitted  he  cannot 
be  tried  again  for  the  same  offence. 

In  conformity  with  the  principles  of  democratic  government 
no  spying  upon  the  privacy  of  the  people  of  the  land  is  permitted 
and,  on  the  same  principle,  all  private  correspondence  is  declared 
inviolable. 

The  quartering  of  soldiers  upon  private  individuals  in  time 
of  peace  is  prohibited,  and  even  in  time  of  war  it  can  be  done  only 
in  conformity  with  certain  regulations  of  Congress  and  through 
special  orders  issued  to  fit  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion. 

Patents  may  be  issued  for  a  certain  stated  time  on  inventions 
of  use  to  mankind,  although  the  constitution  states  that  no  monop- 
olies shall  exist  in  the  country  except  such  as  the  government  may 
take  to  itself  for  the  general  good  of  the  nation ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  coinage  of  money  and  the  control  of  the  postal  system. 

In  the  case  of  serious  internal  disorder  of  whatever  character, 
which  threatens  the  safety  of  state  or  government,  the  President 
has  the  right  to  suspend  the  constitutional  guarantees ;  as  he  also 
lias  in  the  case  of  foreign  invasion.  But  this  can  be  done  only  with 
the  consent  of  his  cabinet  and  Congress,  or  of  the  congressional 
committee  when  the  Congress  is  not  in  session. 


460  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

All  children  born  of  Mexican  parents,  whether  in  Mexico  or 
in  a  foreign  land,  are,  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  Mexican  citizens; 
and  foreigners  may  become  Mexican  citizens  by  naturalization  by 
making  application  to  the  department  of  foreign  relations,  pro- 
vided they  have  resided  five  years  in  the  country.  All  persons 
acquiring  land  in  Mexico,  become  by  virtue  of  this  acquisition 
Mexican  citizens,  unless  they  distinctly  state  in  their  deed  of 
acquisition  that  they  reserv^e  their  right  to  the  citizenship  of  their 
jiative  land.  One  of  the  radical  changes  of  the  Queretaro  con- 
vention (31  Jan.  1917)  is  the  provision  that  only  Mexican  citizens, 
by  birth  or  naturalization,  may  acquire  landed  properties  or  water 
rights  or  obtain  concessions  to  exploit  mines  or  combustibles ;  but 
the  state  may  concede  such  right  to  foreigners  who  appear  before 
the  secretary  of  foreign  relations  and  agree  to  be  considered  as 
Mexicans,  in  so  far  as  the  titles  involved  are  concerned,  and  agree 
not  to  invoke,  in  regard  to  the  same,  the  protection  of  their 
respective  governments,  under  penalty,  for  violation  of  these  pro- 
visions, of  losing  the  titles  thus  acquired,  which  automatically 
revert  to  the  nation.  All  Mexican  citizens,  whether  native  born 
or  naturalized,  are  liable  to  military  service.  All  persons  resi- 
dent within  the  republic  are  guaranteed  the  protection  of  the  laws 
of  the  land. 

The  state  government  is  divided  into  three  branches,  execu- 
tive, legislative  and  judicial.  The  chamber  of  deputies  and  the 
senate,  constituting  the  Congress  of  the  union,  are  the  legislative 
bodies,  and  by  them  alone  can  laws  for  the  government  of  the 
country  be  enacted.  Tm^o  sessions  of  Congress  are  held  each  year. 
The  first,  which  begins  on  the  first  day  of  April,  lasts  from  two 
to  two  and  a  half  months ;  and  its  primary  business  is  to  audit  all 
accounts  of  the  previous  year  and  to  arrange  the  estimates  for 
the  incoming  fiscal  year.  The  second,  which  begins  on  16  Sep- 
tember, lasts  for  from  three  to  four  months.  The  law  provides 
for  the  election  of  a  President  of  the  Republic  who  shall  serve  for 
a  term  of  four  years  and  shall  not  be  re-elected,  and  a  cabinet 
composed  of  the  following  departments:  Fomento  (promotion), 
Foreign  Affairs,  Interior,  Justice,  Finance,  Communications  and 
Public  Works,  and  War  and  Marine. 

The  Constitutional  party,  recognizing  that  the  constitution  of 
1857,  with  the  various  amendments  thereto,  was  unsuited,  in  cer- 
tain important  respects,  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  Mexican 
people  live,,  decided  to  make  such  changes  in  it  as  seemed  neces- 
sary for  the  welfare  of  the  nation.  To  this  end  a  convention  was 
held  in  Queretaro  (December  1916).    After  two  months'  delibera- 


MEXICO  461 

tion,  it  closed  it  labors  on  31  Jan.  1917,  having  reformed,  in  a 
radical  manner,  a  number  of  the  most  important  sections  of  the 
basic  constitution.  According  to  these  changes,  the  office  of 
Vice-President  of  the  nation  is  done  away  with  and  the  filling  of 
that  of  President,  in  case  of  the  death  or  absence  of  the  chief 
executive  of  the  nation,  is  left  in  the  hands  of  Congress.  The  age 
of  compulsory  primary  education  is  raised  to  15  years  and  all 
parents  or  guardians  are  under  obligation  to  see  to  it  that  their 
children  or  wards  receive  primary,  secondary  and  military  edu- 
cation. Instruction  in  all  government  schools  and  in  all  primary 
private  schools  must  be  laic,  and  no  ministers,  priests  or  officials 
of  religious  organizations  or  societies  may  establish  or  own 
schools  or  teach  in  Mexican  schools.  This  abolishes  the  church 
schools  which,  before  the  revolution  of  1910,  ministered  to  fully 
two-fifths  of  the  educational  needs  of  the  country.  To  make  up 
the  deficiencies  in  educational  facilities  thus  caused,  the  new 
reforms  in  the  constitution  declare  it  obligatory  upon  all  agricul- 
tural, mining  and  industrial  companies,  resident  outside  of  towns, 
to  establish  and  maintain  schools  for  the  education  of  the  children 
of  the  people  in  their  employ  or  resident  on  their  property.  All 
schools,  whether  official  or  private,  must  submit  to  official  inspec- 
tion and  follow  the  government  program  of  studies. 

The  constitutional  amendments  of  31  Jan.  1917  provide  for  V 
the  subdivision  of  large  landed  estates,  aiming  in  this  way  to 
solve  the  land  problem,  which  formed  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
revolution  of  1910.  Each  state  or  territory-  is  empowered  to  fix 
the  largest  amount  of  land  which  any  person  or  company  may 
hold;  and  all  landed  properties  in  excess  of  this  amount  must  be 
subdivided  and  sold  off  within  a  certain  stated  time,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  official  regulations,  otherwise  they  are  subject  to  con- 
fiscation. One  of  these  conditions  provides  that  at  least  20 
years  shall  be  allowed  to  the  purchaser  in  which  to  acquire  prop- 
erty rights  by  making  stated  yearly  payments.  During  this  time 
no  mortgage  can  be  placed  on  the  property  thus  acquired  and  the 
interest  charged  cannot  be  greater  than  five  per  cent.  No  lien  of 
any  kind  can  be  placed  upon  homestead  properties  nor  can  they  be 
seized  for  debt  or  other  causes.  In  theory  all  land,  minerals  and 
other  resources  of  the  country  are  the  property  of  the  nation ;  and 
this  position  is  maintained  by  the  constitutional  amendments  of 
1917,  and  the  theory  itself  is  put  forward  as  a  justification  for  the 
subdivision,  by  order  of  the  legislature,  of  large  landed  estates 
and  the  national  control  of  oil,  mineral  and  water  rights,  with  a 
view  to  the  more  equal  distribution  of  the  wealth  of  the  nation 


462 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 


and  the  encouragement  of  small  landed  proprietors.  To  hold  min- 
ing properties  it  is  necessary  to  work  them ;  and  no  company  may 
acquire  and  retain  possession  of  more  land  than  is  actualh^  neces- 
sary for  the  carrying  on  successfully  of  the  business  of  the  con- 
cern, whether  it  be  mining,  agricultural  or  industrial. 

There  is  complete  separation  of  church  and  state  in  Mexico 
(since  1873) ;  and  the  reforms  made  in  the  constitution  in  1917 
reaffirm  with  great  emphasis  the  fact  that  the  church,  of  whatever 
creed  or  denomination,  is  constantly  under  the  most  strict  govern- 
ment inspection  and  that  all  ecclesiastical  buildings,  lands  and 


A   Fiesta   in   Guadalupe,    IVIexico 


Copyright,    C.   B.   Waite 


other  property  belong  to  the  nation,  which  extends  their  use  to 
the  church.  So,  therefore,  no  religious  order  or  denomination  can 
acquire  landed  or  other  property  or  mortgages  on  the  same.  This 
prohibition  extends  to  school  and  college  buildings,  asylums, 
charitable  institutions  and  residences  of  ministers  and  priests  and 
even  to  the  property  collected  within  the  walls  of  the  churches 
and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings.  Gifts  of  movable  property 
may  be  made  to  the  church ;  but  even  these  at  once  automatically 
become  the  property  of  the  nation.  Every  church  or  religious 
society  occupying  property  must  elect  an  official  head  to  repre- 
sent it  before  the  government  and  to  become  responsible  for  the 
national  property  in  its  possession.  All  ministers  of  whatever 
cult  must  be  Mexican  by  birth.  The  provisions  of  the  reforms 
made  in  the  constitution  in  1917  shut  out  of  Mexican  religious 
institutions  fully  2,500  Spanish  priests  of  the  Catholic  Church 
alone,  hundreds  of  French  priests,  employed  principally  in  schools 


MEXICO  463 

and  colleges,  and  the  Protestant  ministers,  mostly  American,  who 
had  established  numerous  churches  and  opened  many  schools 
throughout  the  land.  While  all  religions  not  inimical  to  the  inter- 
ests of  good  government  and  the  laws  of  the  land  are  allowed  to 
exist  and  to  exercise  their  functions  in  Mexico,  yet  all  public 
religious  observances  and  ceremonies  must  be  carried  on  within 
the  church  property  and  are  subject  to  official  inspection  and  regu- 
lation. The  law"  does  not  recognize  the  personality  of  any  sect.  , 
The  legislature  of  each  state  is  empowered  to  regulate  the  maxi- 
mum number  of  churches  and  ministers  within  the  state.  No 
minister  shall  have  the  right  to  vote,  to  hold  any  public  office,  or 
to  be  voted  for,  nor  is  he  permitted  to  take  part,  in  any  way,  in 
public  affairs.  The  establishment  of  monasteries  and  nunneries 
and  the  taking  of  monastic  vows  are  prohibited  by  the  constitu- 
tion which  asserts  that  the  state  may  not  permit  the  fulfillment  of 
any  contract,  pact  or  agreement  the  object  of  which  is  the  curtail- 
ment, loss  or  irrevocable  sacrifice  of  the  liberty  of  man,  whether 
for  the  purposes  of  work,  education,  or  religious  vows.  Marriage 
is  a  civil  contract  and  no  other  marriage  ceremony  except  the 
civil  one  is  legal.  Therefore  there  are  generally  two  marriage 
ceremonies  performed  in  Mexico,  the  civil  one  by  a  magistrate 
appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  government,  and  a  second  by 
the  priest  or  minister  of  the  church  of  which  the  contracting  par- 
ties are  adherents.  ■         . 

As  the  Constitutionalist  party,  when  it  rose  in  arms  against 
the  Diaz  government,  proclaimed  the  rights  of  the  Mexican  people 
to  govern  themselves  in  a  direct  and  democratic  manner  and 
demanded  the  immediate  solution  of  the  agricultural  questions 
facing  the  nation,  proclaiming,  at  the  same  time,  the  rights  of  the 
masses,  naturally  these  reforms  find  a  prominent  place  in  the 
changes  made  in  the  constitution  by  the  convention  of  1917.  i  / 
These  are  radical  and  far-reaching.  The  new  labor  laws  provide 
for  an  eight-hour  day  with  six  days'  labor  a  week;  while  night 
work  is  restricted  to  seven  hours  and  when  it  is  of  a  dangerous 
and  unhealthy  character,  it  is  altogether  prohibited  for  w^omen 
and  children  under  16  years  of  age,  while  children  under 
12  may  not  be  employed  in  any  contract  work.  Commercial 
establishments  may  not  work  their  employees  after  10  p.m.;  and 
children  between  12  and  16  must  not  be  worked  for  more  than  six 
hours  a  day.  Women  shall  not  be  required  to  do  hard  labor  for 
three  months  before  childbirth,  and  they  may  not  work  for  one 
month  after;  but  they  shall  be  paid  for  this  month  and  they  shall 
retain  their  positions  and  all  the  rights  of  their  contracts.    They 


464  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

shall  also  be  allowed  two  rest  periods  eacli  day  during  the  time 
they  are  nursing.  The  minimum  salary  in  every  district  of  the 
country  shall  be  such  as  to  provide  for  the  necessities  of  life,  the 
education  of  children  and  honest  amusements.  In  all  farming, 
commercial,  manufacturing  and  mining  enterprises  the  employees 
have  the  right  to  participate  in  the  profits  of  the  business ;  and  the 
percentage  of  such  participation  shall  be  fixed,  in  each  commu- 
nity, by  a  commission  acting  under  the  Central  Commission  of 
Conciliation  which,  by  law,  is  established  in  each  state.  There 
shall  be  no  distinction  in  salary  by  reason  of  sex  or  nationality, 
for  the  same  work.  Farming,  mining  and  industrial  companies 
must  provide,  outside  the  cities  and  larger  towns,  proper  sanitary 
dwellings,  markets,  hospitals  and  other  conveniences  necessarj^ 
to  the  life  of  the  community ;  and  when  the  employees  number  200, 
municipal  buildings  and  recreation  grounds  shall  be  provided 
within  which  no  intoxicating  liquors  shall  be  sold  or  gambling 
permitted.  Employees  may  lawfully  form  combinations  to  protect 
their  interests  and  the  right  to  strike  and  to  close  down  is  recog- 
nized. The  workmen  must,  however,  give  10  days'  notice  to  the 
Commission  of  Conciliation  and  Arbitration  before  striking;  and 
they  are  not  allowed  to  use  violence  of  any  kind  in  the  attempt  to 
enforce  their  demands.  An  exception  to  this  rule  is,  however, 
made  in  the  case  of  government  employees  in  ammunition  facto- 
ries, which  are  under  the  authority  of  the  army  and  thus  subject  to 
military  discipline.  A  complete  close-down  shall  be  legal  only 
when  the  excess  of  production  makes  suspension  of  work  neces- 
sary to  maintain  prices  at  a  reasonable  rate;  but  approval  for 
such  close-down  must  first  be  obtained  from  the  Committee  on 
Conciliation  and  Arbitration,  which  shall  be  formed  of  an  equal 
number  of  representatives  of  capital  and  labor  together  with  one 
additional  member  representing  the  government.  Any  employer 
refusing  to  submit  his  case  to  the  commission  or  to  abide  by  its 
decision  forfeits  all  right  to  any  contracts  already  made  with  his 
employees  and  becomes  obligated  to  pay  them  three  months' 
salary.  Should  the  workmen  refuse  the  offer  of  the  commission, 
their  contracts  automatically  become  void.  An  employer  Avho 
discharges  an  employee  because  he  has  joined  a  union  or  taken 
part  in  a  legal  strike,  or  without  any  just  cause,  shall  be  obliged, 
at  the  option  of  the  workman,  to  pay  three  months'  salary  or  to 
continue  the  contract.  The  law  provides  for  free  municipal 
employment  bureaus  and  stipulates  that,  when  a  Mexican  work- 
man contracts  to  go  to  work  outside  Mexico,  the  contract  thus 
made  must  be  approved  by  the  municipal  authorities  and  viseed 


MEXICO  465 

by  the  consul  of  the  country  to  which  he  is  about  to  go;  and  one 
of  its  provisions  shall  be  that  the  employer  must  provide  the 
means  for  the  return  of  the  workman  to  his  native  land.  No 
part  of  a  salary  may  be  retained  as  a  fine,  as  was  formerly  the 
case ;  no  salaries  may  be  paid  in  a  saloon  or  place  of  amusement ; 
and  no  w^orkman  may  renounce  his  rights  to  indemnity  for  acci- 
dent. No  labor  contract  can  be  for  more  than  one  year,  and,  in 
such  contracts,  the  laborer  cannot  renounce  any  of  the  rights 
guaranteed  him  by  law.  The  only  redress  for  the  violation  of  a 
contract  on  the  part  of  the  employer  or  employee  is  a  civil  action. 


LITERATURE 


Mexican  literature  begins  with  the  Spanish  conquest  of  New 
Spain  in  1521.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  Aztecs,  the 
Mayas  of  Yucatan,  the  Mixtecas  and  other  cultured  races  of 
Mexico  were  possessed  of  literatures,  partiallj^  written  and  par- 
tially handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  by  priests  and 
story  tellers  of  which  there  were  many  in  the  lands  constituting, 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  what  is  now  modern  Mexico.  Texcoco, 
the  capital  of  one  of  the  three  nations  forming  the  Mexican  con- 
federacy in  the  time  of  the  Montezumas,  was  the  centre  of  the 
literary  cult  of  the  Mexican  empire.  Netzahualcoyotl,  the  famous 
poet  king  of  Texcoco,  surrounded  himself  with  orators,  poets  and 
scientists,  and  his  reign  has  ever  since  been  looked  upon  as  the 
golden  age  of  literature  and  learning  of  Mexico  in  pre-conquest 
days. 

The  siege  and  conquest  of  Tenochtitlan  (Mexico  City)  in 
1521  overthrew  the  vast  political  system  of  the  Aztecs  and  dis- 
rupted their  social,  religious  and  other  institutions.  In  the  fierce 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  capital  of  the  Mexican  empire, 
the  foremost  nobles  and  leaders  of  the  people  perished,  the  city 
itself  was  left  in  ruins  and  more  than  half  of  it  was  literally 
leveled  to  the  ground.  Immediately  after  the  fall  of  Tenochtitlan 
the  conquerors  began  the  erection  of  a  new  capital  on  the  ruins  of 
the  old;  and  with  this  new  city  came  new  institutions  and  a  new 
literature,  partially  Spanish  and  partially  native.  Indian 
influences,  local  customs,  climatic  conditions  and  racial  attitude 
form  the  ear-marks  that  have  distinguished  Mexican  from  Spanish 
literature  for  nearly  four  hundred  years. 

31 


466  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Early  Mexican  Writers 

The  early  Mexican  writers  after  the  conquest  were  almost 
exclusively  Spaniards  for  the  natives  were  unable  to  speak 
Spanish  and  could  write  their  own  languages  only  in  hieroglyphics 
inadequate  for  the  requirements  of  a  serious  literature  like  that  of 
Spain,  then  in  the  fore  rank  of  literary  nations.  These  early 
writers  included  priests,  monks,  soldiers  and  adventurers  who 
found  a  wonderful  field  for  their  literary  activities  in  a  land  where 
everything  was  new  and  strange.  Hernan  Cortes  wrote  a  series  of 
letters  to  the  King  of  Spain,  in  which  he  gives  his  own  account 
of  the  conquest.  While  these  letters  somewhat  glorify  the  deeds  of 
the  Spaniards,  they  are  filled  with  information  invaluable  for  the 
history  of  the  conquest  and  for  a  proper  conception  of  conditions 
then  existing  in  Mexico.  Las  Casas,  bishop  of  Chiapas,  the 
defender  of  the  Indians  against  the  rapacity  and  cruelty  of 
the  Spaniards,  has  written  a  vivid  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
Indians,  giving  invaluable  data  covering  a  wide  field  of  observa- 
tion and  investigation  in  the  years  following  the  conquest.  Bernal 
Diaz  del  Castillo,  a  captain  in  the  army  of  Cortes,  has  left  a  very 
interesting  and  intimate  history  of  New  Spain  covering  the  same 
period  (to  1540).  Fernando  de  Alva  Ixtlixochitl,  in  his  History 
of  the  Chichimeca  and  other  works,  deals  with  the  preconquest 
period  of  Mexican  history  in  a  vivid,  sympathetic  and  interesting 
manner.  This  work,  with  all  its  faults,  is  of  inestimable  worth  to 
the  historian  of  early  Mexico.  Francisco  de  Burgoa,  Account  of 
the  Dominicans  (1597) ;  Alonzo  Franco  Ortega,  History  of  the 
Preaching  Order  (1645) ;  Agustin  de  Vetancurt,  Teatro  Mexicano; 
Antonio  Tello,  History  of  Neiv  Galicia  (1650) ;  Antonio  de  Solis 
(1610-86),  History  of  Mexico;  J.  Viliagutierrez  Soto  Mayor, 
History  of  the  Conquest  of  the  Mayas;  Toribio  de  Benevente 
Motolinia,  History  of  the  Indies;  Geronimo  de  Mendieta,  Indian 
Ecclesiastical  History;  Francisco  Lopez  de  Gomara  (1510-60), 
Conquest  of  Mexico;  Fernando  Alvarado  Tezozomoc,  CronicaMexi- 
cana  (1598),  Pietro  Martire  d'Anghiera  (1455-1526),  Story  of  the 
Conquest,  furnish  much  information  relative  to  the  history  of 
Mexico,  from  prehistoric  times  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
This,  in  turn,  has  been  studied,  digested  and  presented  in  attractive 
literary  form  by  the  historians  of  the  following  century,  the  most 
notable  of  whom,  with  their  best  known  works,  are:  Francisco 
Javier  Alegre  (1729-88),  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  New  Spain; 
Lorenzo  Boturini  Benaducci  (1702-50),  General  History;  Andres 
Cavo,  Spanish  Government  in  Mexico  (1766);  Francisco  Saverio 


MEXICO  467 

Clavijero  (1731-87),  Ancient  History  of  Mexico;  Granados  y 
Galvez,  Indian  History;  Antonio  Lorenzana,  History  of  New 
Spain  (1770) ;  and  Jose  Berislain  (1756-1817),  Biographies.  The 
historians  of  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  centuries  have  con- 
tinued to  dig  deeply  into  the  wealth  of  documents  relative  to  the 
early  history  of  Mexico  and  more  interesting  histories  have  been 
added  to  the  nation's  already  formidable  list.  Among  the  best  of 
these  later  historical  writers  are  Lucas  Alaman,  Carlos  M.  Busta- 
mante,  Luis  Gonzales  Obregon,  Carlos  Pereyra,  Anselmo  de  la 
Portilla,  Jose  Maria  Vigil,  Agustin  Rivera,  Francisco  Sosa, 
Manuel  Rivera  Cambas,  Jose  Maria  Iglesias,  Justo  Sierra,  Jose 
M.  Roa  Barcena  and  Francisco  Bulnes 

Literary  life  was  very  active  in  Mexico  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  16th  century.  The  writers  were,  for  the  most  part,  native 
Mexicans  of  white,  Indian  or  mixed  blood.  This  activity,  within 
certain  bounds,  was  encouraged  by  the  Spanish  government,  by 
the  viceroy  and  his  court  and  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities;  and 
numerous  literary  contests  were  held  under  favor  of  the  Church 
and  the  government,  at  which  hundreds  of  contestants  for  literary 
honors  presented  themselves.  Of  the  writers  of  this  period  one  of 
the  best  is  Antonio  Saavedra  Guzman,  author  of  El  Perigrino 
Indiano  (1599),  a  20-canto  poem  in  which  he  sings  the  deeds  of 
Cortes  and  his  followers.  Fernan  Gonzalez  de  Eslava,  popular  in 
his  day,  wrote  many  autos  sacrenientales,  religious  dramas  in  high 
favor  in  Spain  and  her  colonies,  Francisco  Terrazas,  Juan  Arista, 
Pedro  Flores,  Bernardo  Llanos,  Francisco  Placido,  Eugenio  Sala- 
zar,  Carlos  Samano,  Juan  Perez  Ramirez  and  Bernardo  Balbueno, 
writers  belonging  to  this  period,  were  all  held  in  high  esteem  by 
their  contemporaries.  To  the  latter  of  these  we  are  indebted  for 
most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  literary  activity  of  the  century  which 
he  gives  in  detail  in  his  Mexican  Greatness. 

The  autos  sacramentales  began  as  a  species  of  miracle  play 
intended  to  teach  the  natives  what  it  was  considered  necessary  they 
should  know  of  the  dogmas  and  history  of  the  Catholic  church. 
The  priests,  who  were  the  first  writers  of  autos,  continued  to  be 
their  most  prolific  producers :  but  the  popularity  of  the  autos  and 
the  call  for  new  ones  almost  daily  made  the  demand  greater  than 
the  church  could  supply  and  lay  writers  were  invited  to  enter  a 
field  which,  from  the  start,  proved  a  paying  one.  Thus  the  church 
became  the  patron  of  literature,  as  she  became  that  of  art,  in 
Mexico.  Many  of  the  earlier  autos  were  written  in  Aztec  and 
performed  by  Indians.  Those  intended  for  the  Spanish  residents 
of   the    capital   were    the    work    of   literary   men;    and    for   the 


468  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

eneourao-emeiit  of  these  latter  and  the  more  extensive  and  ambitious 
religious  dramas  which  grew  out  of  them,  the  ecclesiastic  cabildo 
and  the  city  council  offered  prizes  for  the  best  literary  composi- 
tions. The  popular  canciones  divinas  or  sacred  songs,  although  not 
dramatic  in  form,  are  to  be  classed  with  the  autos,  as  their  object 
was  the  same.  The  best  literary  men  of  the  day  gave  them  their 
attention,  with  the  result  that  they  fall  little  below  those  of 
Spanish  writers  in  the  same  field. 

Seventeenth  Century 

With  the  encouragement  given  by  the  ecclesiastical  and  state 
authorities,  the  17th  century  opened  with  very  notable  literary 
activity  which  continued  into  the  following  century.  Latin  verse 
and  composition  were  sedulously  cultivated  and  their  influence 
upon  Mexican  literature  was  very  marked.  The  period  is  char- 
acterized by  strong  intellectual  activity  expressed  in  an  exagger- 
ated Latinized  style  known  as  Gongorism  or  culturism  whose 
distinguishing  features  are  pomposity,  grandeur  of  language  and 
stateliness  of  versification,  extravagance,  obscurity  of  diction  and 
ornate  descriptions  overloaded  with  classical  references.  Among 
the  poets  of  this  century  are:  Antonio  Morales  Pastrina,  Fran- 
cisco Bramon,  Jose  Lopez  Avilez,  Carlos  de  Segiienza,  who  sang 
the  glories  of  the  national  saint.  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  and  Luis 
Sandoval  y  Zapata,  who  wrote  fervid  religious  poems.  All  this 
extensive  literature  is  touched  with  the  strange,  passionate  long- 
ing of  the  Indian  for  his  vanished  past;  and  one  ever  feels  in  it  the 
presence  of  that  ancient  Mother  of  the  Gods  whose  spirit,  for  the 
Indian  at  least,  hovers  over  the  rocky  heights  of  Guadalupe. 

Most  of  the  Mexican  poetry  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  is 
inspired  by  the  religious  spirit  of  the  age.  Pedro  Munoz  de  Castro 
and  Juan  de  Guevara  wrote  canciones  divinas  and  other  religious 
poems,  and  Francisco  Ayerra,  Francisco  Cochero  Carreno,  Agus- 
tin  Salazar,  Eusebio  Vela,  Antonio  Ramirez  Vargas  and  Sor. 
Juana  Inez  de  la  Cruz  turned  the  autos  and  canciones  into  real 
drama,  and  going  beyond  them,  appropriated  profane  subjects  for 
the  stage.  In  Mexico  Sor.  Juana  Inez  de  la  Cruz  (1651-94)  is  still 
looked  upon  as  the  greatest  native  poetical  genius  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  She  plays  upon  all  the  passions  of  the  human 
heart  in  lyrical,  amatory,  devotional,  epic  and  dramatic  verse,  so 
well  that  she  is  universally  known  as  "  the  tenth  muse."  While  she 
has  most  of  the  defects  of  her  age,  she  rises  above  them  in  spite  of 
them.    Gaspar  Villagra  and  Pedro  Arias  Villalobos  wrote  rhyming 


MEXICO  469 

histories,  the  latter  of  Mexico  and  the  former  of  New  Mexico; 
Pedro  Avendaiio  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Mexican  criollos,  wrote 
and  preached  in  favor  of  them  and  thus  became  the  father  of  a 
new  literary  and  political  movement  and  of  an  illustrious  brood  of 
intensely  national  writers  whose  elf  orts  are  still  active. 

Eighteenth  Century 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Latinism  and  Gongorism  began  to 
lose  ground  and  the  last  noted  disciple  of  the  old  school  was  Jose 
Abad  (1727-79).  P^rancisco  Ruiz  de  Leon,  who  goes  back  to  the 
conquest  for  the  inspiration  of  his  poem  La  Hcrnandia,  is  superior 
to  his  predecessors  in  those  elements  of  plot  and  style  which  go  to 
make  up  a  great  poem.  Jose  Manuel  Sartorio  and  Francisco 
Soria,  prolific  in  the  extreme,  still  continue  to  write  religious 
poems ;  but  they  are  less  academic  and  more  modern.  They  reflect 
the  life  around  them  and  while  they  are  not  dramatists,  the  temper 
of  their  work  is  dramatic.  It  is  in  the  drama  that  the  most  char- 
acteristic marks  of  the  period  are  to  be  found.  Jose  Arriola,  Caye- 
tano  Cabrera  Quintero,  Manuel  Soria  and  Manuel  Zumaya  are  all 
dramatists  of  note  v/ho  have  galvanized  into  life  the  old  miracle 
plays.  Manuel  Navarre te  (1768-1809)  restored  true  lyrical  and 
descriptive  poetry  to  his  native  land.  His  work,  natural,  philo- 
sophical and  elevated  in  style,  shows  a  keen  appreciation  of  the 
beauties  of  nature  and  rises  above  the  prosiness  and  mediocrity  of 
his  age.  His  Divine  Providence,  his  Odes  and  his  religious  poems 
are  his  best  work. 

Jose  Joaquin  Fernandez  de  Lizardi  (1771-1817)  forms  the 
bridge  between  the  Mexican  writers  under  Spanish  domination 
and  those  of  the  republic.  He  is  the  herald  of  independence  and 
the  keenest  thinker  of  his  day;  so  he  is  known  in  Mexico  as  El 
Pensador  Mexicano  (The  Mexican  Thinker).  El  Periquillo  Sar- 
miento,  his  most  famous  work,  is  as  well  and  favorably  known  in 
Spain  as  in  Mexico.  Lizardi  has  left  a  vast  mass  of  literary  mate- 
rial treating  of  a  wide  variety  of  subjects,  most  of  them  intimately 
connected  with  the  activities  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Manuel 
Carpio  (1791-1860),  Manuel  Eduardo  de  Gorostiza  (1789-1851), 
Manuel  Sanchez  Tagle  (1782-1847),  Jose  Joaquin  Pesado  (1801- 
61),  Jesus  Diaz  (1809-46),  Jose  M.  Heredia  (1803-39),  Manuel 
Alpuche  (1804-41)  and  Fernando  Calderon,  (1809-45)  form  a  bril- 
liant array  of  poets  whose  activities  embrace  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  century  and  cover  every  field  of  literary  endeavor.  Of  these 
Gorostiza  and  Calderon  were  dramatists  of  such  note  that  they 


470  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

attracted  attention  in  Spain.  They  were  the  contemporaries  of 
three  other  noted  dramatists,  Juan  Wenceslao  Barquera,  Anas- 
tacio  Ochoa  (1783-1833)  and  Francisco  Ortego  (1793-1849),  all 
of  whom  w^ere  very  popular.  Calderon  has  the  honor  of  being  the 
leader  in  the  production  of  a  new  national  drama,  in  which  he 
w^as  ably  seconded  by  Ignacio  Rodriguez  Galvan  (1816-42). 

Republican  Literature 

The  dramatic  incidents  of  the  revolution  against  Spain  found 
expression  through  a  new  school  of  poets  who  emphasize  the 
human  elements  in  life.  To  this  school  belong  Ignacio  Ramirez 
(1818-79),  Guillermo  Prieto  (1818-94),  Jose  Maria  Vigil  (1829- 
1908),  Ignacio  M.  Altamirano  (1834-93),  Vicente  Riva  Palacio 
(1832-96)  and  Rosas  Moreno  (1838-83).  Of  these  the  greatest, 
most  popular,  most  human  is  Prieto  who  was  the  prophet  of  the 
revolution  against  unbearable  conditions  in  Mexico,  of  which  he 
and  Ramirez  have  been  called  the  firebrands.  Their  activity  was 
never  ceasing  and  they  heralded  the  fierce,  national  struggle 
against  privilege  and  the  French  intervention  with  a  trumpet 
sound  that  reached  the  furthermost  fastnesses  of  the  land.  Jose 
T.  Cuellar  (1823—),  Isabel  Prieto  (1833-76),  Manuel  Payno 
(1822-89),  Ramon  Aldema  (1832—),  Jose  Peon  Contreras  (1843- 
1904),  Juan  A.  Mateos  (1851-),  Alfredo  Chavero  (1841-1904), 
Ireneo  Paz,  and  Juan  de  Dios  Peza  (1852-1909)  repeated  the  suc- 
cesses of  the  dramatists  of  the  preceding  three  centuries.  They 
continued  the  work  of  Calderon  and  Rodriguez  Galvan,  building  up 
a  truly  national  drama  w^hich  is  next,  in  the  Spanish  tongue,  in 
importance  to  that  of  Spain.  All  these  dramatists  were  very 
popular  and  a  new  play  by  any  one  of  them  insured  a  crowded 
house  for  weeks  in  the  capital.  Mateos  and  Riva  Palacio  are  also 
novelists  of  note  who  have  made  national  subjects  and  characters 
wonderfully  popular.  Peza,  who  is  called  the  Longfellow  of 
Mexico,  is,  after  Prieto,  the  most  popular  poet  of  the  last  half 
century.  To  this  period  also  belong  Jose  M.  Esteva  (1818-98), 
Joaquin  Garcia  Icazbalceta  (1825-94),  Antonio  Garcia  Cubas 
(1832—),  Jose  Maria  Roa  Barcena  (1827-1906),  Eduardo  Ruiz 
(1832-1906),  Luis  G.  Ortiz  (1835-94),  Melisio  Morales  (1838—) 
and  Rosas  Moreno,  all  of  whom  have  touched  the  national  note  and 
reflected  the  conditions,  aspirations  and  tendencies  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  They  have  thrown  behind  them  Gongorism  and 
the  Classical  spirit  which  dominated  the  three  preceding  centuries. 


MEXICO  471 

Peon  Contreras,  one  of  the  greatest  dramatists  of  Mexico,  must 
also  be  classed  with  this  latter  group ;  for  he  sounds  the  national 
note  loudly  and  well  and  constantly  sustains  it  throughout  his 
exceedingly  active  life  in  a  large  body  of  excellent  epic,  descrip- 
tive and  pastoral  poetry.  Eosas  Moreno  disputes  wdth  Lizardi  the 
honor  of  being  Mexico's  most  successful  writer  of  fables.  Manuel 
Acuiia  (1849-73),  the  Chatterton  of  Mexico,  exercised  a  wonderful 
influence  over  the  poets  who  followed  him.  He  was  endowed  with 
a  vivid  imagination  and  an  extreme  poetic  sensitiveness  which 
reminds  one  much  of  Poe. 

Ignacio  Montes  de  Oca  (1840 — ),  Manuel  Gutierrez  Najara 
(1850-95),  Salvador  Diaz  Miron  (1853—),  Manuel  Jose  Othan 
(1858^1908),  Luis  G.  Urbina  (1868—)  and  Justo  Sierra  (1828- 
1911),  are  brilliant  names  of  the  literary  period  covered  by  the  Diaz 
regime  (1876-1910).  They  are  all  essentially  poets;  Sierra  is  also 
an  excellent  historian  and  he  and  Montes  de  Oca  are  good  essay- 
ists. To  this  period  belong  Antonio  Zaragoza,  author  of  several 
volumes  of  fervid  religious  poetry,  Francisco  Icaza,  a  classical 
poet,  Jose  M.  Bustillos,  who  sings  the  glories  of  the  ancient 
Indian  empire  of  Mexico,  Zayas  Enriques,  biographer,  historian, 
poet  and  essayist;  Enrique  Fernandez  Granados  the  high  priest  of 
purity  of  style  and  artistic  treatment  of  poetical  subjects,  Antonio 
Plaza,  an  extreme  radical  but  popular  poet,  Joaquin  D.  Casasus,  a 
distinguished  writer  on  political  and  economical  subjects,  Julio 
Guerrero,  an  investigator  of  social  conditions  whose  Genesis  of 
Critne  in  Mexico  has  become  a  text  book  for  social  investigators, 
Jose  Juan  Tablado,  a  poet  oriental  in  richness  of  imagination  and 
depth  of  coloring,  Jesiis  Valenzuela,  Balbino  Davalos  and  Amado 
Nervo. 

Among  the  most  talented  women  writers  of  Mexico  of  the  18th 
century  are  Heraclia  Badillo,  Dolores  Guerrero,  Teresa  Vera, 
Josefina  Letechipia  and  Isabel  Prieto  Landazuri,  the  latter  of 
wiiom  has  already  been  mentioned  among  the  dramatists. 


Bibliography 

Consult  Maudslay,  A.  P.,  Bibliography  of  Mexico  Alphabetically  Arranged 
(in  Diaz  del  Castillo),  The  True  History  of  the  Conquest  of  New  Spain  (London 
1908);  Medina,  J.  T.,  La  Imprenta  en  Mexico  (Santiago  de  Chile  1907-12); 
id.,  La  Imprenta  en  la  Puebla  de  los  Angeles  (id.  1908);  Pimentel,  F.,  Conde  de 
Heras,  Historia  critica  de  la  Lit erat lira  y  de  las  Ciencias  en  Mexico  (Mexico,  1883) ; 
Obras  Completas  de  D.  Francisco  Pimentel  (ib.,  1903-04)  ;  Starr,  F.,  Readings 
from  Modern  Mexican  Authors  (Chicago  1904). 


472  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


EDUCATION 

The  early  history  of  education  in  Mexico  is  particularly  inter- 
esting. In  1529,  the  College  of  San  Juan  de  Letran  was  established 
in  the  capital  and  threw  its  doors  open  to  Spaniards  and  Indians 
alike.  The  first  university  was  opened  in  1553  by  special  permis- 
sion of  the  King  of  Spain.  In  1573  two  colleges, —  San  Gregorio 
and  San  Ildefonso, —  were  opened,  two  others  and  a  divinity 
school  were  established  a  few  years  later.  Thus  seven  institu- 
tions of  higher  education  were  in  operation  in  Mexico  before  the 
close  of  the  16th  century.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1578 
that  the  science  of  medicine  was  recognized  as  meriting  a  place 
among  the  branches  of  higher  education,  the  first  chair  of  medi- 
cine being  established  in  that  year.  Twenty-one  years  later 
another  medical  professorship  was  founded,  and  in  1681  anatomy 
and  surgery  were  added.  The  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
established  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1768,  still  exists  as  the 
Na|iiiii4l_School  of  Medicine,  a  name  adopted  in  1845.  Its  home 
is  the  building  made  famous  as  the  residence  of  the  Spanish 
Inquisition.  The  Mining  College,  or  School  of  Engineering,  estab- 
lished in  1793,  occupies  an  edifice  built  by  the  famous  Spanish 
architect  Manuel  Tolsa,  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000,  and  is  in  a  most 
flourishing  condition.  Although  the  heartless  conquerors  of  the 
Aztecs,  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  ancient  races  of  the  world, 
seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  avarice,  cupidity,  and  brutality  in 
their  treatment  of  them,  they  were  sincerely  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  higher  education,  contributing  most  liberally  from  public  reve- 
nues and  private  fortunes  to  its  advancement.  In  the  City  of 
Mexico  was  founded  in  1551,  by  the  Spanish  crown,  the  first 
university  in  North  America,—  200  years  before  the  independence 
of  the  United  States.  The  National  Academy  of  Art  occupies  a 
building  on  the  site  of  which  was  the  home  of  the  first  European 
school  of  the  new  world,  a  school  for  Indians;  the  first  normal 
school  for  males  and  its  companion  school  for  females  occupied^ 
historic  buildings  completed  respectively  in  1678  and  1648;  the 
Jesuit  College  of  San  Ildefonso,  erected  in  1749  at  a  cost  of 
$400,000,  is  now  the  home  of  the  National  Preparatory  School; 
the^tional  Library,  with  its  more  than  400,000  volumes,  was 
formerly  the  Convent  of  San  Augustin ;  the  building  in  which  is 
now  located  the  National  Museum  dates  back  to  1731  and  cost 
$1,000,000  and  The  College  for  Young  Women  now  occupies  a 
roomy  structure  completed  in  1734  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000.     Thus 


MEXICO  478 

are  education  and  history  closely  intertwined  in  Mexico  City.  In 
1824  Humboldt  wrote:  "  No  other  city  of  the  new  continent,  not 
excepting  those  of  the  United  States,  possesses  scientific  estab- 
lishments so  great  and  so  solid  as  those  of  the  capital  of  Mexico." 

In  most  of  the  states,  schools  for  the  care  and  instruction  of 
orphans  are  maintained  at  the  public  expense ;  in  these  both  sexes 
are  given  the  advantage  of  a  primary  education ;  boys  are  taught 
the  ordinary  trades,  and  girls  are  instructed  in  the  various  occu- 
pations pertaining  to  the  sex.  In  these,  as  well  as  throughout 
the  entire  educational  machinery  of  the  republic,  modern  methods 
have  been  adopted,  and  system,  progress,  and  thoroughness  pre- 
vail. Everywhere  there  is  manifested  the  deepest  interest  in  the 
uplifting  of  the  masses  through  the  most  effective  of  all  agencies 
—  education. 

When  General  Porfirio  Diaz  was  first  elected  President  in 
1876  there  were  only  about  4,000  public  schools  in  the  entire  repub- 
lic. From  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  the  chief  interest  in 
education  had  been  confined  to  the  higher  branches, —  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  seminaries,  colleges,  and  universities, —  and  the  pri- 
mary or  fundamental  branches  were  neglected.  Under  Diaz  there 
resulted  a  noteworthy  increase  of  schools  and  attendance.  In  the 
period  between  1876  and  1891  schools  of  all  classes  had  increased 
from  4,250  to  more  than  10,000  and  the  total  attendance  from 
160,000  to  649,771;  the  attendance  of  mestizos  (half-breeds),  from 
16,000  to  235,000,  and  of  Indians  from  about  8,000  to  170,000.  In 
1891  the  entire  cost  of  maintenance  was  $4,068,300,  which  sum  was 
paid  by  the  federal  and  state  governments,  the  average  cost  per 
capita  being  $5.63,  In  1907,  the  number  of  primary  schools  sup- 
ported by  the  federal  or  state  governments  was  9,710  and  by 
municipalities,  2,230;  total,  11,940;  and  the  attendance  was 
776,622,  There  were  34  secondary  and  preparatory  schools  sup- 
ported by  the  federal  and  state  governments,  w^ith  an  attendance 
of  4,231 ;  of  which  3,793  were  males  and  438  females.  Number  of 
private  schools,  same  year,  2,499  with  152,917  pupils.  In  1913-14, 
$13,926,000  was  spent  in  education. 

The  number  of  public  libraries  in  1913  was  151 ;  number  of 
museums  45,  of  which  11  were  archaeological,  seven  scientific, 
eight  natural  historj^,  one  geological  and  metallurgical,  five  agri- 
cultural, one  medical  and  anatomical,  one  industrial,  two 
commercial,  and  nine  miscellaneous.  There  were  164  scientific 
and  literary  societies. 

A  law  was  enacted  in  1888  but  not  put  into  force  until  1896, 
making   elementary    education    compulsory    and   compelling    the 


474  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

establishment  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  public  school  for 
every  4,000  inhabitants.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  law  the 
advance  in  education  and  educational  methods  throughout  the 
republic  was  rapid. 

The  National  Library,  which  has  a  delightful  and  very  con- 
venient building  and  location  in  the  capital,  is  a  noble  institution. 
In  its  collection  of  more  than  400,000  volumes  are  many  rare 
])ooks  and  manuscripts.  Among  these  are  works  by  early  Span- 
ish historians  and  scholars  written  before  the  art  of  printing  was 
known.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  volumes  in  this  library 
was  originally  the  property  of  the  church  or  of  the  priesthood  and 
the  books  were  confiscated  by  the  government  during  the  progress 
of  the  war  of  reform.  Naturally  most  of  them  deal  with  religion, 
literature,  language,  or  history.  Of  similar  character  are  most  of 
the  libraries  which  have  been  assembled  in,  and  are  supported  by, 
the  several  states. 

While  there  are  some  45  public  museums  in  the  republic  many 
of  which  are  quite  extensive  and  all  of  which  are  exceedingly  inter- 
esting and  instructive,  far  greater  importance  attaches  to  the 
National  Museum  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  than  to  all  others  com- 
bined. Although  it  has  occupied  its  present  quarters  in  the 
National  Palace  only  since  1865,  it  was  established  in  1831,  with  the 
collections  previously  belonging  to  the  Conservatory  of  Antiqui- 
ties founded  by  Emperor  Iturbide  in  1822,  and  to  the  Royal 
University,  to  which  Viceroy  Bucareli  y  Ursula  had  in  1775  trans- 
ferred the  remnants  of  a  most  valuable  collection  of  maps, 
iiieroglyphs  on  skins,  manuscripts,  etc.  These  were  consolidated 
under  the  name  of  the  National  Museum.  Here  the  student  of 
archaeology,  of  ethnology,  or  of  any  other  department  of  the 
ancient  history  of  the  American  continent,  or  of  the  peoples  who 
have  at  different  periods  dwelt  upon  it,  may  find  greater  wealth 
of  material  for  investigation  and  study  than  exists  in  any  similar 
institution  in  the  western  world. 

While  there  are  also  a  number  of  very  important  art  collec- 
tions in  the  principal  state  capitals,  the  National  Gallery,  in  the 
CAty  of  Mexico,  holds  unquestioned  pre-eminence. 

Of  literary  and  scientific  societies  there  are  many  in  Mexico. 
Every  considerable  community  is  the  home  of  one  or  more  of  these 
associations,  some  of  which  have  been  in  existence  many  years. 

The  Revolutionary  party  of  1910  was  unreservedly  committed 
to  the  education  of  the  masses ;  but  they  unloaded  the  burden  upon 
the  individual  states  and  communities  over  which  the  Federal 
government  retained  supervisory  rights  but  with  no  central  con- 


MEXICO  475 

trol.  The  Constitutional  party  has  shown  itself  strongly  opposed 
to  church  control  of  schools  of  any  kind,  whether  public  or  pri- 
vate. (See  Government,  p.  457.)  In  Mexico  the  city  schools 
are  fairly  good,  while  those  of  the  towns  and  villages  and  the 
country  districts  are  very  elementary  and  poor.  This  is  due  to 
lack  of  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  public  schools  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  capable  teachers  for  the  salaries  paid.  The  plan 
of  organization  of  the  Mexican  schools  is  more  French  than 
American.  Primary  instruction  covers  four  years  and  the  high 
school  course  two.  Four  years  of  preparatory^  school  studies  leads 
to  the  university,  which  is  much  more  academic  in  its  form  than  it 
is  in  the  United  States;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  the  work  covered 
by  the  National  University,  as  it  is  now  constituted,  was  known, 
previous  to  1913,  as  "  the  course  of  higher  studies."  But  the 
Revolutionary  party  did  away  with  the  cabinet  office  of  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  giving  to  the  arts  department  of  the  univer- 
sity its  old  name  of  the  National  Preparatory  School  and  erect- 
ing the  post-graduate  school  into  a  university.  Whereas  previous 
to  this  all  education  had  been  without  charge,  the  new  educational 
law  exacts  a  fee  of  $5  a  month  in  both  the  preparatory  school  and 
the  university  with  all  their  affiliated  schools,  like  those  of  medi- 
cine, law,  dentistry,  engineering,  etc.  (17  Jan.  1916).  For  some 
years  past  the  tendency  of  Mexican  public  education  has  been 
toward  the  practical  at  the  expense  of  the  academic;  and  this 
tendency  has  been  accentuated  by  the  changes  recently  made. 
Military  instruction  is  made  obligatory;  French  and  English  have 
been  reduced  from  a  three  to  a  two  year  course,  and  much 
attention  is  paid  to  manual  training. 

To  the  General  Direction  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  re-established  in  1914,  is  entrusted  all 
educational  matters  pertaining  to  the  Federation,  which  were 
originally  handled  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  and 
Fine  Arts.  The  General  Direction  of  Fine  Arts  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Fomento  (Promotion)  has  charge  of  all  public  libraries, 
national  monuments,  historical,  archaeological,  artistic  and  other 
I'emains;  the  National  University,  preparatory,  normal  and 
I)rimary  instruction,  including  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  com- 
merce, industry,  geology  and  manual  training  in  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict and  in  the  territories.  Rudimentary  education  and  state 
colleges  and  schools  are  in  the  hands  of  the  local  authorities  which 
have  their  own  governing  bodies  for  this  purpose. 

All  companies  having  charters  from  either  the  Federal  or 
State  authorities  are,  by  virtue  of  this  concession,  obligated  to 


476  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

provide  schools  and  teachers  for  the  children  of  the  people  in 
their  employ.  The  same  law  applies  to  plantations,  ranches  and 
agricultural  enterprises  in  general.  This  new  law  has  worked 
well  and  has  been  instrumental  in  increasing  largely  the  number 
of  schools  throughout  the  republic.  In  the  state  of  Yucatan  alone 
there  were,  in  1917,  nearly  as  many  school  buildings  as  there  were 
in  all  the  republic  in  1876.  In  others  of  the  states  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Constitutionalist  Party,  the  number  had,  in  1917,  been 
doubled  since  1910. 

The  National  Preparatory  School  in  Mexico  City  (the  olrl 
arts  department  of  the  National  University)  is  now,  what  its  name 
indicates,  purely  a  school  to  prepare  pupils  to  enter  upon  the 
study  of  some  one  of  the  professions.  It  is  a  little  higher  than 
an  American  college  and  considerably  less  than  an  American 
university.  The  National  University  includes  the  School  of 
Higher  Studies  and  the  institutions  of  law,  medicine,  engineering 
and  odontology.  It  is  governed  by  a  university  council  at  the 
head  of  which  is  the  rector.  Owing  to  the  unsettled  condition  of 
the  country  due  to  the  revolution,  definite  educational  statistics 
are  not  available  for  the  past  six  years;  but  the  general  reports 
issued  by  the  Constitutional  government  show  a  steady  increase 
in  the  efficiency  of  the  public  school  system  and  an  encouraging 
decrease  in  illiteracy  in  about  two-thirds  of  the  states  of  the  union. 
More  and  better  trained  teachers,  however,  are  urgently  needed 
to  carry  on  the  work  of  general  national  instruction  and  the  fight 
against  illiteracy  now  under  way.  But  the  battle  is  an  uphill  one ; 
for  the  illiterates  still  count  about  70  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  of  the  country. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK  RAISING 

Although  Mexico  is  probably  the  oldest  country  agriculturally 
in  the  New  World,  yet  so  unfortunate  has  been  its  fate  since  the 
overthrow  of  the  Aztec  empire  in  1521,  that  it  is  to-day  much 
more  backward,  in  this  respect,  than  many  very  much  younger 
nations.  The  policy  of  Spain,  for  300  years,  which  saw  in  her 
American  colonies  only  so  many  large  estates  of  the  crown  from 
which  to  obtain  revenue  for  the  maintenance  of  the  court  exerted 
a  disastrous  effect  upon  the  agriculture  of  Mexico.  This  was 
increased  by  the  belief  that  the  one  great  wealth  of  the  world  was 
to  be  found  in  the  precious  metals  and  the  settled  policy  of  pro- 
hibiting the  growth  or  manufacture  in  the  colonies  of  evervthing 


MEXICO  477 

that  came  into  competition  with  the  products  of  Spain.  In  the 
days  of  the  Aztecs  the  agriculture  of  the  country  was  highly 
organized  and  was  based,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  recognition  of 
communal  interests.  The  destruction  of  the  Indian  ruling  classes, 
the  enslavement  of  the  native  races  and  the  disorganization  of  the 
pre-Columbian  systems  of  government  and  society  destroyed,  in 
a  short  time,  the  very  life  of  the  agricultural  activity  of  the  coun- 
try without  replacing  it  with  a  new  organization  advantageous  to 
the  interests  of  New  Spain.  Vast  tracts  of  country  under  culti- 
vation in  Aztec  times  were,  under  the  Spaniards,  allowed  to 
become  jungle,  forest  and  waste  lands.  The  Indian  population 
rapidly  decreased  until,  finally,  had  Spain  desired  to  restore  to 
Mexico  her  ancient  extent  of  land  under  cultivation,  she  could  not 
have  done  so.  This  decrease  of  population  contributed  to  make 
the  fate  of  the  unfortunate  Indian  and  mestizo  worse  from  year 
to  year  as  the  pressing  needs  of  laborers  forced  the  owners  of 
great  estates  and  mines  to  increase  the  bondage  of  the  natives  in 
order  to  assure  to  themselves  the  necessary  labor. 

The  feudal  condition  of  the  country,  the  virtual  slavery  in 
which  the  native  races  found  themselves  and  the  restrictions 
placed  by  Spain  on  the  development  of  Mexican  agriculture  caused 
it  to  lie  in  a  niore  or  less  dormant  condition  throughout  the  300 
years  of  Spanish  domination.  The  constant  revolutions  which 
followed  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  rule  prevented  the  agricul- 
tural development  of  Mexico ;  and  the  political  and  military  lead- 
ers were  so  occupied  with  their  own  quarrels  and  personal  and 
party  interests  that  they  found  little  time  to  give  to  the  condition 
of  the  masses  which  constituted  then,  as  now,  85  per  cent  of  the 
population.  True  the  Indians  and  mestizos  squatted  on  lands  or 
were  granted  certain  communal  rights,  which  were,  however,  being 
constantly  interfered  with  in  various  ways;  but  the  condition  of 
the  great  mass  of  the  laboring  population  was  little  better  than 
it  had  been  under  Spanish  rule.  The  dependent  condition  of  the 
masses  and  the  consequent  cheapness  of  labor;  the  existence  of 
vast  estates  and  of  a  landed  aristocracy  and  the  isolation  of  the 
country  all  contributed  to  the  retardment  of  the  development  of 
modern  agricultural  methods  in  Mexico.  To  such  an  extent  is  this 
so  that  even  to-day  agricultural  methods  are  very  primitive 
throughout  a  very  large  part  of  the  country.  Mining  is  still 
looked  upon  as  the  greatest  source  of  national  wealth  in  Mexico. 
This  is  true  on  the  surface,  because  most  of  the  ore  produced  in 
the  country  is  exported  while  the  agricultural  products  are  nearly 
all  consumed  at  home.     The  value  of  cattle  raised  in  Mexico  in 


478  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

normal  times  is  considerably  over  $200,000,000;  and  this  alone 
exceeds  the  value  of  the  yearly  mining  output  of  the  country. 
There  are  about  120,000,000  acres  of  land  in  Mexico  devoted  to 
grazing  as  against  30,000,000  used  for  cultivation  and  44,000,000 
classed  as  forest. 

On  account  of  the  broken  nature  of  the  country,  the  various 
mountain  ranges,  the  elevated  table-lands  and  its  situation,  for  the 
most  part,  within  the  tropics,  Mexico  produces  almost  every 
product  grown  in  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones.  In  this  very 
ancient  land  of  agriculture,  rice,  corn,  barley,  wheat,  peas,  oats, 
lentils,  rye,  peanuts,  peppers  of  various  kinds,  beans  and  Irish 
potatoes  are  grown  abundantly  almost  within  sight  of  the  hotland- 
plantations  of  the  coast  country  where  tropical  fruits,  tobacco, 
henequen,  vanilla,  cocoa  and  sugar  flourish ;  while,  lying  between  the 
home  of  these  different  products  of  distinct  zones,  is  a  great  inter- 
mediate land  where  many  of  the  products  of  both  zones  flourish. 
This  is  the  home  of  the  pineapple ;  here  excellent  tobacco  is  culti- 
vated and  corn  and  sugar  cane  flourish  by  the  side  of  the  orange, 
lemon,  cacao  and  coft'ee  plantations  from  the  midst  of  which  peep 
forth  the  ever-present  chile  or  native  pepper.  Over  vast  tracts  of 
the  uplands  the  maguey  haciendas  furnish  the  native  drink,  pulque, 
mezcal  and  a  great  variety  of  rope,  cordage  and  cloth  for  sacks. 
Here  too  the  frijol  or  native  bean  flourishes  and  forms,  with  corn, 
the  chief  food  of  fully  30  per  cent  of  the  population.  Ilahas  and 
garhanzas  are  also  extensively  cultivated,  and  both  are  highly 
esteemed  in  Spain,  which  takes  practically  all  the  output  not  con- 
sumed at  home. 

In  normal  times  the  chief  agricultural  product  of  Mexico  is 
Indian  corn,  which  is  valued  at  from  $80,000,000  to  $100,000,000  a 
year ;  yet,  owing  to  the  unscientific  methods  of  cultivation  still  in 
use,  it  often  happens  that  corn  enough  is  not  grown  in  the  country 
for  its  own  needs ;  in  which  case  the  government  is  forced  to  throw 
off  the  duty  and,  in  extreme  cases,  to  import  corn  itself  in  large 
quantities  and  to  sell  it  to  the  masses  at  cost.  The  next  most  val- 
uable product  of  Mexico  is  henequen  which  is  valued  annually  at 
about  $40,000,000.  As  the  greater  part  of  this  product  is  exported, 
it  constitutes  the  chief  wealth  of  Yucatan,  which  has  grown  to  be, 
for  its  size  and  population,  the  richest  state  in  the  republic,  though 
it  was  once  the  poorest.  Although  Mexico  has  never  been  looked 
upon  as  a  wheat-producting  country,  yet  the  owners  of  large  estates 
have  lately  come  to  realize  that  its  capacities  in  this  direction  are 
practically  unlimited  and  an  annual  output  of  wheat  valued  at  over 
$20,000,000   is    not   uncommon,    while   this    figure    is    sometimes 


MEXICO  479 

exceeded.  One  of  the  products  of  Mexico  which  have  become  of 
national  importance  within  very  recent  years  is  rubber  (including 
guayule),  the  output  of  which  was  over  $33,000,000  in  1911,  with 
vast  extents  of  young  rubber  plantations  rapidly  coming  into 
bearing.  The  following  statistics  of  the  growth  of  this  industry 
are  eloquent. 

Year  '  Rubber  Guayule 

1906-07 $6,679,000  $61,225 

1907-08 8,892,000  1,233,000 

1908-09 8,719,000  4,541,000 

1909-10 16,760,000  9,468,000 

1910-11 21,188,000  11,797,000 

In  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1911  the  exports  of  hene- 
quen  were  valued  at  over  $25,000,000;  the  cattle  exports  were 
$4,438,000,  which  did  not  include  vast  numbers  which  left  the 
country  without  the  knowledge  of  the  government  or  from  those 
parts  of  the  country  under  the  control  of  rebel  factions.  Some 
of  these  went  to  Guatemala,  but  the  greater  part  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  same  year  the  value  of  the  hides  exported  reached 
nearly  $10,000,000  from  the  territory  controlled  by  the  then  exist- 
ing government.  In  normal  times  the  value  of  the  products  of 
sugar  cane  (sugar,  alcohol,  rum,  molasses  and  cognac)  is  second 
only  to  that  of  corn,  reaching,  as  it  does,  usually  over  $40,000,000 
a  year.  This  is  a  branch  of  the  native  industries  which  is  capable 
of  great  expansion,  since  Mexico  possesses  vast  extensions  of 
land  suitable  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane.  The  first  years  of 
the  revolution  showed  a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  exports 
of  coffee,  rubber,  chicle,  tropical  fruits,  guayule,  henequen,  ixtli, 
dyewoods,  cabinet  and  building  woods,  tobacco  and  vanilla.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  revolutionists  had  gotten  possession  of  the 
great  sugar  state  of  Morelos  the  sugar  cane  output  decreased  to 
less  than  one  million  pesos  and  the  industry  became  practically 
paralyzed,  from  which  condition  it  has  not  yet  recovered  princi- 
pally because  the  production  of  the  sugar  cane  and  its  products 
calls  for  the  investment  of  heavy  capital  and  the  employment  of 
skilled  labor  in  certain  departments. 

Chief  Agricultural  Industries 

A  brief  reference  to  the  chief  features  of  the  agricultural 
industry  of  the  country  will  prove  instructive  and  interesting. 

Sugar. —  The  greater  part  of  the  cane  is  grown  at  altitudes 
above  2,000  feet,  but  the  best  results  are  obtained  in  the  lower 
country,  where  it  matures  sooner,  and  where  it  may  be  cut  twice 


480  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

annually  without  necessitating  replanting  more  than  once  in 
upwards  of  ten  years.  In  the  Cuernavaca  valley,  state  of  Morelos, 
the  first  sugar  estates  were  cultivated  by  negro  slaves,  bought  at 
Veracruz,  at  from  $300  to  $400  each.  But  the  experiment  proved 
unsatisfactory,  and  free  labor  was  soon  substituted.  Now  the 
plantations  are  worked  chiefly  by  Mexican  labor,  and  the  mills  are 
supplied  with  modern  machinery. 

Tobacco. —  This  industry  is  also  developing  great  possibili- 
ties. The  climatic  and  soil  conditions,  especially  in  the  tropics, 
are  very  favorable  to  the  best  results,  and  whereas  in  Cuba  the 
soil,  after  400  years  of  constant  use,  has  become  comparatively 
unproductive,  in  Mexico  no  artificial  stimulant  is  needed,  and  the 
flavor  and  aroma  of  the  tobacco  are  conceded  to  be  equal  to  those 
of  the  Cuban  product.  The  chief  tobacco  states  are  Veracruz, 
Oaxaca,  Hidalgo,  Tabasco  and  Chiapas.  ■ 

India  Rubber. —  While  there  has  been  much  unsatisfactory 
experimentation  with  the  rubber  tree,  the  failures  have  generally 
been  chargeable  to  lack  of  knowledge  or  experience  or  to  the 
introduction  of  illegitimate  speculation  at  the  expense  of  practical 
results.  There  now  exist  in  Southern  Mexico  a  number  of  large 
and  very  successful  rubber  plantations,  which  have  already  proven 
that  cultivated  rubber  can  be  made  a  paying  proposition.  These 
are  chiefly  in  Veracruz,  Chiapas  and  Oaxaca. 

Agave  or  Maguey. —  This  plant,  from  which  is  extracted  the 
drink  known  as  pulque,  which  the  natives  use  in  immense  quanti- 
ties, is  perhaps  the  most  important  feature  of  the  agricultural 
interest  of  the  central  plateau.  Although  pulque  contains  only 
about  7  per  cent  of  alcohol,  it  is  intoxicating  when  drunk  in  large 
quantities.  It  possesses  important  medicinal  qualities,  is  a  tonic 
and  very  nutritive.  From  350  to  700  agaves  or  magueys  to  the 
acre  are  planted.  They  mature  in  8  years  and  give  sap  for  a 
period  of  about  five  months,  producing  from  125  to  160  gallons  of 
pulque  each.  The  plants  cost  about  $2  each  by  the  time  they  have 
matured,  and  give  a  return  of  from  $7  to  $10  each.  The  pulque  is 
secured  by  making  a  cavity  in  the  centre  of  the  plant,  from  the 
top,  large  enough  to  hold  a  few  quarts,  which  are  drawn  out  by 
rude  syphons  once  a  day.  The  leaves  of  the  plants  sometimes 
grow  to  be  12  feet  long  and  weigh  from  25  pounds  to  100  pounds 
each. 

Banana. —  This  fruit  is  successfully  grown  everywhere  in 
Mexico  between  sea  level  and  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet.  It  is  easily 
cultivated  and  very  profitable.  Frequently  a  return  of  $1,000  is 
realized  from  an  outlay  of  $500  in  a  single  season.    A  plantation  of 


MEXICO  481 

1,000  plants,  costing  $500  will,  under  favorable  conditions,  earn 
this  amount,  even  though  the  methods  used  be  faulty,  the  care 
exercised  insufficient,  and  the  variety  poor.  A  favorable  feature 
of  banana  growing  is  the  fact  that  the  ground  occupied  by  the 
plants  may  also  be  utilized  at  the  same  time  for  the  cultivation  of 
coffee  or  other  profitable  products.  Few  other  tropical  fruits 
develop  and  become  profitable  as  quickly  as  does  the  banana. 
Especially  agreeable  are  some  of  the  smaller  varieties,  although 
they  may  not  be  as  much  sought  after  as  the  larger  and  more 
pretentious  ones.  Their  flavor  possesses  qualities  not  found  in 
any  other  known  variety. 

Orange. —  The  oranges  of  Mexico  are  rapidly  and  surely  win- 
ning favor  in  the  markets  of  the  north.  Their  true  worth  has  only 
recently  come  to  be  understood  and  appreciated  by  consumers. 
Although  the  orange  finds  favorable  conditions  in  all  the  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  states,  the  best  results  thus  far  have  been  attained 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Cliapala,  in  the  state  of  Jalisco,  and  in  Vera- 
cruz, Michoacan,  Sonora,  Morelos,  Durango,  Nuevo  Leon,  Oaxaca 
and  Puebla.  The  leading  producers  in  1914  were:  Jalisco,  Yuca- 
tan, Michoacan,  Sonora,  Morelos,  Durango,  Nuevo  Leon,  Oaxaca, 
Puebla,  Sinaloa,  Hidalgo,  and  Veracruz.  Although  the  oranges  of 
La  Barea,  in  the  state  of  Jalisco,  are  considered  the  best  in  the 
republic,  they  have  already  found  competitors  in  the  products  of 
Michoacan,  Veracruz,  Morelos,  and  other  localities  equally  fav- 
ored by  nature.  The  best  results  in  orange  growing  are  secured 
at  elevations  below  2,500  feet.  The  trees  begin  bearing  when  three 
or  four  years  old  and  increase  until  the  12th  or  15th  year.  Frost 
never  occurs  in  any  of  the  orange  growing  regions  of  Mexico. 

Lemon. —  It  is  doubtful  if  any  product  indigenous  to  the  soil 
of  Mexico  has  been  as  sadly  neglected  as  the  lemon.  So  largely 
has  it  been  relegated  toward  the  lower  end  of  the  list  of  tropical 
fruits,  in  favor  of  the  lime,  that  it  can  with  difficulty  be  obtained 
in  the  markets,  and  when  found  is  generally  unsatisfactory  in 
quality.  And  this,  notwithstanding  the  existing  very  favorable 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  and  the  increasing  demand  in  the 
world's  markets.  A  very  considerable  part  of  the  lemon  crop  of 
Mexico  consists  of  wild  fruit  which,  in  many  sections  and  especially 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  is  large  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  grows  in 
the  forests  and  jungles  of  the  semi-tropical  lands,  at  about  the 
same  altitude  as  the  orange. 

Limes. —  This   successful  rival  of  the  lemon,  in  Mexico,  is 
grown  chiefly  in  the  states  of  Guanajuato,  Puebla,  Michoacan, 
32 


482  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Mexico,  Jalisco,  Oaxaca,  Guerrero  and  San  Luis  Potosi.  Twenty- 
three  states  produced  $342,214  worth  in  1913.  The  lime  of  Mexico 
is  of  very  excellent  quality,  but  like  the  lemon  and  the  orange,  can 
be  greatly  improved  by  the  adoption  of  proper  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion and  the  exercise  of  reasonable  care. 

Pineapple. —  In  the  production  of  this  fruit  Mexico  excels  and 
is  constantly  improving  her  output.  The  towns  of  Cordoba  and 
Amatlan,  in  the  state  of  Veracruz,  have  long  been  noted  for  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  pineapples  grown  in  the  regions  round 
about  them.  The  fruit  is  also  successfully  raised  in  the  states  of 
Puebla,  Hidalgo,  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  Oaxaca,  Morelos,  Guerrero, 
Michoacan,  Colima,  and  Jalisco,  and  the  territory  of  Tepic.  It 
thrives  best  at  elevations  of  2,000  to  3,000  feet.  It  was  cultivated 
before  the  conquest.  Its  leaves  have  for  centuries  been  utilized  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  manufacture,  though  by  crude  meth- 
ods, of  rope,  tmne,  thread,  mats,  bagging,  hammocks,  paper,  and 
cloth  of  various  colors.  The  value  of  pineapples  grown  in  1913  is 
given  as  $642,382,  the  chief  producers  named  in  the  official  reports 
being  the  territory  of  Tepic  and  the  states  of  Hidalgo,  Veracruz, 
and  Tabasco. 

Other  Products. —  Included  in  the  general  category  of  agricul- 
tural products  and  of  the  numerous  other  articles  closely  allied  to 
them,  which  are  or  can  be  successfully  cultivated  in  Mexico,  may 
be  mentioned  the  yucca,  or  starch  plant,  which  is  said  to  contain 
six  times  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  wheat,  and  which  is 
grown  principally  in  the  states  of  Veracruz,  Oaxaca,  Chia- 
pas, Tabasco  and  Yucatan ;  chicle,  or  chewing  gum,  of  which 
over  $4,340,000  worth  has  been  exported  to  the  United  States 
in  a  single  year;  the  mango,  one  variety  of  which  (the  Manilla) 
seems  to  combine  about  all  the  more  delicate  and  delicious 
flavors  of  the  choice  fruits  of  the  world ;  being  very  perishable,  it 
cannot  be  transported  a  great  distance  without  suffering  serious 
depreciation  in  value.  The  apple,  peach,  and  pear  are  all  grown  in 
various  parts  of  the  republic,  but  none  has  yet  been  brought  up  to 
anything  like  the  standard  of  excellence  reached  in  the  United 
States,  notwithstanding  that  almost  all  the  natural  conditions  are 
exceptionally  favorable  to  their  cultivation. 

Stock-raising.— The  plains  of  northern  Mexico  and  the  val- 
leys of  the  southern  portion  offer  most  favorable  opportunity  for 
profitably  engaging  in  the  live  stock  business.  The  climatic  and 
other  conditions  are  very  favorable,  the  grasses  are  most  nutri- 
tious. The  transportation  rates  and  facilities  are  such  that  cattle 
can  be  raised  in  Mexico  and  shipped  to  the  markets  of  the  United 


MEXICO  483 

States  at  a  good  profit.  An  idea  of  the  increase  of  this  industry 
in  Mexico  may  be  gained  from  the  reports  by  the  government  of 
the  number  of  cattle  exported  annually.  These  show  a  regular  and 
very  considerable  increase  in  noraial  times.  The  Para  grass  of 
the  southern  Mexican  states  is  always  green,  grows  luxuriantly  and 
is  very  nourishing.  It  is  estimated  that  an  acre  of  this  will  feed 
two  head  of  stock  the  year  round,  and  that  three  acres  in  pasture 
will  fatten  four  head.  Because  of  the  great  number  of  flies  and 
ticks  in  the  low  country,  very  young  stock  thrives  better  on  the 
higher  plains  of  Durango,  Chihuahua,  Michoacan,  etc.  Mexico 
has  an  abundance  of  sustenance  to  provide  for  an  enormous 
increase  of  her  present  supply  of  live  stock  of  every  kind.  The 
states  of  Durango,  Sonora,  Chihuahua,  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila, 
Sinaloa,  Tamaulipas,  Veracruz,  and  Michoacan  constitute  an 
admirable  field  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  cattle  industiy.  As  far 
back  as  1883,  there  **  roamed  over  an  area  of  300,000  square  miles 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,"  according  to  a  well  known 
writer,  ''  1,500,000  cattle,  2,500,000  goats,  1,000,000  sheep,  1,000,- 
000  horses  and  500,000  mules,  and  there  Avere  20,574  cattle  ranches 
in  the  republic,  valued  at  $515,000,000."  Between  the  cities  of 
Jalapa  and  Veracruz,  and  between  Veracruz  and  Cordoba,  great 
numbers  of  cattle  were  to  be  seen  from  passing  railway  trains, 
their  sleek  and  well  rounded  sides  testifying  to  the  excellence  of 
the  indigenous  grasses  before  the  revolution  came  to  partially 
destroy  an  industry  that  promised  to  become  very  much  greater  in 
the  near  future. 

The  future  of  agriculture  in  Mexico  is  now  apparently  brighter 
than  it  has  ever  before  been.  The  Constitutionalist  government 
has  attempted  to  settle  questions  which  have  long  been  calling  for 
solution;  and  among  these  none  is  of  more  importance  than  that  of 
the  division  of  land.  The  law  of  the  republic  calls  for  the  sub- 
division of  the  large  estates  of  the  country  and  for  the  creation  out 
of  the  Indian  and  mestizo  population  of  a  gradually  increasing 
agricultural  class  which  shall  grow  into  a  great  middle  class  in  the 
not  distant  future. 


COMMERCE 


From  1874  to  1904  the  exports  of  merchandise  from  Mexico 
to  the  United  States  increased  from  $4,346,334  to  $43,633,275 ;  and 
the  imports  from  the  United  States  increased  from  $5,946,839 
to  $45,844,720.     In  the  fiscal  year  1912-13  the  imports  from  all 


484  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

countries  amounted  to  $195,772,000.  Of  this  sum  $16,466,000  con- 
sisted of  animal  substances;  $31,285,000  of  vegetable  substances; 
$46,711,978  of  mineral  substances ;  $21,281,571  of  dry  goods ;  $12,- 
074,088  of  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  products;  $6,744,083  of 
spirituous  liquors  and  other  beverages ;  $5,120,770  of  paper  and  its 
applications ;  $23,383,811  of  machinery  and  its  parts ;  $4,600,890  of 
vehicles;  $5,388,344  of  arms  and  explosives,  and  $9,604,897 
of  mis-cellaneous  articles.  In  the  same  year  the  exportation 
totaled  $300,405,000,  the  principal  articles  being:  gold  in 
various  forms,  $39,591,000;  silver  in  various  forms,  $91,293,000; 
copper,  $56,522,000;  vegetable  products,  $85,963,000;  animal 
products,  $29,838,000;  manufactured  products,  $3,549,000;  miscel- 
laneous, $2,917,410.  Increase  over  the  previous  year,  $2,416,000. 
Of  the  total  importations  $97,287,000  were  from  the  United  States ; 
$25,220,000  from  Germany;  $25,900,000  from  Great  Britain; 
$18,338,000  from  France ;  and  $10,530,000  from  Spain.  The  hene- 
quen  exports,  in  the  same  period,  were  $30,134,000;  uncured  hides, 
$11,170,000;  vanilla,  $3,315,000;  beans,  $1,160,000;  cattle,  $7,552,- 
000;  leaf  tobacco,  $1,003,000;  chicle  (chewing  gum)  $4,342,000; 
fresh  fruits,  $1,019,000;  zacate,  $1,960,000;  woods,  $3,365,000; 
ougar,  $860,562 ;  Panama  hats,  $557,423 ;  miscellaneous,  $2,471,000. 
Of  the  total  exportations  $232,350,000  were  to  the  United  States ; 
$31,147,000  to  Great  Britain;  $16,438,000  to 'Germany;  $7,151,000 
to  France ;  $2,182,000  to  Spain.  In  the  previous  fiscal  year  the 
importations  were  $182,866,000,  and  the  exportations  $297,989,000. 
In  the  fiscal  year  1894-95  the  imports  were  only  $66,200,000  and 
the  exports  $95,000,000,  a  remarkable  record  of  progress  in  the 
brief  period  of  18  years. 

The  following  table  of  exports  and  imports  serves  to  show  the 
progress  of  Mexican  commerce  during  a  very  active  decade  of  its 
history: 


Year 
1903-04 . 


Imports  Exports 


iqni  n- $177,861,000  $210,312,000 

iQn^~^p 178.205,000  208 ,  .')20 ,  000 

iQfftZn- ■•  220,005,000  271,139.000 

ta   7     i 2.32,230,000  248.018,000 

I'ani   no 221,757,000  242.740,000 

iimu   i<> 156,533.000  231  .  KH  .(M)0 

1Ql7r  11 194,866,000  2H(),(I4(;.<H)0 

tai  V  1  i '^t)5 ,  874 ,  000  293 .  574  .  (K)0 

iq{5  io 182.662,000  297,989.000 

^-   ^-^ 195,772,000  300,405,000 

In  order  to  show  the  relative  importance  of  the  Mexican 
custom  houses,  both  maritime  and  frontier,  the  following  state- 
ment of  collections  of  import  duties  for  the  fiscal  vear  1912-13  is 
given:  Veracruz,  $81,793,000;  Tampico,  $45,832,000;  Laredo,  $18,- 
866,000;  Juarez,  $3,386,000;  Progreso  $11,248,000;   Ciudad  Por- 


MEXICO  485 

firio  Diaz,  $4,387,000;  Nogales,  $1,857,000;  Mazatlan,  $2,514,000; 
La  Morita,  $6,057;  Frontera,  $1,486,000;  Agua  Prieta,  $1,208,000; 
Socoiiusco,  $16,061;  Guaymas,  $2,239,000;  Acapulco,  $611,342;  Isla 
del  Carmen,  $264,317;  Enseiiada,  $383,662;  Mexicali,  $682,788; 
Chetumal,  $480,602 ;  La  Paz,  $206,722 ;  Tuxpam,  $743,322 ;  San  Bias 
$151,602;  Salina  Cruz,  $624,570;  Tijuana,  $212,847;  Topolobampo, 
$147,310;  La  Ascencion,  $52,730;  Camargo,  $5,540;  Mier,  $9,707; 
Puerto  Angel,  $10,827;  Manzanillo,  $1,486,000;  Matamoros, 
$1,680,000. 

Li  the  upbuilding  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Mexico,  the 
construction  of  railways  made  possible  the  phenomenal  results 
that  have  been  achieved  in  the  last  18  years.  The  entire  foreign 
trade  of  the  country,  practically,  has  been  created  since  1876,  most 
of  it  since  1880.  Before  competition  in  the  transportation  of 
freight  was  provided,  the  rate  from  Veracruz  to  Mexico  City,  264 
miles,  ranged  around  $68.00  per  ton,  going  as  high  as  $330.00 
during  the  French  intervention. 

Formerly  almost  all  the  first  class  furniture  imported  by 
Mexico  came  from  France,  but  now  much  of  it  is  supplied  by  the 
United  States.  Most  of  the  importations  of  agricultural  machinery 
and  implements  are  from  the  United  States.  The  same  is  true  of 
food  stuffs,  lumber,  machinery  for  irrigation  works,  supplies  for 
mining  and  for  steam  and  electric  railways,  unmanufactured 
leather,  vehicles,  boots  and  shoes,  canned  goods,  patent  medicines, 
live  stock,  cotton,  manufactures  of  steel  and  iron,  sewing  machines 
and  typewriters.  From  Spain  and  France  come  most  of  the  wines, 
and  the  whisky  is  supplied  by  the  United  States  and  Scotland.  In 
normal  times  Germany  and  Belgium  have  a  monopoly  of  the  hard- 
ware trade,  England  and  France  of  the  dry  goods  trade,  and 
France  of  the  trade  in  notions,  jew^elry  and  fancy  goods.  Among 
the  leading  articles  exported  by  Mexico  are  coffee,  two-thirds  of 
which  goes  to  the  United  States  and  the  balance  to  England,  Ger- 
many and  France,  vanilla,  sugar,  tropical  fruits,  beans,  live  stock, 
precious  metals,  henequen,  leaf  tobacco,  hides,  rubber  and  ixtli. 

Mexico  has  a  *'  commercial  code  "  which  dates  back  to  1887, 
and  which,  among  other  things,  provides  that  foreigners  shall  be 
free  to  engage  in  commerce,  subject  to  the  same  conditions  and 
requirements  that  apply  to  citizens;  that  all  documents  referring 
to  matters  of  public  concern  shall  be  recorded  in  a  public  regis- 
ter; that  all  business  correspondence  shall  be  preserved;  that 
notice  by  circular  or  through  the  press  shall  be  given  of  the  char- 
acter of  any  business  about  to  be  established  and  of  any  modifica- 
tions or  other  changes  subsequently  made;  that  at  least  three 


486  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

account  books, —  a  general  day  book,  a  book  of  inventories  and 
balances  and  a  ledger,— shall  be  kept  in  the  Spanish  language; 
that  all  brokers  must  be  Mexicans  by  birth  or  naturalization,  have 
a  mercantile  education  and  possess  a  diploma  from  the  Minister 
of  Fomento  or  other  proper  officer ;  that  an  unlawful  agreement  or 
contract  involves  no  cause  of  action  at  law;  that  mercantile  com- 
panies may  consist  either  of  a  partnership  under  a  collective  name 
or  with  special  partners,  or  may  be  an  anomnnous  (stock)  com- 
pany, a  society  with  special  partners  or  a  co-operative  society; 
that  all  contracts  for  the  formation  of  companies  must  be  in  writ- 
ing and  very  full  and  explicit;  that  the  consolidation  of  companies 
cannot  take  effect  until  two  months  after  publication  of  particu- 
lars, except  on  payment  of  all  debts ;  that  f oreigii  companies  must 
register  in  Mexico  and  publish  an  annual  balance  sheet ;  that  there 
may  be  "  temporary  "  or  ''  profit-sharing  "  mercantile  associa- 
tions, the  first  being  without  a  firm  name  and  making  partners 
jointly  liable  to  third  persons,  and  the  last  named  implying  an 
association  under  which  two  or  more  persons  may  become  inter- 
ested in  operations  which  one  or  more  may  undertake  in  their  own 
names,  but  which  involve  only  one  legal  entity  and  no  responsi- 
bility on  the  part  of  a  partner  not  joining  in  a  contract  with  a 
third  party;  that  the  principal  of  any  manufacturing  or  com- 
mercial business  shallbe  responsible  for  the  acts  of  his  managers 
or  employes;  that  no  institution  of  credit  can  be  established 
except  by  authorization  of  the  Minister  of  Finance  and  the 
approval  of  Congress ;  that  every  merchant  ceasing  to  make  his 
payments,  whose  liabilities  are  more  than  25  per  cent  in  excess 
of  his  assets,  who  has  made  formal  assignment  of  his  goods,  or 
who  has  absented  himself  without  leaving  any  person  in  charge 
of  his  business'  who  can  pay  his  debts  as  they  become  due,  shall 
be  considered  a  bankrupt. 

In  1916  the  following  statement  was  published  in  the  Pan 
American  Union  handbook,  Mexico  — General  Descriptive  Data: 
Mexican  statistics  are  not  available  for  a  date  later  than  30  June 
1913.  Foreign  commerce  for  year  ending  30  June  1914  (estimate 
of  exports)  $176,000,000;  (estimate  of  imports)  $65,000,000;  total 
$241,000,000.  For  the  year  ending  30  June  1915,  the  estimate  of 
the  value  of  Mexico's  exports  was  $150,000,000;  imports  $61,000,- 
000;  total  foreign  commerce  $211,000,000.  Imports  from  the 
United  States  in  the  year  last  mentioned  (estimated  value)  $34,- 
200,000,  and  exports  to  the  United  States  $115,000,000.  The 
imports  into  the  United  States  from  Mexico  in  1916  totalled  $105,- 
000,000  and  the  exports  to  thai  country  reached  $53,000,000  in  the 


MEXICO  487 

same  year.  In  the  nine  months  ending  with  March  1917,  imports 
from  Mexico  were  $80,692,000  and  exports  $47,501,000.  In  May 
1917  the  Mexican  government  prohibited  the  exportation  of  food- 
stuffs and  food  animals  to  the  United  States  because  of  the 
depleted  stocks  and  herds  in  the  country  owing  to  the  revolution. 


MANUFACTURES 


Mexico  is  a  manufacturing  country  in  the  very  primitive  sense 
of  the  word;  for  literally  the  greater  part  of  her  manufactured 
products  are  made  either  wholly  by  hand,  by  individual  tradesmen 
each  working  on  his  own  account,  or  in  small  shops  where  the 
machinery  used  is  employed  simply  to  aid  the  cunning  of  the  hand. 
Very  often  the  craftsman  who  makes  the  goods  is  his  own  salesman 
in  the  first  instance,  and  he  sells  at  a  price  that  would  be  con- 
sidered ridiculously  cheap  in  a  great  manufacturing  centre.  Often 
he  disposes  of  his  wares  directly  to  the  consumer;  but  frequently 
he  finds  purchasers  in  retailers  who  make  large  profits  on  the 
transaction. 

At  the  time  of  the  conquest  Mexico  was  probably  nearly  as  far 
adv^anced  in  manufactures  as  Spain ;  the  whole  nation  was  one 
great  hive  of  industry,  not  the  least  important  part  of  whose 
activity  was  that  contributed  by  the  native  manufacturers,  who 
were  to  be  found  in  every  city  and  town,  where  each  guild  lived 
in  a  quarter  by  itself  and  had,  in  a  sense,  its  own  civic  life.  These 
manufacturers  had  their  stalls  in  the  great  markets  held  once  or 
twice  a  week  in  the  smaller  places  and  every  day  in  the  larger. 
On  these  market  days  the  merchants  bought  the  goods  with  which 
to  stock  their  caravans,  which  they  sent  out  over  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land,  and  often  into  Guatemala  and  the  other 
Central  American  countries ;  for  no  matter  how  much  the  nations 
might  be  at  war,  the  merchant  with  the  proper  credentials  was 
religiously  respected.  Hundreds  of  years  of  this  pre-Columbian 
training  has  made  the  Mexican  naturally  ingenious.  He  has  a  keen 
eye  for  the  beautiful^  for  symmetrical  proportions;  and  his  hand 
is  as  skillful  as  his  judgment  is  good  and  his  art  sense  true. 

The  descendants  of  these  ancient  manufacturers  exist  in  many 
towns  and  villages  throughout  Mex;ico  to-day.  Here  pottery, 
flourishes;  there  blankets  of  beautiful  design  and  workmanship 
have  brought  fame,  for  many  years,  to  some  humble  little  town. 
In  this  other  primitive  village  carved  furniture  reminiscent  of  all 


488  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  barbaric  splendor  of  the  Aztec  and  the  Maya  has  gathered  to 
itself  a  reputation  for  beauty  of  design  and  execution.  In  many 
places,  where  the  reeds  grow  tall,  white  and  durable,  the  mat- 
maker  flourishes  and  plies  his  trade  much  as  his  ancestors  did  in 
the  ancient  days  when  they  made  ornate  and  beautiful  rush 
matting  for  the  floors  of  the  palaces  of  Indian  w^arriors,  nobles  and 
princes.  Their  work  has  become,  to-day,  to  a  very  great  extent, 
conventional  in  form  and  subject,  for  the  workman  has  come  to 
labor  for  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  who  pay  him  little  for  his 
work  and,  in  return,  demand  little  of  his  imagination  and  his 
artistic  sense.  So,  for  lack  of  incentive  to  do  better,  he  long  ago 
entered  upon  a  period  of  decline  in  the  artistic  quality  of  his 
output. 

These  various  arts  handed  down  from  father  to  son  in  unbroken 
line  for  many  generations  belonged  to  the  old  guilds  and  schools 
that,  in  Aztec  days,  trained  the  workmen  of  the  empire  with 
great  care.  But  these  training  centres  all  disappeared  in  the  first 
quarter  of  a  century  following  the  conquest,  after  which  the  manu- 
facturing interests  of  the  native  Indians  became  purely  local. 
The  workman  thus  left  to  himself,  without  technical  training  and 
skilled  direction,  became  a  copier  of  the  arts  and  crafts  of  his 
predecessors.  Yet  even  this  copying  is  often  done  in  a  spirited 
manner  that  reveals  the  strong  artistic  sense  of  the  rude  Indian 
artisan. 

The  Spaniard  made  use  of  the  industrial  and  art  training  of 
the  Indians  by  employing  them  in  manufactures  of  many  kinds 
which  he  introduced  into  the  country.  He  found  them  willing  and 
intelligent  pupils  in  the  ways  of  the  Old  World.  Everywhere  the 
arts  and  crafts  of  old  Spain  were  introduced  into  New  Spain  and 
everywhere  they  flourished.  But  the  native  Indian  system  was 
very  little  changed.  In  the  cities  and  towns  the  Indians  w^orked 
under  a  Spanish  master  as  they  had  labored  under  a  native  crafts- 
master  in  the  pre-conquest  days;  and  those  who  follow^ed  the 
trades  and  crafts  lived  apart,  as  they  had  done  under  their  native 
masters  and  worked  just  as  they  had  done  for  a  thousand  years 
or  more.  Except  in  the  cities  and  towns,  this  condition  exists,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  in  Mexico  to-day.  The  shoemaker,  the  sad- 
dler, the  furniture  maker,  the  manufacturer  of  rude  agricultural 
implements  works  by  himself,  with  perhaps  one  or  two  assistants, 
if  he  happens  to  be  a  little  more  prosperous  than  his  neighbor 
craftsman.  The  native  jeweler,  living  in  a  primitive  little  shop, 
produces  echoes  of  the  beautiful  designs  in  gold  and  silver  that 
filled  Europe  with  admiration  for  the  skill  of  his  ancestors  in  the 


I 


MEXICO  489 

century  following  the  conquest.  In  many  places  the  Indians  still 
weave  tilmas,  blankets  and  cloth  for  the  dresses  and  garments  of 
the  women  and  children.  In  this  work  of  weaving  each  tribe  has 
its  own  distinct  tribal  traditions  from  which  it  seldom  or  never 
departs ;  and  these  peculiar  traditions  mark  the  dress  of  each  tribe 
as  distinctly  as  the  plaid  marks  that  of  the  Highland  Scotchman. 

During  the  300  years  of  the  Spanish  occupation  of  Mexico  this 
traditional  dress  of  the  native  population  changed  very  little, 
because  Spain  made  of  all  the  necessities  of  life  monopolies  of  the 
crown  and  sold  the  right  to  deal  in  them  to  the  highest  bidder  or 
bestowed  them  upon  some  needy  or  fortunate  court  favorite  who 
proceeded  to  make  a  fortune  out  of  them  by  selling  them  at  from 
three  to  four  times  the  market  price  in  Europe.  As  the  natives 
were  not  able  to  purchase  the  goods  that  came  within  these 
monopolies,  they  continued  to  manufacture  such  as  they  required 
for  their  own  use  as  their  ancestors  had  done.  In  this  way  they 
preserved  their  ancient  manufactures  and,  with  them,  much  of 
their  individuality.  Scores  of  these  ancient  manufactures  still 
exist  apparently  little  touched  by  the  hand  of  time.  This  per- 
sistence speaks  well  for  the  future  of  Mexico  as  a  manufacturing 
nation.  In  these  craftsmen,  trained  for  centuries  in  the  same 
trades,  she  possesses  a  very  valuable  asset.  The  field  for  manufac- 
tures of  all  kinds  is  most  promising,  since  it  offers  raw  material 
in  great  abundance,  efficient,  intelligent  labor  and  a  very  consider- 
able home  market,  with  a  still  larger  one  in  Central  and  South 
America. 

Manual  training  has  been  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
Mexico  and  several  arts  and  trades  colleges  are  turning  out  skilled 
mechanics  in  all  lines  of  industrial  work.  Wages  are  low,  much 
lower  even  than  in  Europe,  and  the  native  workman  in  the  fac- 
tories already  established  throughout  the  country  gives  his 
employer  no  trouble. 

Cotton 

In  1912  there  were  148  cotton  mills  in  the  republic.  Of  these 
the  largest  and  most  modern  were  in  Puebla,  Orizaba  and  Mexico 
City.  In  these  factories  32,000  workmen  were  employed  to  operate 
762,000  spindles  and  27,000  looms.  The  cotton  goods  they  pro- 
duced during  the  year  were  valued  at  over  $50,000,000;  and 
included  sheetings,  ticking,  lining,  drills,  shirtings,  percales,  quilts, 
napkins,  table-cloths,  woolen-cotton  goods,  knitted  garments  and 
fleece-lined  underwear.  The  Atlixco  cotton  factory,  Puebla, 
employed,  in  the  same  year,  about  2,000  hands  and  is  capitalized  at 


490  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

$6,000,000 ;  the  Compania  Industrial  de  Orizaba  owns  four  cotton 
mills;  has  4,000  looms  and  ten  printing  machines  in  commission; 
is  capitalized  at  $15,000,000  and  employs  6,000  mill-hands.  The 
San  Antonio  Abad,  with  an  invested  capital  of  $3,500,000,  also 
operates  four  mills,  three  in  the  state  of  Mexico  and  one  in  Mexico 
City.  El  Porvenir  y  Anexas,  at  Villa  Santiago,  Nuevo  Leon,  is 
capitalized  at  $2,000,000,  and  the  Veracruzana,  at  Santa  Rosa,  in 
the  state  of  Veracruz,  near  Orizaba,  at  $3,500,000.  (See  article  on 
Cotton  Industry,  p.  694.) 

Woolen  Goods 

There  are  a  number  of  woolen  factories  in  Mexico;  but  they 
are  of  less  importance  than  the  cotton  mills,  for  the  reason  that 
the  great  mass  of  the  lower  classes  wear  cotton  garments,  thus 
creating  a  strong  and  constant  demand  for  the  latter  goods.  There 
are  woolen  mills  in  Durango,  Aguascalientes,  Guanajuato,  Hidalgo 
and  Puebla;  but  the  most  important  establishment  is  near 
Tlalnepantla,  in  the  state  of  Mexico  and  not  far  from  the  federal 
capital.  The  woolens  made  in  the  republic  include  suitings,  kersey- 
meres, carpets,  blankets,  rugs  and  knit  goods.  The  city  of  Saltillo, 
Coahuila,  is  noted  for  its  handsome  scrapes  (native  blankets),  for 
which  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  demand.  These  serapes, 
which  are  made  on  primitive  Indian  looms,  are  exceedingly  well 
woven,  of  fine  texture,  brilliant  colors  and  pleasing  designs.  The 
San  Ildefonso  factory  at  Tlalnepantla,  with  a  capital  of  one  and 
one-half  million  dollars  is  one  of  the  most  successful  manufactur- 
ing enterprises  in  Mexico  and  its  goods  are  to  be  found  on  sale 
throughout  the  republic. 

Silk 

Few  countries  have  the  natural  advantages  for  raising  and 
manufacturing  silk  possessed  by  Mexico.  Throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  republic  both  white  and  black  mulberries  grow  luxu- 
riantly and  require  practically  no  care  even  in  those  regions  less 
favorable  to  their  cultivation.  So  even  is  the  climate  in  most 
parts  of  the  country  that  silk  worms  can  be  grown  out  of  doors 
practically  all  the  year  round;  and  they  require  but  a  small  part 
of  the  care  they  must  necessarily  receive  in  Italy..  Labor  in  Mexico 
IS  cheap  and  the  masses  of  the  people,  once  accustomed  to  cocoon 
raising  and  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  might  be  expected 
to  thrive  at  the  business  as  their  ancestors  did  in  all  the  indus- 
tries, before  Europeans  came  to  disturb  the  current  of  their 
national  life.  The  Indian  is  industrious  when  he  works  on  his  own 
account. 


MEXICO  491 

In  Mexico  City  there  is  one  important  silk  factory,  which  is 
engaged  in  mannfacturing  rebosos,  the  light  shawls  which  the 
Mexican  women  of  all  classes  wear  almost  universally  everywhere 
outside  the  larger  cities.  This  factory  received  strong  encourage- 
ment from  the  Mexican  government  which  has,  for  some  years, 
been  anxious  to  establish  the  silk  industry  on  a  firm  basis  in  the 
republic.  Two  great  nurseries  near  the  capital,  one  at  Coyoacan 
and  the  other  at  Churubusco,  have  begun  the  planting  of  6,000,000 
mulberry  trees,  from  which  it  is  proposed  to  send  out  free  propa- 
gation slips  to  all  parts  of  the  country  wherever  people  can  be 
induced  to  plant  trees  and  to  go  into  the  business  of  silk  raising. 

Textiles  and  Fibres 

There  is  perhaps  no  industry  in  Mexico  that  shows  more 
variety  in  forms  of  manufacture  than  that  of  fibre-plant  products. 
Rope,  cordage,  thread,  packing,  carpets,  rugs  and  practically 
every  form  into  which  linen,  hemp,  jute,  ixtli,  henequen  and 
other  native  fibre  plants  and  textiles  are  made,  are  manufac- 
tured in  Mexico.  Among  the  most  important  textile  and  fibre 
goods  factories  in  the  republic  are :  La  Aurora  of  Cuautitlan,  near 
Mexico  City,  which  has  an  invested  capital  of  $1,300,000  and  turns 
out  bags  and  packing  of  all  kinds;  La  Industrial  Manufacturera 
Company,  capitalized  at  $4,000,000  and  operating  six  factories; 
the  Linera  de  Mexico  Company,  capital  $600,000 ;  Santa  Gertrudis 
Co.,  near  Orizaba,  capital  $1,000,000,  hands  employed  in 
normal  times  from  1,300  to  1,500. 

All  over  the  republic,  wherever  the  numerous  fibre-plants 
grow,  which  is  almost  everywhere,  in  highlands  and  lowlands  alike, 
the  natives  carry  on  the  manufacture  of  rope,  cord,  string,  thread 
and  coarse  wrapping  cloth  just  as  their  ancestors  did  before  the 
conquest.  These  products  of  the  country  can  be  found  from  the 
Rio  Grande  to  Guatemala.  Ixtli  (agave  rigide),  a  rather  coarse 
century  plant,  furnishes  a  considerable  part  of  the  raw  material 
for  this  industry.  The  maguey  (agave  Americana),  from  which 
the  native  pulque  is  extracted,  also  supplies  raw  material  for  the 
coarser  kinds  of  rope,  cordage  and  sacking.  Even  mats  and  rugs 
are  made  from  it.  In  addition  to  the  large  and  very  general 
consumption  of  these  goods,  the  exports  to  foreign  countries 
amounted,  in  1912,  to  $3,792,678. 

Among  the  other  fine  fibre  plants  of  Mexico  are  zapupe  and 
pita,  both  of  which  furnish  long,  silky,  strong  commercial  fibre, 
which  is  not  exported  because  the  home  consumption  demands 
more  than  the  output.    The  best  known,  commercially,  of  all  the 


492  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

fibres  of  Mexico  is  henequen  grown  in  Yucatan  and  the  neighbor- 
ing states  of  Campeche  and  Chiapas,  and  to  a  small  extent,  in 
other  parts  of  the  republic.  From  the  finer  fibre  of  this  plant 
there  are  manufactured  in  Mexico  many  varieties  of  woven  fabric 
that  resemble  silk  in  appearance  and  softness  of  texture.  In  fact 
there  are  in  Mexico  numerous  fibre  plants  that  offer  more  or  less 
acceptable  vegetable  substitutes  for  silk.  Since  time  immemorial 
henequen  has  been  manufactured,  in  Mexico,  into  rope  and  cordage 
of  all  kinds;  but  now  it  is  exported,  principally  to  the  United 
States,  for  the  making  of  binding  twine  for  reapers. 

Though  no  country  in  the  world  is  richer  than  Mexico  in  excel- 
lent fibre  plants,  yet  she  imports  large  quantities  of  linens,  hempen 
fabrics,  yarns,  laces,  handkerchiefs,  trimmings,  carpets,  rugs,  cur- 
tains, quilts  and  almost  every  kind  of  goods  manufactured  from 
the  various  fibre  products,  all  of  which  could  be  made  at  home 
from  native  products  at  a  great  saving  to  the  nation. 

Characteristic  products  are  the  huge,  highly-adorned,  sugar- 
loaf,  native  felt  sombreros  and  the  so-called  Mexican  Panama  and 
other  straw  and  reed  hats.  Most  of  the  latter  are  made  by  indi- 
viduals in  their  homes.  The  natives  display  much  taste  in  this 
w^ork,  which  is  another  of  the  numerous  industries  of  the  country 
handed  down  from  father  to  son  for  hundreds  of  years.  La  Abeja 
(The  Bee),  in  the  Federal  District,  near  the  capital,  with  an  invest- 
ment of  half  a  million  dollars,  is  the  most  important  of  the  hat 
factories  of  the  country.  In  Mexico,  Guadalajara,  Puebla,  Vera- 
cruz and  Oaxaca  there  are  from  one  to  a  score  or  more  of  smaller 
hat  factories,  each  of  which  has  its  own  wholesale  and  retail  store. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  little  shops  that  do  a  purely  local 
business. 

Beer,  Wines  and  Liquors 

There  is  a  large  consumption  of  distilled  and  fermented 
liquors  in  Mexico,  a  very  considerable  percentage  of  which  is  made 
in  the  country.  Within  the  past  ten  years  beer  has  come  into 
favor,  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns  and  it  may  be  found  on  sale 
even  in  the  smaller  interior  towns  and  villages,  though  there  the 
consumption  is  slight.  Its  use  is  confined  to  the  middle  and  upper 
classes  almost  exclusively  because  its  price  puts  it  beyond  the  use 
of  the  laboring  class.  There  are  large  and  well-equipped  brew- 
eries in  Mexico  City,  Oaxaca,  Monterrey,  Puebla,  Veracruz, 
Orizaba,  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Tampico,  while  installations  of  lesser 
importance  exist  in  several  of  the  smaller  cities.  In  the  capital 
there  are  several  distilleries  where  whisky,  brandies,  cognacs  and 
cordials  of  various  kinds  are  made.     In  the  Parras  district  of 


MEXICO  493 

Coahuila  and  in  some  other  parts  of  Mexico  excellent  wines  are 
produced,  and  wherever  sugar  is  grown,  which  is  pretty  general 
in  the  low,  hot  lands  of  the  coast  country,  aguardiente  (native 
rum)  and  excellent  alcohol  are  manufactured.  ITahy  of  the  sugar 
plantations  possess  the  most  modern  plants  for  making  these 
products.  Much  of  the  Mexican  aguardiente  is  shipped  to  Europe 
where  it  is  turned  into  cognac.  Tequila,  a  strong  alcoholic  liquor 
somewhat  like  Holland  gin,  is  manufactured  extensively  in  Mexico, 
but  most  of  the  output  is  consumed  at  home,  for  its  use  is  gen- 
eral throughout  the  country.  Like  pulque,  tequila  is  manufactured 
from  the  century  plant.  The  use  of  pulque  is  more  extensive  than 
that  of  either  tequila  or  aguardiente ;  but  it  is  confined  to  the  upland 
plateaux  and  the  country  at  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet,  because 
there  grows  the  maguey  from  which  it  is  manufactured.  On  the 
uplands  it  has  been,  for  many  years,  the  greatest  of  the  industries 
of  the  country,  after  mining,  millions  of  acres  being  devoted  to  the 
growing  of  the  maguey.  Another  distilled  product  called  mescal 
is  made  from  another  and  smaller  species  of  the  agave ;  and  it  is 
extensively  used  in  the  region  where  this  latter  plant  thrives. 

Soap,  Candles  and  Chemical  Products 

A  great  part  of  the  raw  materials  used  in  these  industries  is 
still  imported  though  the  republic  is  capable  of  producing  most  of 
them.  The  Laguna  Soap  Company,  capital  $5,000,000,  formed  by 
the  amalgamation  of  two  large  cotton-seed  oil  companies,  produces 
daily  400  tons  of  cottonseed  oil,  7,500,000  pounds  of  soap  and  2,000 
metric  tons  of  glycerine,  together  with  a  variety  of  edible  cotton- 
seed oil  products.  It  employs  from  800  to  1,000  men.  La  Union 
Soap  Factory  of  Torreon,  capital  $2,000,000,  is  engaged  principally 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  glycerine.  The  company  also  has 
a  large  refining  plant  near  Torreon.  There  are  a  number  of  smaller 
soap  and  many  candle  factories  scattered  throughout  the  republic. 
Chemicals,  paints,  varnishes  and  acids  are  also  manufactured  in 
or  near  numerous  cities  and  towns. 

A  few  years  ago  all  the  petroleum  and  petroleum  products  used 
in  Mexico  were  imported  and  sold  in  the  republic  at  excessively 
high  prices.  Now  petroleum,  benzine,  kerosene,  paraffine  wax, 
asphalt  and  many  by-products  are  manufactured  in  the  country; 
and  native  oil  has  become  an  important  factor  in  the  national  life. 
Whole  railway  lines  use  oil  burners  on  their  engines,  and  petro- 
leum is  employed  for  producing  motive  power  in  many  kinds  of 
industrial  life.  Yet  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  possible 
native  oil  sources  has  been  exploited;  for  the  oil  belt  extends  all 


494  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  way  from  Texas  to  Guatemala  on  the  Gulf  side,  and  large 
deposits  are  known  to  exist  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  refining  of 
crude  petroleum  has  become  a  business  of  considerable  importance 
in  Mexico  and  the  exploitation  of  the  asphalt  deposits  has  already 
influenced  the  pavement  of  the  streets  of  the  cities  and  larger 
towns  of  the  republic. 

Iron  and  Steel  Products 

No  other  Mexican  industry  has  grown  so  fast,  within  the  past 
dozen  years  as  that  of  the  great  iron  and  steel  foundries  now^  turn- 
ing out  products  equal  to  those  of  the  steel-producing  centres  of 
the  world.  This  output  includes  smaller  agricultural  implements, 
marketable  iron  and  steel,  and  a  constantly  increasing  number  of 
finished  products  such  as  are  turned  out  from  the  great  American 
and  European  steel  plants.  The  Monterrey  Iron  and  Steel  Com- 
pany, capital  $10,000,000,  with  its  great  blast  furnaces,  produces 
300  tons  of  steel  per  day.  It  makes  steel  rails  and  structural  iron 
and  steel  in  vast  quantities  and  of  excellent  quality.  Monterey  is 
the  most  important  centre  of  this  new  industry;  and  naturally 
there  the  business  has  reached  the  highest  state  of  perfection  in 
the  republic.  The  steel  and  iron  industries  of  Richard  Honey,  in 
Hidalgo  and  the  Federal  District,  are  next  in  importance  to  those 
of  Monterey.  Two  other  important  iron  foundries  in  Jalisco  rely 
chiefly  upon  local  trade.  One  of  these  at  Zapalapa  supplies  iron 
to  Guadalajara,  Aguascalientes,  Manzanillo  and  surrounding 
country. 

Guayule 

In  Mexico  the  production  of  rubber  is  a  real  manufacturing- 
industry  in  certain  parts  of  the  republic  where  the  guayule  plant 
grows  in  abundance.  This  plant  is  a  low  shrub  from  two  to  four 
feet  in  height  from  which  crude  rubber  is  extracted  by  means  of 
specially  constructed  machinery.  The  plant  is  torn  out  by  the 
roots,  is  crushed  and  the  sap  extracted  from  it.  It  then  undergoes 
certain  processes  before  it  becomes  commercial  rubber.  The 
Guayule  Rubber  Company  produced  in  this  w^ay,  in  the  first  seven 
months  of  1912,  1,818,880  pounds  of  rubber.  The  International 
Rubber  Company  of  Torreon,  which  is  capitalized  at  $37,500,000, 
possesses  2,000,000  acres  of  land  in  the  state  of  Zacatecas,  on  which 
wild  guayule  grows  abundantly.  The  company  has  an  extensive 
factory  at  Torreon,  in  which  is  installed  the  most  modern  rubber 
machinery.  The  guayule  exported  from  Mexico  in  the  fiscal  year 
1912-13  was  valued  at  $7,234,000,  which  was  only  about  one  mil- 


MEXICO  495 

lion  dollars  less  than  the  value  of  the  tree  rubber  grown  in  the 
country  during  the  same  period.  In  1911-12  thq  guayule  exports 
brought  $11,798,800.     (See  article  on  Rubber  Industry,  p.  766.) 

Tobacco 

There  are  many  cigar  and  cigarette  factories  in  Mexico;  but 
the  latter  far  exceed  the  former  in  volume  of  business.  The  prin- 
cipal tobacco  manufacturing  centres  are  Mexico  City,  Orizaba, 
Puebla,  Jalapa,  Veracruz,  Cuernavaca  and  Gruadalajara.  But 
there  is  scarcely  a  city  or  town  in  the  republic  that  does  not  make 
either  cigars  or  cigarettes  or  both  for  local  consumption ;  and  each 
manufacturing  district  has  its  own  favorite  local  brands.  In  the 
city  of  Mexico  an  immense  number  of  cigarettes  are  made,  the 
Buen  Tono  company  turning  out  alone  daily  about  20,000,000 ;  and 
the  Tabacalera  makes  about  4,000,000,  Both  these  companies  are 
backed  by  millions  of  capital.  In  the  Buen  Tono's  factories 
(including  the  Cigarrera  Mexicana),  1,700  hands  are  employed. 
Certain  brands  of  Mexican  cigars  are  favorably  known  in  Europe 
and  in  the  United  States. 

Packing  Houses 

There  are  a  number  of  packing  houses  in  Mexico.  Several  are 
on  the  Pacific  coast  where  the  cattle  ranges  are  more  or  less 
isolated  from  the  European  and  American  markets;  but  the 
National  Packing  Company,  with  a  capital  of  $7,500,000,  oper- 
ating from  its  headquarters  in  the  capital,  does  an  international 
business. 

Paper 

Paper  is  made  (though  not  enough  for  local  consumption)  by 
the  San  Rafael  and  Anexas  Company,  situated  near  the  capital. 
This  institution,  which  is  capitalized  for  $7,000,000,  has  two  fac- 
tories, a  pulp  mill  and  extensive  forests  from  which  it  draws  its 
raw  material.  Though  the  output  of  San  Rafael  runs  to  the  com- 
moner grades  of  paper,  including  large  quantities  of  newspaper 
print,  yet  it  also  makes  high-grade  paper  of  numerous  styles  and 
degrees  of  fineness,  among  these  being  calender  and  the  finer 
grades  of  half-tone  paper. 

Dynamite  and  Other  Explosives 
These,  including  giant  powder,  are  manufactured  in  Mexico; 
and  the  government  has  its  own  ammunition  factory  at  Santa  Fe, 
near  the  capital.    The  Mexican  National  Dynamite  and  Explosives 


496  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Co.,  at  Dinamita,  Durango,  produces  50,000  pounds  of  explosives 
daily.  It  is  capitalized  at  $3,400,000  and  employs  from  900  to 
1,000  hands. 

Flour  Mills 

Large  flour  mills,  modern  in  every  respect,  and  others  of 
smaller  capacity  and  more  primitive  types  are  to  be  found  in 
Mexico  from  Monterey  to  Yucatan.  Of  these  the  most  mod- 
ern are:  El  Hermosillense,  Hermosillo;  the  Chihuahua  Flour 
Company,  Chihuahua;  the  Goleta  Mills,  Saltillo  and  Monterey; 
the  Phoenix  Mills,  Saltillo;  the  Esmeralda  Mills,  Monterey  and 
Ramos  Arizpe;  the  Alliance  Mills,  Torreon;  the  Diamond  Mills, 
Gomez  Palacio;  the  Gulf  Flour  Company,  San  Luis  Potosi  and 
Merida;  Aurelio  Herrera  and  Company,  Irapuato;  the  Union 
Mills,  Toluca;  the  National  Flour  Manufacturing  Company, 
Mexico  City;  the  Bakers'  Mutual  Association,  Guadalajara;  and 
La  Perla  Mills,  Agiiascalientes. 


MINERALS  AND  MINERAL  PRODUCTION 

For  three  centuries  Mexico  was  the  greatest  of  silver-produc- 
ing countries ;  from  the  single  camp  of  Guanajuato  came  one-fifth  of 
the  silver  mined  during  that  period ;  and  for  one  straight  centurj' 
the  same  camp  gave  to  the  world  two-fifths  of  its  silver.  Yet 
to-day,  after  almost  400  years  of  exploitation,  Guanajuato  has 
still  uncounted  unexploited  wealth.  Yet  Guanajuato  is  but  one 
of  many  great  Mexican  mining  camps,  known  to  the  world  for 
centuries. 

Whether  the  natives  of  Mexico  prior  to  the  conquest,  formally 
worked  gold,  silver  and  copper  mines  is  an  open  question ;  but  that 
they  did  exploit  the  placer  deposits  of  the  rivers  of  the  country 
there  is  no  doubt.  Placer  gold  in  quills  passed  as  currency  in 
Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  and  for  years  afterwards. 
Gold,  silver  and  copper  ornaments,  idols  and  other  figures 
beautifully  and  often  elaborately  worked,  existed  in  vast  quantities 
at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs.  Since  then, 
throughout  four  centuries,  examples  of  the  metal  work  of  the 
natives  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  have  frequently  come  to 
light;  and  still  to-day  explorers  find  these  eloquent  witnesses  of 
the  culture  of  tlie  Indian  empires  of  America  in  the  graves  of 
their  nobles  and  princes  and  the  ruins  of  their  great  cities. 


MEXICO  497 

Spanish  Colonial  Period 

With  the  fall  of  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs  in  1521  there  began  a 
period  of  wonderful  mining  activity  throughout  the  vast  extent  of 
the  empire  of  the  Montezumas.  From  the  time  of  their  landing 
on  the  shores  of  Mexico  near  the  site  of  modern  Veracruz  in  1519, 
until  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Tenochtitlan  two  years  later, 
Cortes  and  his  followers  were  inspired  by  a  dream  of  great  wealth 
to  be  amassed  from  the  treasure  of  the  emperor  of  the  Aztecs. 

This  dream  was  made  more  vivid  by  the  presents  in  gold  with 
which  the  unfortunate  Indian  ruler  sought  to  bribe  his  unwelcome 
guests  to  leave  the  country.  After  the  fall  of  the  city  the  Spanish 
adventurers  awoke  to  find  their  dream  of  sudden  wealth  unrealized 
in  so  far  as  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs  was  concerned.  But  they 
lived  in  an  age  when  strange  fantasy  colored  the  lives  of  men. 
If  the  much-desired  El  Dorado  was  not  in  Mexico  City,  then 
it  was  somewhere  else;  and  the  hunt  for  the  golden  treasure 
was  continued.  Thousands  of  buscones  (prospectors)  radiated 
in  all  directions  from  the  capital  in  search  of  the  hidden  treasure. 
In  this  hunt  mines  of  fabulous  richness  were  discovered  and 
towns  sprang  ujj  like  mushrooms  in  the  almost  inaccessible  fast- 
nesses of  the  mountains.  By  1537,  when  the  first  official  report 
of  the  vice-regal  government  was  made,  the  mining  industry  had 
become  firmly  established  in  many  parts  of  the  colony  and  was 
already  pajang  important  contributions  into  the  treasury  of  the 
Spanish  court.  From  the  establishment,  in  1535,  of  a  settled 
government  under  the  direct  representative  of  the  crown,  this 
mining  activity  increased  with  great  rapidity  and  continued  to 
extend  itself  farther  and  farther  from  the  capital,  the  centre  of 
colonial  life  in  New  Spain;  and  the  dream  of  finding  El  Dorado 
was  never  altogether  dissipated  during  the  300  years  of  Spanish 
rule  in  New  Spain.  While  the  glitter  of  gold  was  always  before 
the  eyes  of  every  buscon  the  soft,  w^hite  gleam  of  silver  brought 
unexpected  wealth  to  thousands  who  often  squandered  their 
newly-acquired  fortunes  in  the  search  for  the  elusive  yellow  metal. 
How  great  was  this  treasure  of  silver  w^ealth  that  Spain  extracted 
from  the  rugged  sierras  of  Mexico  may  be  gleaned  from  a  study 
of  the  report  of  the  government  mint.  From  1537,  when  the 
newly-established  royal  mint  issued  its  first  statement  of  mining 
activity,  to  1821,  when  Spain  withdrew  from  the  colony,  the 
recorded  silver  production  of  the  mines  of  Mexico  amounted  to 
$2,082,260,657.  During  the  same  period  the  gold  output  was  only 
33 


498  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

$68,778,411,  or  less  than  one-thirtieth  of  the  silver  returns. 
Large  as  these  returns  are,  it  must  be  remembered  that  probably 
not  more  than  half  the  ore  mined  was  ever  reported  to  the  govern- 
ment because  of  the  excessively  heavy  taxes  exacted  by  the  crown, 
which  claimed  as  its  right  the  royal  one-fifth,  and  frequently,  under 
one  pretext  or  another,  succeeded  in  extorting  more  from  the 
mine  owners.  Quicksilver  and  powder,  the  most  important  aids 
of  the  miner  in  Spanish  colonial  days,  were  royal  monopolies  and 
consequently  were  sold  in  Mexico  at  from  three  to  five  times  their 
market  values.  These  and  certain  local,  city  and  port  exactions 
mulcted  the  miner  of  at  least  another  fifth  of  the  output  of  his 
mines.  Transportation  of  ore  from  remote  interior  points,  over 
almost  impassable  mountain  trails,  occupied  from  weeks  to  months 
in  transit  between  the  mines  and  the  capital  or  the  nearest  port. 
Provisions  and  mining  supplies  had  to  be  brought  to  the  camp  in 
the  same  slow  and  costly  manner.  All  these  extraordinary 
expenses  made  it  possible  for  the  miner  to  work  only  the  richest 
ore  and  forced  him  to  leave  untouched  veins  which,  in  modern 
times,  have  become  sensational  ore-producers.  It  forced  him  also 
to  sort  out  the  richest  of  his  rich  ores  and  to  leave  the  poorer  on 
the  dump  heap.  These  dump  heaps,  worked  over  by  modern 
mining  methods,  have  produced  millions  to  foreign  investors. 

During  the  Spanish  colonial  period  Mexico  was  literally  the 
silver  treasure-house  of  the  world;  and  most  of  this  wealth  went 
to  Spain;  and  it  all,  whether  it  went  to  the  crown  or  to  Spanish 
adventurers  and  capitalists,  contributed  to  make  Spain  the  richest 
country  in  the  world,  thus  shaping  her  destiny  and  making  of  her 
people  a  nation  of  adventurers  seeking  fortune  in  the  vast  colonial 
possessions  covering  the  greater  part  of  two  continents,  and  dis- 
daining the  industries,  trade  and  commerce.  With  her  vast  wealth 
Spain  purchased  from  the  rising  industrial  countries  of  those  days, 
the  Netherlands  and  England,  what  she  required  at  home;  and 
the  mines  of  the  colonies  paid  for  it  all.  As  a  natural  result,  the 
national  life  of  Spain  was  disrupted  and  the  industries  languished 
where  wealth  came  so  easily;  and  she  taught  the  colonies  to  view 
life  from  her  own  point  of  view.  Mining  and  the  manipulation  of 
vast  estates  became  almost  the  only  occupation  of  a  gentleman. 
So,  from  year  to  year,  from  every  mining  centre  in  Mexico  and 
the  other  Spanish  American  colonies,  busconos  were  sent  out  con- 
stantly in  increasing  numbers  to  look  for  new  mines.  Men  pawned 
their  all  to  go  on  the  same  quest.  Every  decade  witnessed  its 
rush  from  one  promising  mining  district  to  another.  Taxco, 
Guerrero,  was  opened  as  a  mining  camp  in  1522,  the  year  after  the 


MEXICO  499 

fall  of  Mexico  City ;  and  from  there  numerous  mining  expeditions 
were  sent  forth  to  seek  for  new  centres  of  wealth.    One  of  these 
reached  the  far-distant  state   of  Chihuahua  in  1544.     The  dis- 
covery of  Parral,  Santa  Barbara  and  other  rich  mines,  caused  a 
rush  of  miners  from  the  centre  and  south  of  the  country  toward 
the  north  and  west.    In  1546  Zacatecas  became  the  centre  of  this 
mining  excitement,  which  began  to  shift,  in  another  two  years, 
to  Guanajuato.     In  the  same  year  the  Bolanos  mines  of  Jalisco 
began   to   attract  attention   and    other   centres   of   rich   mineral 
deposits    were    discovered    in    Zacatecas.      The    following    year 
Hidalgo  came  into  notice  through  the  sensational  discoveries  of  ore 
at  Real  del  Monte.     All  these  mining  districts  are  still  producing 
ore  with  no  signs  of  exhaustion  and  most  of  them  are  admittedly 
but  partially  exploited.    In  1552  Durango  was  invaded  and,  three 
years  later,  the  discovery  of  bonanza  ore  in  the  Sombrerete  mines 
brought  the  state  of  Zacatecas  into  the  galaxy  of  shining  silver 
stars.     In  1574  Charcas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  opened  silver  mines 
destined  to  make  the  state  famous.    About  the  close  of  the  16th 
century,   the   chief  mining   interests   of   Mexico   centered   about 
Mapimi,  Durango,  which  promised  to  become  a  great  gold  and 
silver  producer.     Scores  of  other  more  or  less  important  mines 
were  opened  in  the  following  years,  among  the  most  noted  being 
Guadalcazar,  San  Louis  Potosi,  1622;  Batopilas,  Chihuahua,  1632; 
Candelario,   Chihuahua,   1638;  Santa   Eulalia,   Chihuahua,   1700; 
El  Caballo  and  other  mines  in  the  same  state,  1703;  the  famous 
Magdalena  district,  Sonora,  1725;  Talapujahua,  Michoacan,  1740; 
a  new  Real  del  Monte  district,  1759;  the  Valencia,  Guanajuato, 
1760;   Catorce,  San  Luis  Potosi,  1773  and  La  Purisima  in  the 
same  state,  1780.    All  of  the  districts  mentioned  were  wonderful 
producers.    The  Mapimi  mines,  in  Spanish  times,  made  numerous 
owners  wealthy,  and  since  the  establishment  of  the  republic  Ger- 
man capitalists  have  made  of  them  one  of  the  greatest  gold  and 
silver  producing  centres  of  the  republic.     The  Batopilas  mines 
have  made  the  state  of  Chihuahua  famous  and  attracted  foreign 
capital  to  themselves  and  to  neighboring  mines.     The  recorded 
output  of  the   Candelario  mine  for  100  years   was  $35,000,000, 
but  so  notorious  was  the  avoidance  of  the  payment  of  the  govern- 
ment taxes,  that  the  amount  was  undoubtedly  very  much  more. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  El  Caballo  claimed  to  be  the 
richest  mining  district  in  the  world.     In  55  years  its  recorded 
output  was  over  $85,000,000.    The  Parral  district,  famous  in  Span- 
ish colonial  days  for  its  wonderful  richness,  has,  in  modern  times, 
under  English,  American,  German  and  other  foreign  management. 


500  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

justified  its  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  generally 
mineralized  districts  in  Mexico.  The  Eeal  del  Monte,  which  also 
produced  wealth  in  Spanish  hands,  its  output  in  one  year  being 
$15,000,000,  has  since,  under  English  capitalists,  extended  its 
field  of  operations  and  has  made  itself  known  wherever  silver  is 
bought  and  sold.  But  the  greatest  single  silver  mine  in  the  world 
is  the  Valencia,  which  paid  to  the  government  from  1766  to  1826 
taxes  on  $226,000,000.  It  probably  produced  over  $5,000,000  a 
year  for  60  consecutive  years.  Vast  sums  of  English  and 
American  capital  invested  in  this  district  have  done  much  to 
develop  it  along  modern  lines  and  to  make  it  known.  In  the  one 
year  1713  it  is  recorded  as  producing  $14,000,000;  and  so  much 
ore  did  it  yield  for  a  number  of  years  that  it  made  all  its  owners 
immensely  wealthy.  The  Talapujahua  mine  in  eight  years  yielded 
$18,000,000. 

The  17th  century  was  one  of  development  for  Spanish  miners 
in  Mexico  and  the  18th  one  of  wonderful  production.  Towards 
the  close  of  this  latter  century  the  recorded  yearly  output  of  the 
mines  of  Mexico  was  $27,000,000. 

The  Revolutionary  Period 

This,  beginning  in  1810  and  continuing  till  1821,  disrupted  all 
the  affairs  of  the  colony;  and  mining  suffered  so  severely  that 
it  did  not  recover  completely  for  nearly  half  a  century  after  the 
Spaniards  had  left  the  country.  In  1821  the  output  of  the  mines 
of  Mexico  had  dropped  to  less  than  $5,000,000  a  year. 

From  Iturbide  to  Diaz 

Mexico,  under  the  administration  of  the  emperor  Iturbide, 
through  the  national  congress  in  1823,  favored  the  development 
of  the  mining  interests  of  the  country.  It  abolished  most  of  the 
exactions  imposed  upon  miners  during  the  300  years  of  Spanish 
rule,  and  passed  mining  laws  allowing  foreigners  to  enter  the 
mining  business  in  Mexico.  Notwithstanding  the  unsettled  state 
of  the  country,  the  inducements  offered  to  foreign  capital  were  so 
great  that  vast  sums  of  English  money  poured  into  the  country 
for  investment  in  mining  enterprises.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
that  great  English  influence  which  remained  paramount  in 
Mexican  mining  affairs  until  the  beginning  of  the  Diaz  regime  in 
1876.  During  this  period  the  records  of  the  mints  show  silver 
$797,055,080;  gold  $47,327,383  and  copper  $5,227,855.  Since  then 
copper  has  become  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  products 
of  the  republic. 


MEXICO  501 

After  the  departure  of  the  Spaniards  from  the  country  few 
people  in  Mexico  were  possessed  of  sufficient  capital  and  knowl- 
edge to  work  the  mines  abandoned  during  the  revolution,  many  of 
which  had  reached  depths  requiring  powerful  pumping  and  other 
machinery  and  exploitation  on  an  extensive  scale  to  make  the 
business  pay.  The  English  were  quick  to  see  the  opportunity  thus 
presented ;  and  many  companies  were  formed  to  acquire  and  work 
these  old  mines  and  to  exploit  new  ones.  In  six  years  (1822-28) 
six  powerful  English  companies,  with  a  combination  capital  of 
3,000,000  pounds  sterling,  entered  the  Mexican  field.  Among  these 
companies  were :  The  United  Mexican  Mines  Association,  owning 
mines  in  many  states  of  Mexico;  the  Anglo-Mexican  Company, 
which  also  acquired  many  mines ;  and  the  Real  del  Monte  Company. 
These  English  companies  did  what  the  Spaniards  had  never  been 
able  to  do.  They  transported  powerful  modern  pumping  and 
other  machinery  over  apparently  insurmountable  sierras  and 
made  it  possible  to  work  the  rich  ore  below  the  water  level  of  vice- 
regal days.  They  thus  practically  created  new  mines.  Among 
these  British  investments  are  included  most  of  the  famous  mines 
of  those  days;  Valencia,  Mellado,  Villalpando,  La  Luz,  Charcas, 
Catorce,  Fresnillo,  San  Ildefonso,  San  Dimas,  San  Francisco, 
Guanacevi,  Parral,  Santa  Eulalia,  Batopilas,  Real  del  Monte, 
Santa  Gertrudis,  Blanco,  El  Oro,  Temascaltepec,  Bolanos, 
Tezhuitlan  (famous  copper  district),  Taxco  and  Real  del  Castillo. 

From  Diaz  to  Ma4ero 

From  1857  to  1883  the  control  of  the  Mexican  mining  law^s  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  officials  of  the  state  governments.  This  did  a 
great  deal  of  harm  to  mining  interests,  created  confusion  and  laid 
the  door  wide  open  for  grafting.  So  in  1883  the  federal  govern- 
ment was  forced  to  assume  charge  of  the  direction  of  all  mining 
affairs.  At  the  same  time  a  commission  was  appointed  to  con- 
sider the  mining  situation  and  to  reform  the  mining  laws,  which 
it  did  in  such  a  liberal  spirit  that  mining  again  took  a  fresh  and 
vigorous  start. 

Porfirio  Diaz  began  his  adminstration  in  1876  with  a  broad 
view  of  the  necessities  of  his  country.  He  extended  the  hand  of  wel- 
come to  capitalists  of  all  nations  who  might  help  him  to  realize 
his  dream  of  a  greater  and  more  prosperous  Mexico.  When 
Diaz  returned  to  power  in  1884  after  Gonzalez '  four  years  of  office, 
he  continued  vigorously  the  policy  of  encouraging  the  mining 
interests  of  the  country,  which  during  his  first  term  of  the 
presidency  (1876-80)  had  reached  the  value  of  $103,000,000  gold 


502  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  silver,  with  the  additional  potential  energy  of  hundreds  of 
new  mining  claims  registered,  properties  opened  up  and  many 
abandoned  mines  put  into  operation  once  more.  About  this  time 
American,  German  and  French  capitalists  appeared  upon  the 
scene  and  began  to  compete  vigorously  with  English  investors 
for  a  share  in  the  Mexican  mining  business.  By  1884  this  com- 
petition had  already  become  strong,  and  from  then  on  it  grew  in 
intensity  until,  in  1913,  when  the  revolution  practically  halted 
mining  throughout  the  republic,  it  had  assumed  large  proportions. 
Of  the  newcomers  the  Americans  were  the  most  aggressive.  In 
1884  Edwin  Ludlow,  representing  American  capitalists,  began 
boring  for  coal  in  Mexico;  and  five  years  later  the  great  coal 
deposits  of  Coahuila,  at  Sabinas  and  other  points,  were  in  full 
operation.  In  the  10  years  following  1895  over  6,000,000  tons  of 
coal  were  mined  in  Mexico,  and  by  1910  the  output  had  reached 
1,500,000  a  year.  The  discovery  and  exploitation  of  coal  in  the 
republic  gave  great  impetus  to  mining  and  other  industries. 

Between  1885  and  1910  Lower  California,  Michoacan,  Coahuila, 
Sonora  and  Puebla  became  great  copper-producing  states  and  as 
such  attracted  large  sums  of  foreign  capital,  American  and 
French;  and  the  production  of  copper  rose  from  11,620  tons  in 
1895  to  55,000  tons  in  1905.  Owing  to  the  slump  in  the  price  of  this 
metal,  this  increase  was  not  kept  up  during  the  next  five  years. 
Copper  and  petroleum  and  its  products  were,  however,  the  only 
mining  interests  that  continued  active  throughout  the  revolution, 
the  output  of  the  former  being  valued,  in  1912,  at  $38,500,000. 
Mexico  ranks  easily  in  second  place  among  the  great  copper- 
producing  countries  of  the  world.  In  1906  official  returns  showed 
in  the  republic  35,087  copper  mines  and  mines  containing  copper 
values.  After  eight  years  of  exploitation  of  antimony  Mexico  had, 
in  1910,  became  the  world's  greatest  producer  of  this  metal,  witli 
vast  deposits  still  untouched.  Two  years  later  her  production  of 
antimony  had  reached  almost  $2,000,000  per  annum. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  Diaz  administration  capitalists 
began  to  pay  attention  to  the  gold  deposits  of  the  country,  with  the 
result  that,  between  that  date  and  1909,  considerably  over 
$1,000,000,000  gold  was  mined.  Even  in  1912,  notwithstanding  the 
revolution,  the  gold  mined  was  valued  at  over  $50,000,000,  while 
the  fiscal  year  1908-09  had  produced  $62,700,000.  In  1894  the 
introduction  of  the  cyanide  process  began  to  replace  the  old  patio 
process,  thus  giving  an  added  impetus  to  the  mining  of  low- 
grade  ores  which  helped  the  mining  business  very  materially.  A 
few  years  later  foreign  capitalists  began  the  utilization  of  water- 


MEXICO  503 

power  for  the  production  of  electrical  power,  and  electrical  plants 
appeared  in  different  parts  of  the  republic.  Of  these  the  most 
extensive  and  important  is  that  of  Necaxa  which  supplies  the 
power  to  light  the  City  of  Mexico  and  to  run  the  tramways  and 
many  of  the  factories  of  the  Federal  District.  It  also  furnishes 
30,000  horse  power  to  El  Oro  and  furnishes  electrical  energy  to 
other  neighboring  mining  centres,  including  Pachuca.  Mexico,  on 
account  of  its  mountainous  nature,  possesses  a  real  wealth  of 
water-power,  which  must  soon  be  brought  into  use  to  develop  her 
vast  mineral  riches,  a  very  considerable  part  of  which,  owing  to 
adverse  natural  conditions,  still  remains  untouched. 

The  most  noteworthy  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
republic  of  recent  years  is  to  be  found  in  the  vast  petroleum  fields 
stretching  down  the  Gulf  coast  from  Matamoros  to  Campeche, 
and  probably  fai'ther,  for  the  southern  end  seems  to  consist  of  the 
oil  fields  of  Colombia.  So  great  are  these  fields  and  so  vast  their 
wealth  that  Mexico  must  soon  become  the  first  oil-producing 
country  of  the  world.  Although  oil  was  known  to  exist  in  Mexico 
for  many  years,  it  was  not  until  1901  that  the  Mexican  Petroleum 
Company,  a  California  corporation,  began  prospecting  for  oil  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Ebano,  near  Tampico.  About  the  same  time 
W.  Pearson  &  Son  came  into  the  field,  with  unlimited  English 
capital.  Then  followed  a  rapid  development  of  the  oil  fields  near 
Tampico  and  on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  Tuxpam,  Minatitlan, 
the  Papantla  district  and  other  points  in  the  neighborhood.  By 
1907  the  production  of  oil  in  the  republic  had  reached  1,000,000 
barrels  a  year  and  by  1913, 16,746,000.  Two  years  later  the  output 
was  35,000,000  of  which  about  75  per  cent  was  exported.  The 
returns  in  the  near  future  promise  almost  double  that  of  1915 
owing  to  the  great  well  of  the  Mexican  Petroleum  Company 
opened  in  December  1915,  which  is  said  to  exceed  in  flow  the  whole 
oil  output  of  the  state  of  California.  (See  article  Mineral 
Industries,  p.  683.) 


TRANSPORTATION  AND   COMMUNICATION 

Before  the  white  man  had  set  foot  in  Mexico  the  various 
nations  then  occupying  what  is  now  the  Mexican  republic  had  built 
many  well-paved  roads  and  innumerable  mountain  trails,  in  all 
probability  better  than  the  trails  of  to-day,  if  we  are  to  judge  them 
by  their  still  existing  remains,  and  by  the  ruins  of  the  great  and 
populous  cities  whose  arteries  they  were.     These  Mexican  roads 


504  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

became  a  necessary  part  of  the  life  of  the  nation.  They  were  the 
highways  for  the  armies  going  forth  to  conquest  or  to  defend  the 
outposts  of  the  empire;  they  constituted  the  thoroughfares  over 
which  the  great  merchant  expeditions,  often  forming  hosts  as  large 
as  the  armies  of  the  sovereign,  carried  the  commerce  of  the  nation 
to  the  ends  of  the  country  and  to  the  civilized  peoples  beyond. 
Over  them,  too,  went  the  couriers  of  the  court  and  of  the  postal 
and  telegraph  services  whose  efficiency  awakened  great  admiration 
in  the  Spanish  conquistadores ;  they  were  indispensable  for  the 
collection  of  the  internal  revenues  and  the  constant  exchange  of 
hostages  and  ])rovincial  representatives  whose  presence  in 
Tenochtitlan  was  insisted  upon  by  the  later  Aztec  rulers,  as  a 
guarantee  against  insurrection  or  treachery  in  the  recently-con- 
quered provinces.  They  formed  the  great  arteries  of  the  com- 
munication system  of  the  religious  life  of  the  nation  over  which 
thousands  of  pilgrims  came  yearly,  from  long  distances,  to  the 
popular  national  shrines.  Many  of  these  highways,  with  their 
subsidiary  local  roads,  consisted  of  foundations  of  stone  covered 
with  cement  which,  after  four  centuries  of  neglect,  is  often  well 
preserved  to-day  beneath  the  accumulated  debris  of  the  tropical 
forests. 

Spanish  Ways  of  Communication 

In  the  first  years  following  the  conquest,  Spain  made  use  of 
the  native  highways,  which,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  were  left 
unrepaired.  In  fact,  for  more  than  50  years  only  the  main  high- 
ways and  the  roads  leading  to  the  great  mining  camps  received 
any  attention  from  the  government.  Owing  to  the  neglect  of  agri- 
culture in  favor  of  mining,  in  which  great  fortunes  were  made, 
many  districts,  once  centres  of  dense  population  in  pre-conquest 
days,  became  deserted ;  for  whole  populations  were  moved  to  min- 
ing centres  or  concentrated  in  cities  and  towns,  or  placed  on 
ranches  of  rich  Spaniards.  Thus  the  whole  communication  system 
of  the  natives  became  disarranged  and  neglected  and  finally  all 
but  the  main  highways  began  to  disappear,  as  centres  of  commerce 
and  trade  shifted  and  the  transportation  of  ore  claimed  the  chief 
attention  of  the  government,  while  port  towns  became  of  more 
importance  in  the  social  economy  of  the  province  than  the  great 
inland  cities. 

But  as  Spain  gradually  extended  her  power  over  her  vast 
trans-Atlantic  domains,  and  as  peace  became  established  every- 
where upon  a  firm  basis,  bringing  with  it  an  extension  of  mining, 
commerce  and  trade,  the  necessity  for  an  extensive  system  of 
highways  between  the  inland  cities  and  the  ports  and  between  city 


MEXICO  505 

and  city  became  apparent.  The  Spanish  government,  ever  alive 
to  its  own  interests,  began  the  construction  of  the  caminos  reales, 
or  king's  highways,  which,  a  century  after  the  conquest,  had 
already  connected  together  all  the  centres  of  commercial  impor- 
tance in  New  Spain.  The  extension  of  these  highways  continued 
during  the  following  two  centuries.  Like  the  Roman,  the  Spaniard 
builded  for  posterity ;  and  to-day,  after  a  century  of  neglect,  many 
of  these  old  Spanish  roads  are  still  in  use  throughout  Mexico. 

Transportation  Facilities  of  the  Republic 

Throughout  the  revolutionary  period  (1810-21)  transporta- 
tion facilities  of  every  kind  in  Mexico  were  neglected,  on  account 
of  the  activity  of  the  revolutionists  and  the  exhausted  condition 
of  the  Spanish  treasury  after  the  Napoleonic  w^ars.  From  1821  to 
1876,  the  new  republic  formed  upon  the  ruins  of  the  government  of 
New  Spain  was  so  occupied  with  its  own  local  dissensions  that  it 
found  little  time  to  give  to  the  upbuilding  of  highways  and  byw^ays 
of  communication.  Yet  it  was  toward  the  close  of  this  period  of 
unrest  that  the  first  railway  was  built  in  the  republic.  In  1854  a 
line  connecting  Mexico  City  and  Guadalupe,  a  distance  of  three 
miles,  had  been  constructed;  and  a  year  later  Veracruz  was  con- 
nected with  Tejeria  (12  miles).  These  were  the  two  extreme  ends 
of  a  railway  by  means  of  which  it  was  proposed  to  give  the  capital 
an  all-rail  route  to  the  first  port  of  the  republic.  But  so  slow  was 
the  work  of  construction  that  it  was  not  until  1873  that  this  com- 
paratively short  line  (263  miles)  was  completed. 

Practically  no  other  railway  construction  was  undertaken  in 
Mexico  until  after  the  election  of  Porfirio  Diaz  as  president  in 
December  1876.  In  November  of  the  following  year,  the  secretary- 
of  public  works  signed  a  contract  with  James  Sullivan  and  his 
associates  for  the  construction  of  a  railway  line  from  the  United 
States  border  to  Mexico  City,  and  from  there  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
But  Sullivan  found  difficulty  in  getting  the  capital  necessary  to 
build  the  proposed  lines.  In  1880  a  strongly-subsidized  concession 
w^as  granted  to  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  Company,  organized 
in  Denver  to  build  a  wide-gauge  railway  from  El  Paso  to  the  Mexi- 
can capital ;  and  about  the  same  time  the  Sullivan  concession  was 
extended  and  re-arranged  so  as  to  empower  the  holders  thereof  to 
construct  a  narrow-gauge  railway  from  Mexico  City  to  Laredo,  on 
the  Texas  border.  Both  these  lines  were  eventually  built.  From 
1880  to  1898  hundreds  of  railway  concessions  were  granted  by  the 
Mexican  government,  most  of  them  accompanied  with  subventions 
in  cash,  government  bonds  and  national  lands.    Such  a  very  active 


506  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

railway  era  was  inaugurated  that,  in  1890,  the  government  found 
it  necessary  to  create  the  new  Department  of  Communications 
and  Public  Works,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  minister  of  the 
cabinet.  In  1898  Finance  Minister  Limantour  announced  that,  in 
the  future,  the  government  would  give  subventions  only  to  roads 
of  great  political  and  financial  importance.  In  the  plan  for  rail- 
way extension  laid  down  by  Mr.  Limantour  at  this  time  were 
included  a  road  to  connect  the  centre  of  the  republic  with  some 
Pacific  coast  port,  Guaymas  or  Topolobampo  preferred;  a  line 
from  the  interior  to  Mazatlan;  another  from  the  interior  to  Man- 
zanillo  and  a  fourth  to  Acapulco.  The  plan  also  included  lines  to 
connect  the  capital  with  Acapulco  and  Tampico.  The  following 
year  a  new  general  railway  law  was  issued  in  order  to  co-ordinate 
the  work  of  the  minister  of  finance  and  to  govern  the  roads  in 
existence  and  those  being  built. 

The  most  important  railway  lines  of  the  country  were  con- 
structed between  1880  and  1890;  after  which  very  little  building 
was  done  until  Mr.  Limantour  took  matters  in  hand  in  1898.  By 
1902  the  following  roads  had  been  constructed:  The  Mexican 
Kailway,  connecting  Mexico  City  with  Veracruz;  the  Mexican 
Central,  from  El  Paso  to  the  Capital ;  the  Mexican  National,  from 
Laredo  to  Mexico  City;  the  Sonora  Railway,  from  Nogales  to 
Guaymas;  the  Interoceanic,  from  Mexico  City  to  Veracruz;  the 
Tehuantepec  National,  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  from 
Coatzacoalcos  (Puerto  Mexico)  to  Salina  Cruz;  the  Mexican 
Southern,  from  Puebla  to  Oaxaca ;  the  United  Railways  of  Yuca- 
tan; and  the  Pan-American,  from  San  Geronimo,  on  the  Tehuan- 
tepec road,  to  a  point  in  Mexico  close  to  the  border  of  Guatemala. 

In  1906  the  Mexican  government  succeeded  in  uniting  the  two 
great  railway  lines,  the  Mexican  National  and  the  Mexican  Cen- 
tral, with  the  ''National  Railways  of  Mexico."  By  1908,  the 
Mexican  International,  the  Pan-American,  the  Veracruz  and 
Pacific,  the  Interoceanic,  and  the  Tehuantepec  National  had  been 
brought  under  the  control  of  the  government  and  included  under 
the  foregoing  title  of  the  National  Railways  of  Mexico. 

During  the  revolutionary  period  from  1910  to  1916  the  rail- 
roads of  Mexico  suffered  very  greatly;  much  of  the  rolling  stock 
was  destroyed  and  bridges,  stations  and  other  buildings  were 
burned  or  wrecked.  In  January  1915,  according  to  a  statement  of 
the  Mexican  minister  of  railways,  the  total  monthly  income  of  the 
Mexican  National  Lines  was  only  647,000  pesos  (paper  currency). 
But  in  August  191 6  the  monthly  income  of  these  roads  had  risen*  to 
25,000,000  pesos  (paper  currency).    At  the  same  time  the  transpor- 


MEXICO  507 

tation  of  freight  had  become  almost  normal,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  loss  of  the  National  Railways  for  the  fiscal  year 
1913-14  was  $28,835,624,  and  for  the  follow^ing  year  $28,909,328. 
When  the  Carranza  government  undertook  the  management  of  the 
railways  in  June  1915,  it  had  to  face  a  deficit  of  $41,289,609  United 
States  currency. 


POSTAL  SERVICE 


In  1912  there  were  in  Mexico  2,917  post  offices,  branch  post 
offices  and  postal  agencies.  In  the  postal  service  of  the  republic 
about  15,260  miles  of  railway,  300  miles  of  street  railway  and 
10,000  miles  of  steamship  routes  were  in  use  for  the  distribution 
of  postal  matter.  During  the  year  domestic  postal  orders  to  the 
amount  of  $48,771,821,  and  foreign  postal  orders  valued  at  $8,886,- 
979  were  issued.  During  the  same  period  the  other  income  of  the 
postal  service  was  $4,914,640.  All  the  railroads  of  the  country  dis- 
posable were  made  use  of  in  the  postal  service;  and  they  were 
aided  in  the  work  of  distribution  by  messengers,  horses,  mules 
and  automobiles,  on  land;  by  river  boats  of  the  interior  navigation 
service;  and  by  some  23  steamship  companies,  among  which  were: 
The  Mexican  Navigation  Company,  the  Pacific  Navigation  Com- 
pany, F.  Leyland  &  Co.,  Limited,  West  Indian  and  Pacific;  Imperial 
German  Mail,  the  Harrison  Line,  the  New  York  and  Cuban  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  the  Munson  Steamship  Line,  the  Atlantic 
and  Mexican  Gulf,  the  Southern  Steamship  and  Banana  Company, 
the  Canadian  Mexican  Atlantic  Line,  the  Kosmos  Line,  the  Chinese 
Imperial  Steamship  Company  and  the  Toyo  Kisin  Kaisha.  There 
were  158  traveling  post  offices,  principally  on  trains.  During  the 
year  26  new  post  offices  were  opened  to  the  public.  The  parcel 
post  service,  which  was  instituted  a  few  years  ago,  has  proved  of 
great  value  and  is,  year  by  year,  securing  more  patronage.  The 
government  proposes  to  extend  the  scope  of  this  service  and  to 
make  it  of  still  greater  utility.  Owing  to  the  revolution  the  postal 
operations  were  crippled  during  1912  as  they  were  during  the 
following  four  years. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  Mexican  people  have  long  shown  a  capacity  for  finance. 
In  pre-Columbian  days,  the  financial  arrangements  of  the 
Aztec  empire  were  complicated  and  extensive;  and  the  keeping 


508  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  accounts  of  the  tribute  rolls  was  in  itself  a  matter  that 
required  more  than  ordinary  executive  ability,  in  an  age  when 
the  whole  income  of  an  empire  several  times  larger  than  modern 
Germany,  and  densely  populated,  was  paid  in  produce  of  various 
kinds.  This  required  vast  storehouses  in  Mexico  City  and  sub- 
stations for  customs  receipts  in  many  parts  of  the  land.  The 
Spaniards,  too,  are  keen  financiers,  and  the  mingling  of  the  two 
races  has  produced  a  blend  and  a  nation  which  has  made  great 
financial  advancement  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century. 
Unfortunately,  the  revolution  of  1910  has  temporarily  checked  this 
financial  expansion;  but  this  retardment  cannot  be  for  long. 

The  first  financial  establishment  in  Mexico  that  may  be 
dignified  by  the  name  of  bank,  was  founded,  in  1776,  in  connection 
with  the  charitable  organization  still  known  as  the  Monte  de 
Piedad  (National  Pawnshop).  It  handled  mortgages,  issued 
loans  on  landed  and  other  property  and  circulating  notes 
in  commercial  transactions,  for  more  than  100  years.  Several 
times  it  was  in  difficulties,  but  so  great  was  the  aid  it  lent  to  the 
community  in  general,  that  it  succeeded,  each  time,  in  getting 
again  on  its  feet.  The  first  real  bank  organized  in  Mexico  to  do 
business  in  accordance  with  modern  methods  was  the  Bank  of 
London  and  Mexico,  which  was  established  in  the  City  of  Mexico 
in  1864,  with  a  capital  of  $500,000.  Its  reserve  was  finally  raised 
to  $30,000,000  shortly  before  the  revolution  of  1910,  but  was 
reduced  to  $10,000,000  in  1913  on  account  of  the  unsettled  condi- 
tion of  the  country.  Previous  to  this  date,  the  paper  currency  in 
circulation  in  the  country  had  been  issued  by  certain  banks  which 
had  been  granted  concessions  to  this  end.  At  first  the  National 
Bank  of  Mexico  had  a  monopoly  of  this  right,  or  claimed  to  have ; 
but  the  government  disregarding  it,  gave  concessions  of  a  like 
nature  to  other  federal  and  state  banks.  Finally  an  amicable 
arrangement  was  made  with  the  National  Bank,  whereby  it 
waived  the  rights  in  this  respect  which  it  had  claimed.  Then 
began  an  era  of  great  prosperity  in  Mexican  banking.  Modern 
methods  were  introduced  in  the  native  institutions  and  foreign 
banking  houses  established  important  branch  houses.  These 
represented  capital  and  institutions  from  nearly  every  country 
in  Europe  and  from  the  United  States  and  Canada.  None  of  these 
foreign  banking  houses,  however,  had  concessions  to  issue  paper 
currency.  They  formed  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  in  the 
development  of  the  finances  and  the  resources  of  the  country  and 
became  the  great  medium  of  exchange  between  Mexico  and  the 
outside  world. 


MEXICO  509 

As  the  Constitutionalist  party  began  their  campaign  without 
money  or  credit,  they  were  forced  to  issue  paper  money  of  many 
different  kinds,  which  went  as  low  as  one  per  cent  of  its  face  value. 
As  the  military  campaign  became  more  extended  and  intensive 
more  arms  and  ammunition  were  needed,  and  more  paper  cur- 
rency was  issued.  The  Madero  revolution  had  been  financed  with 
coin,  for  the  backers  of  Madero  and  he  and  his  family  were 
wealthy;  but  Carranza  was  not  in  this  fortunate  condition.  It 
was,  therefore,  after  the  disappearance  of  Madero  from  the  polit- 
ical scene,  that  the  finances  of  Mexico  began  literally  to  go  to 
pieces.  Carranza  had  possession,  in  the  beginning  of  his  career, 
of  only  two  or  three  minor  ports  of  entry  upon  which  to  depend 
for  any  financial  assistance  from  export  and  import  duties.  Thus 
the  Constitutionalist  party  piled  up  obligations  to  the  extent  of 
700,000,000  pesos  Mexican  currency  back  of  which  there  was  no 
assurance  of  redemption  or  any  substantial  backing  of  any  kind. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  country  was  flooded  with  the  currency  of 
other  contending  parties  and  with  counterfeits  of  all  paper  afloat. 
Thus  the  amount  of  paper  currency  in  circulation  in  the  republic 
in  1916  when  the  Carranza  government  began  to  come  on  top,  will 
probably  never  be  known.  After  the  recognition  of  the  Carranza 
provisional  government  by  the  United  States,  considerable  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  solution  of  the  currency  question,  which  had 
become  of  urgent  importance.  It  was  finally  resolved  to  make  a 
new  issue  of  500,000,000  pesos  at  the  rate  of  10  cents  United 
States  currency  for  one  peso.  This  value  w^as  to  be  maintained 
by  the  sale  of  gold  drafts  in  New  York  at  the  rate  specified,  in 
exchange  for  the  new  paper.  It  was  to  be  received,  at  this  rate, 
for  duties,  by  the  government.  This  was  known  as  the  Non- 
counterf citable  Issue,  and  was  to  be  issued  gradually  in  payment 
of  salaries  and  other  government  expenses  at  the  rate  of  about 
50,000,000  pesos  a  month.  However  a  very  considerable  part  of 
the  taxes  imposed  by  the  Federal  government  had  to  be  paid  in 
silver.  These  included  all  export  and  import  duties.  The  greater 
part  of  this  went  to  swell  the  guarantee  or  reserve  fund  behind 
the  new  paper  currency  issue.  At  the  same  time  that  this  new 
issue  was  being  put  into  circulation  steps  were  being  taken  to 
retire  all  the  former  issues  authorized  by  the  Constitutionalist 
party,  whether  state  or  federal.  To  this  end  all  the  bills  of  20, 
50,  100  pesos  were  declared  (1  June  1916)  no  longer  of  compul- 
sory acceptance  and  the  holders  thereof  were  notified  to  turn 
them  in  to  the  government,  upon  which  they  would  get  receipts 
promising  redemption  in  specie,  beginning  1  October,  at  the  rate 


510  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  5  cents  United  States  money  (10  cents  Mexican  silver)  for  the 
peso.  As  the  market  value  of  this  currency  was  only  about  two 
cents  and  as  it  had  previously  fallen  as  low  as  one-half  a  cent, 
the  offer  was  a  very  liberal  one  and  had  the  desired  effect.  In 
order  to  further  facilitate  the  retirement  of  the  old  paper  cur- 
rency, all  railway  and  telegraph  dues  were  made  payable  in  it  up 
to  1  Jan.  1917.  Owing  to  this  clever  campaigning  on  the  part  of 
the  government,  the  metal  currency,  which  had  gone  into  hiding 
shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  began  to  reappear  in 
1916,  with  the  increase  in  confidence  in  the  stability  of  the 
Carranza  government. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  Mexico  never  had  any  national 
paper  currency  previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1910, 
the  bills  in  circulation  being  all  bank  issue^  which  w^ere  kept  at  par 
value  by  a  reserve  of  50  per  cent  of  the  amount  in  circulation, 
which  was  exacted  and  guaranteed  by  law.  During  the  revolution 
the  banks  nearly  all  violated  this  provision,  issuing  notes  far  in 
excess  of  their  reserve.  The  Carranza  government,  after  an 
investigation,  gave  the  offenders  a  certain  time  in  which  to  make 
good  the  required  deposits  under  pain  of  being  closed  up.  This 
caused  the  rapid  decline  of  the  value  of  bank  notes  throughout  the 
republic,  both  state  and  federal.  In  order  to  further  guarantee 
the  stability  of  the  Non-counterfeitable  Issue,  $5,000,000  gold  was 
taken  from  the  national  treasury  and  an  additional  $5,000,000 
gold  was  obtained  as  a  loan  from  the  Ilenequen  Regulating  Com- 
mittee of  Yucatan;  and  all  bank  issues  of  paper  currency  were 
ordered  withdrawn  from  circulation,  the  government  thus  retain- 
ing, in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  a 
monopoly  of  the  issuing  of  all  money,  whether  paper  or  metal,  in 
the  republic  (15  Sept.  1916).  The  income  from  national  lands  and 
forests  was  also  ordered  paid  in  gold;  and  this  too  went  to  back 
up  the  new  paper  issue.  Over  $10,000,000  gold  was  also  obtained 
from  uncultivated  parts  of  great  estates  which  had  previously 
paid  little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  either  federal  or  state  taxes. 
At  the  same  time  all  the  banks  in  the  republic  were  placed  under 
the  strictest  government  supervision,  and  those  which  had  not 
complied  with  the  conditions  laid  down  as  to  currency  reserve, 
were  permitted  to  do  business  only  through  a  government  inter- 
ventor,  who  was  empowered  to  see  to  their  liquidation.  None  of 
these  banks  could  issue  any  specie  without  the  consent  of  the 
government.  At  the  same  time  the  duties  were  divided  into  four 
classes;  those  payable  in  metal  only;  those  payable  in  metal  or 
the  equivalent  thereof  in  national  paper  currency  of  the  new  issue ; 


MEXICO  511 

those  payable  in  the  new  paper  issue;  and  those  payable  in  the 
new  issue  or  the  equivalent  thereof  in  the  paper  issues  of  Vera- 
cruz and  the  Constitutionalist  Army.  The  new  paper  currenc.y 
issue  was  distributed  as  follows:  80,000,000  one  peso  bills, 
60,000,000  two  peso  bills,  75,000,000  five  peso  bills,  75,000,000  ten 
peso  bills,  70,000,000  twenty  peso  bills,  75,000,000  fifty  peso  bills 
and  75,000,000  one  hundred  peso  bills.  All  this  work  of  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  currency  and  the  finances  of  the  nation  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  commission  of  five  members,  all  of  whom  had 
had  considerable  experience  in  monetary  matters,  and  who  were 
required  to  report  to  the  treasury  department,  under  whose 
direction  they  were  working. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  principal  banks  of  issue  in 
Mexico  had,  30  June  1911,  the  following  paper  currency  in  cir- 
culation: National  Bank,  $54,841,000;  London  and  Mexico, 
$19,278,000;  Other  banks,  $42,535,000;  total,  $116,654,000. 

There  were  issued  by  the  government,  in  1910,  6,206,000  silver 
coins  worth  $2,927,000;  6,146,250  nickel  coins  valued  at  $307,312; 
and  19,450,000  bronze  coins  worth  $194,500. 

In  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1911,  the  consular  fees  were 
$1,163,341;  the  general  stamp  tax  amounted  to  $15,271,000;  the 
taxes  on  mining  land  to  $1,934,000;  on  ores  and  metals  $2,365,000; 
tobacco  $2,760,000;  alcohol  $870,000;  cotton  goods  $2,517,000; 
explosives  $5,334;  direct  taxes  $6,295,000;  municipal  taxes 
$5,133,000;  postal  service  $4,775,000;  telegraphs  $2,255,000;  and 
lotteries  $1,255,000.  During  the  same  period  the  importations 
amounted  to  $47,500,000;  the  exportations  to  $435,000  and  the 
port  duties  to  $1,985,000,  making  a  total  income  from  foreign  com- 
merce of  $48,985,000,  exchisive  of  export  duties. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  revolution  of  1910  and  succeeding 
years  divided  the  countrj^  into  several  factions,  each  of  which 
controlled  its  own  section  of  country  and  was  more  interested  in 
maintaining  its  ground  than  in  furnishing  statistics,  such  as  the 
Mexican  government  put  forth  annually  previous  to  1912,  definite 
information  relative  to  the  financial  and  other  conditions  of  the 
country  from  1913  to  1917  is  not  available,  except  in. a  general 
way;  and  even  this  covers  only  that  part  of  the  republic  under 
the  control  of  the  Constitutionalist  party,  which  was  able,  largely, 
to  finance  the  administration  through  the  sudden  enormous 
increase  of  the  oil  interests  of  the  republic  and  the  rise  in  the 
price  of  oil  itself  on  account  of  the  European  War. 

The  finances  of  Mexico,  which  were  in  a  deplorably  bad  con- 
dition in  1876,  when  Gen.  Porfirio  Diaz  assumed  the  presidency 


512  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

for  the  first  time,  continued  to  steadily  improve  throughout  his 
seven  terms  of  office  until,  on  his  re-election  for  the  eighth  time 
in  1910,  they  had  reached  such  a  position  that  the  Mexican 
government  had  secured  a  solid  standing  in  the  money  markets  of 
the  world. 

The  public  debt  of  Mexico,  which  has  never  been  large  for  the 
potentialities  of  the  nation,  began  with  a  5  per  cent  loan  of 
3,200,000  pounds  sterling  contracted  in  England  in  1824,  which 
was  increased  by  a  like  amount  at  6  per  cent  the  following  year. 
The  interest  on  these  two  loans  was  not  paid  from  1827  to  1831 ; 
and  even  after  this  latter  date  it  was  met  only  intermittently  and 
was,  therefore,  the  cause  of  many  disagreeable  complications 
which  have  become  part  of  the  history  of  the  Mexican  national 
debt,  which  itself  became  mixed  up  with  political  events  of 
primary  importance.  In  1886  these  two  first  foreign  debts  of  the 
Mexican  nation  were  consolidated  wdth  the  national  debt. 
Previous  to  this,  however,  they  and  other  loans  contracted  in 
1831,  were  consolidated  into  one  national  debt  of  9,247,387  pounds 
sterling,  in  1837;  and  this  agreement  was  again  ratified  in  1839. 
In  1846,  the  whole  Mexican  foreign  debt,  including  interest  due 
and  unpaid,  together  w4th  certain  internal  bonds  and  other 
unfunded  liabilities,  were  again  consolidated  into  one  national 
debt  of  10,241,650  pounds  sterling  in  bonds  of  the  1846  issue,  for 
the  payment  of  which  one-fifth  of  the  customs  receipts  of  the  ports 
of  Veracruz  and  Tampico,  the  duty  on  tobacco  in  all  forms,  and 
the  silver  export  duties  on  ore  sent  out  by  way  of  the  Pacific  ports 
were  pledged.  During  the  war  with  the  United  States  the  Ameri- 
can forces  seized  and  retained  Veracruz  and  Tampico  and  the 
Mexican  government  was  thus  unable  to  meet  its  foreign  obliga- 
tions. In  1850  another  attempt  w^as  made  to  meet  the  foreign 
indebtedness  of  the  nation  through  its  conversion  into  new  bonds 
bearing  3  per  cent  and  guaranteed  by  25  per  cent  import  duties 
and  5  per  cent  of  the  Gulf  ports  and  75  per  cent  of  the  Pacific 
ports  duties,  which  were  to  be  employed  for  the  payment  of  inter- 
est on  the  bonds  and  their  redemption. 

In  1864,  by  a  decree  of  the  Imperial  government  of  Maxi- 
milian, government  stock  to  the  amount  of  4,864,800  pounds 
sterling  was  issued  and  was  accepted  by  the  original  bondholders 
in  payment  of  arrears  of  interest.  The  same  year  the  Imperial 
government  secured  a  second  loan  of  12,365,000  pounds  sterling  in 
Paris  and  London ;  and  this  loan  was  practically  all  converted  into 
the  Mexican  Imperial  Lottery  Loan  with  a  face  value  of  20,000,000 


MEXICO  513 

pounds  sterling.  Both  these  transactions  were  repudiated  hf  the 
Eepublican  party  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire  in  1867.  How- 
ever a  part  of  the  debt  of  the  Empire  was  subsequently  recognized 
during  the  Diaz  administration. 

In  1888  a  6  per  cent  loan  of  10,500,000  pounds  sterling  was  con- 
tracted in  London,  Berlin  and  Amsterdam,  20  per  cent  of  the  export 
and  import  duties  and  all  the  direct  taxes  on  industries  and  landed 
property  and  buildings  in  the  Federal  district  being  pledged  to 
meet  the  obligation  thus  contracted.  The  following  year  the 
Tehuantepec  5  per  cent  Railway  loan  of  2,700,000  pounds  sterling 
was  made  in  London  and  Berlin  and  a  year  later  silver  currency 
bonds  to  the  amount  of  $6,700,000,  bearing  interest  at  6  per  cent 
were  disposed  of  in  London  and  Amsterdam  to  meet  certain  press- 
ing obligations  for  railway  concessions  and  construction ;  and  the 
same  year  another  loan  of  6,000,000  pounds  sterling  was  made  in 
London,  Berlin  and  Amsterdam  for  the  same  purpose.  Three 
years  later  a  6  per  cent  loan  of  3,000,000  pounds  sterling,  secured 
by  12  per  cent  of  the  import  and  export  duties,  was  contracted  in 
London.  In  1894  the  government  created  the  5  per  cent  Interior 
Redeemable  Debt,  with  a  view  to  a  single  new  issue  in  which  all 
future  subventions  to  railways  should  be  paid.  This  debt  con- 
sisted of  five  series  of  $20,000,000  each.  In  1899  the  5  per  cent 
Internal  Consolidated  Gold  Loan  of  22,700,000  pounds .  sterling, 
redeemable  not  later  than  46  years,  was  issued  to  convert  the  1888, 
1890,  1893  6  per  cent  loans  and  1889  5  per  cent  Railway  Loan.  In 
1903  the  federal  government  assumed  obligation  to  the  extent  of 
2,400,000  pounds  sterling  for  the  payment  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
5  per  cent  drainage  loan,  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  drainage  of 
the  capital.  The  following  year  a  4  per  cent  gold  bond  issue  of 
$40,000,000  was  made  in  London,  New  York  and  Amsterdam,  par- 
tially through  banks  and  partially  privately,  to  meet  various 
pressing  obligations  of  the  government.  In  1910  the  final  loan  of 
the  Diaz  government  was  made  at  4  per  cent  for  22,200,000  pounds 
sterling,  with  a  view  to  the  conversion  of  the  1899  5  per  cent  loan. 
Finally,  in  1913,  a  loan  of  $200,000,000  was  authorized,  of  which 
$60,000,000  was  placed  in  France,  with  a  guarantee  of  certain 
export  and  import  duties. 

In  June  1910,  the  public  debt  of  Mexico  was  $300,524,996 
(Mexican  silver)  payable  in  gold,  and  $137,850,133  payable  in 
Mexican  silver,  and  an  additional  debt  of  $273,398  (Mexican  cur- 
rency), making  a  total  of  $438,648,528  in  Mexican  silver,  against 
the  payment  of  which  there  was  on  deposit  $8,000,000  (pesos). 


514  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

On  the  same  date  there  were  in  Mexico  33  banks,  25  of  which 
were  banks  of  issue;  all  of  which  were  then  doing  business  on  a 
gold  basis  which  had  been  introduced  into  Mexico  in  1905  on  the 
basis  of  a  50  cent  dollar. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1913  the  revenue  of  the 
Mexican  government  was  $120,958,902  Mexican  currency  against 
an  expenditure  of  $110,781,871,  a  very  considerable  increase 
having  taken  place  in  five  years,  when  the  revenue  was  only 
$98,775,510  and  the  expenditure  $92,967,393.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that,  even  with  the  revolutionary  activity  then  prevailing,  the 
revenue  of  the  government  was,  in  1912-13,  $15,755,816  greater 
than  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

This  federal  revenue  is,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from 
stamp  taxes,  direct  taxes  and  import  and  export  duties. 

Although  the  finances  of  the  Constitutionalist  government 
had  improved  considerably  in  1917,  yet  the  disorganized  condi- 
tion of  the  country  and  of  many  of  the  banks,  both  state  and 
federal,  and  the  loss  of  credit  brought  about  by  the  long  revolution- 
ary period,  made  the  task  of  the  Constitutionalist  party  of 
straightening  out  the  financial  affairs  of  the  country  verj^  difficult. 
Money  was  badly  needed ;  and  this  the  great  money  centres  seemed 
unwilling  to  advance  until  greater  guarantees  for  the  stability  of 
the  government  should  be  forthcoming.  Working  under  this  hand- 
icap, the  government  steadily  pursued  its  ends  with  as  much 
success  as  could  be  well  expected  under  the  circumstances. 


ARMY  AND   NAVY 


Owing  to  the  many  revolutions  and  upheavals  through  which 
Mexico  has  passed  since  it  became  an  independent  country  in 
1821,  the  armed  forces  of  the  republic  have  been  a  constantly 
varying  quantity.  At  the  time  of  the  collapse  of  the  Maximilian 
empire  in  1867  there  were  four  great  military  centres,  the  north, 
the  west,  the  centre  and  the  southeast.  When  Porfirio  Diaz  took 
the  City  of  Mexico  in  1867  he  had  under  his  command  more  men 
than  he  had  in  the  whole  military  force  of  the  republic  in  1910, 
when  he  was  faced  with  an  uprising  which  was  destined,  in  less 
than  a  year,  to  send  him  into  exile  from  which  ho  never  returned. 

Juarez,  who,  on  the  death  of  Maximilian,  was  acknowledged 
everywhere  as  the  legitimate  ruler  of  Mexico,  found  one  of  his 
greatest  problems  in  the  reduction  of  the  armed  forces  which  he 


MEXICO  515 

had  inherited  from  the  prolonged  conflict  against  the  French,  the 
clericals  and  the  Reactionary  party.  He  proceeded  to  solve  it  by 
dismissing  from  service  hundreds  of  soldiers  and  officers,  many  of 
whom,  being  unfitted  for  civic  life  and  having  no  means  of  making 
a  living,  became  a  constant  thorn  in  the  already  troubled  side  of 
the  executive.  Bandits  roamed  the  country  and  made  so  bold  as 
to  even  invade  the  capital  itself.  Robbers,  on  a  less  pretentious 
scale,  were  everywhere ;  and  most  of  them  had  either  been  formed 
from  or  organized  by  the  dismissed  soldiers  of  the  republic  or  the 
forces  of  the  Reactionary  party. 

Diaz  faced  the  same  condition  of  affairs  when  he  came  into 
power  in  1876.  But  he  was  wiser  in  his  day  than  Juarez  had  been 
in  his,  probably  because  he  was  a  thorough  soldier  and  understood 
the  soldier's  point  of  view.  He  saw,  in  the  very  restless  element 
that  had  given  the  Indian  president  so  much  trouble,  the  raw  mate- 
rial out  of  which  to  create  a  rampart  against  the  lawlessness 
that  had  overrun  the  land.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  he  had 
organized  out  of  this  unpromising  material  the  rurales  (rural 
guard),  which  became  as  famous  in  Mexico  .as  the  North-west 
Mounted  Police  is  in  Canada.  These  guardians  of  the  peace,  which 
were  to  be  found  in  organized  groups  in  the  towns,  cities  and  vil- 
lages throughout  the  country,  were  military  in  every  sense  except 
that  they  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  (Gobernacion)  instead  of  that  of  war.  However,  in  the 
last  few  months  of  the  Diaz  administration  (1911),  the  rurales 
were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  War  Department,  for 
strictly  military  considerations.  Throughout  the  trouble  they 
remained,  for  the  most  part,  faithful  to  the  government,  but 
becoming  later  on  disorganized  through  the  many  political  changes 
that  followed  one  another  in  rapid  succession,  they  were  finally 
disbanded. 

Throughout  his  long  term  of  office,  which  extended  from  1876 
to  1880  and  from  1884  to  1911,  General  Diaz  gradually  reduced  the 
military  force  of  the  republic  and  aimed  at  increasing  its  effi- 
ciency. In  1910  the  standing  army  of  the  republic  consisted  of  less 
than  1,000  commissioned  officers  of  all  grades  and  less  than  25,000 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men.  Thus  the  government,  which 
had  been  lulled  into  fancied  security,  through  the  years  of  peace 
which  had  followed  the  assumption  of  the  presidency  by  Diaz, 
found  itself  unprepared  to  deal  with  a  revolution  like  that  of 
Madero,  which  affected  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  The 
peace  standing  of  the  Mexican  army  was,  in  1914:  Commissioned 
officers,  3,112;  non-commissioned  officers  and  men,  26,431. 


516  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  expenses  of  the  maintenance  of  the  armed  forces  of  the 
republic,  the  garrisons,  etc.,  was,  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June 
1914,  over  $40,000,000  Mexican  money,  or  more  than  one-third  of 
the  whole  revenue  of  the  republic.  As  this  amount  embraces  only 
the  forces  of  the  de  facto  government,  it  is  probable  that  nearly 
as  much  more  was  spent  in  the  maintenance  of  the  revolutionary 
forces  then  in  the  field  against  the  de  facto  government.  On  30 
June  1916,  A.  G.  Garcia,  Mexican  inspector  of  consulates  stationed 
in  the  United  States,  gave  the  strength  of  the  Constitutionalist 
army  as  175,000  officers  and  men,  all  of  which  he  claimed  were  well 
armed  and  uniformed.  Other  authorities  place  the  Constitution- 
alist forces  at  between  85,000  and  100,000.  This  is  considerably 
above  the  authorized  peace  strength  which  is  43,967,  commissioned 
officers,  non-commissioned  officers  and  men. 

During  the  Diaz  regime  many  new  barracks  were  built  and 
many  old  ones  were  reorganized  and  made  modern.  A  school  of 
Aspirantes  (officers  in  training)  was  opened  at  Tlalpam,  in  the 
Federal  District  a  short  distance  from  the  capital  for  the  military 
instruction  of  men  in  all  branches  of  the  service  who  could  not 
afford  to  go  through  the  longer  and  more  thorough  course  given  in 
the  National  Military  School  in  Chapultepec.  Owing  to  the  part 
the  pupils  of  this  Tlalpam  school  took  in  the  uprising  under  Gen- 
erals Mondragon,  Diaz  and  Eeyes  in  February  1913,  it  was  closed. 
The  West  Point  of  Mexico,  however,  is  the  Chapultepec  school, 
which  occupies  a  part  of  the  famous  Chapultepec  building,  the 
official  residence  of  the  President  of  Mexico.  There  are  generally 
in  attendance  about  300  students  all  being  trained  for  officers  in 
the  Mexican  army  at  the  goverimient  expense.  The  school  also 
offers  an  excellent  post-graduate  course  in  advanced  engineering, 
topography,  military  jurisprudence,  ordnance,  military  history, 
advanced  military  tactics  and  an  extensive  course  in  the  geography 
of  the  country  which,  from  the  military  point  of  view,  is  extremely 
difficult.  The  present  Constitutionalist  government,  following  in 
the  footsteps  of  the  Diaz  administration,  is  attempting  to  educate 
the  illiterate  soldiers  in  the  ranks  of  the  army,  or  at  least  to  teach 
them  to  read  and  write. 

According  to  the  recent  amendments  to  the  Mexican  constitu- 
tion, service  in  the  army  is  obligatory  on  every  citizen  of  the 
republic,  and  in  time  of  war  the  conscription  covers  from  three  to 
five  years;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  only  the  lower  classes  are 
forced  into  the  army.  In  time  of  peace  the  Mexican  army  now 
consists  of  34  battalions  of  infantry,  18  regiments  of  cavalrj^  1 
regiment  of  horse  artillery,  2  regiments  of  field  artillery,  1  regi- 


MEXICO  517 

ment  of  mountain  guns,  2  battalions  of  garrison  artillery  and  1 
battalion  of  engineers,  each  battalion  consisting  of  4  batteries.  On 
mobilization  each  4-company  battalion  (including  the  engineers) 
forms  a  regiment  of  2  battalions  while  the  4-battalion  regiments  are 
raised  to  6  battalions  and  the  cavalry  regiments  to  6  squadrons. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  which  the  Constitutionalist  government 
has  met  with  in  securing  arms,  the  armament  of  the  forces  is  of 
various  kinds,  including  various  Mauser  models  for  the  infantry, 
and  Remington  rifles  of  a  date  as  far  back  as  1893,  the  Mauser  car- 
bine for  the  cavalr}^  and  other  arms  of  German  and  Japanese 
make.  The  field  and  horse  artillery  have  Q.  F.  guns  on  the 
Schneider-Canat  system;  while  the  coast  defence  consists,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  modem,  principally  of  guns  of  French  make. 

The  Mexican  Navy 

The  navy  consists  of  the  gunboats  Veracruz,  Zaragoza, 
Bravo,  General  Guerrero,  and  Morelos,  and  the  transports  Pro- 
greso  and  Oaxaca.  The  Zaragoza  is  213  feet  in  length,  has  a  dis- 
placement of  1,226  tons  and  a  speed  of  13  knots,  is  built  of  steel 
and  its  armament  consists  of  six  Canat  guns,  two  Nordenfeldt 
rapid  fire  guns  and  two  Hotchkiss  revolving  guns ;  the  Veracruz  is 
200  feet  in  length,  1,000  tons  displacement,  has  a  speed  of  16  knots 
and  is  built  of  steel.  It  has  two  Bethlehem  rapid  fire  guns,  6  semi- 
automatic rapid  fire  guns  and  one  Whitehead  torpedo  gun;  the 
Bravo  and  Morelos  are  each  252  feet  in  length,  have  2,500  horse 
power  and  a  speed  of  16  knots;  they  are  built  of  steel,  and  each 
carries  two  Bethlehem  rapid  fire  guns  and  six  Schneider-Canat 
rapid  fire  guns ;  the  Progreso  is  230  feet  in  length,  has  1,585  t6ns 
displacement,  a  speed  of  12  miles,  is  built  of  steel  and  will  carry 
250  tons  of  cargo  and  600  men,  with  the  usual  complement  of  offi- 
cers ;  the  Oaxaca  is  100  feet  in  length,  its  tonnage  is  979,  its  speed 
7  knots,  and  it  is  built  of  steel  and  will  carry  300  tons  of  cargo, 
200  cattle  and  500  men.  Reserves  are  provided  for  service  in  the 
army  in  case  of  war,  which  can,  if  needed,  be  made  to  swell  the 
entire  fighting  force  to  almost  500,000  men.    • 


POPULATION 


The  official  statement  of  the  Mexican  government  that  the 
population  of  the  country  had  increased  to  8,743,014  in  1869,  to 
10,791,685  in  1886,  to  13,607,259  in  1900  and  to  15,063,207  in 
1910,  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  population  had  increased 


518 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


at  the  rate  this  increase  in  the  census  enumeration  would  seem  to 
indicate,  but  rather  that  the  gradual  pacification  of  the  country 
under  the  Diaz  administration,  the  extension  far  and  wide 
throughout  the  hind  of  the  administrative  arms  of  the  government, 
and  a  certain  decrease  in  illiteracy  had  made  the  work  of  the  cen- 
sus taker  more  effective.  A  prominent  official  connected  with 
the  census  department  in  Mexico  City  expressed  it  as  his  opinion, 
in  the  presence  of  the  writer,  in  1910,  that  the  actual  population 
of  Mexico  was  at  that  date  nearer  twenty  millions  than  fifteen 
millions. 

Fundamentally  the  population  of  Mexico  is  Indian  and  mestizo 
(a  mixture  of  Indian  and  European).  The  official  census  of  1910 
showed  about  20  per  cent  white  population ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  large  percentage  of  the  so-called  whites  have  a  certain 
amount  of  Indian  blood  in  their  veins ;  in  fact  there  are  very  few 
of  the  older  families  that  have  not  come  under  this  influence. 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

Mexico  is  divided  politically  into  27  States,  three  Territories,  and  a  Federal 
District,  These  with  their  areas  and  populations,  capitals  and  populations,  are  as 
follows : 


STATES   AND   TERRITORIES 

Area 

(in  square 

miles) 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

Aguascalientes 

2,950 

58,328 

18,087 
27,222 
87,802 
63,569 

2,272 

38,009 

463 

11,370 

24,996 

8,917 
31,846 

9,247 
22,874 

2,773 
23,592 
35,. 382 
12,204 

3,556 
18,886 
25,316 
33,671 
76,900 
10,072 
32,128 
11,275 

1 ,595 
29,201 

120,511 
52,272 

86.661 
438,843 
405,707 
362,092 
77,704 
483,175 
720,753 

1,081,651 
594,278 
646,551 

1,208,855 
989,510 
991,880 
175,594 
365,150 

1,040,398 

1,101,600 
244,663 
9,109 
627,800 
323,642 
265,383 
187,574 
249,641- 
171.173 
184,171 

1,132,859 

Aguascalientes 

f  N.  District,  Ensanada. .  . 
1  S.   District,  La  Paz 

Campeche 

Tuxtla  Gutierrez 

Chihuahua 

45,198 
2,170 

Baja  California* 

Campeche 

5,536 

Chiapas 

16,775 

Chihuahua 

10,239 

Coahuila 

39 , 709 
35,414 

Colima 

Colima 

25,148 

Federal  District 

Durango 

Mexico 

31,763 
"71,066 

Guerrero 

Guanajuato 

Chilpanzingo 

Pachuca 

Guadalajara 

35,682 

Hidalgo 

7,994 

Jalisco 

39,009 

119,469 

Toluca 

31,247 

Morelia 

40,042 

Guernavaca 

12,776 

Oaxaca 

Monterey. 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Querfitaro 

Santa  Cruz  de  Bravo. .  .  . 

San  Lui  s  Potosi 

Culiacan 

Hermosillo 

San  Juan  Bautista 

Ci  idad  Victoria 

Tepic 

Tlaxcala 

18,528 

Puebla ••••■ 

33,011 

Quer^taro 

96,121 

Quintana  Roo* 

33,062 

San  Luis  Potosf .... 

2,000 

Sinaloa 

68,022 

Sonora 

13,527 

Tabasco 

14,578 

TamauUpas 

12,327 

Tepic* 

12,103 

Tlaxcala 

16,778 

Vera  Cruz 

2,812 

Xalapa 

24,816 

35,203            c!3y,ei3 

24,757            477,556 

1,560       

M6rida 

62,447 

Islands .........' 

Zacatecas 

25,900 

Total 

Territories. 


MEXICO  519 

Mexico  City 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  and  the  largest  and  finest  city  in  Latin  North 
America,  is  situated  in  the  Federal  District,  7,350  feet  above  sea  level  and  263 
miles  by  rail  from  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  290  miles  from  Acapulco 
on  the  Pacific,  839  miles  from  Nuevo  Laredo  on  the  United  States  frontier,  and 
1,224  miles  from  El  Paso,  Texas.  It  is  the  political,  financial,  and  commercial 
centre  of  the  Republic  and  is  also  an  important  manufacturing  centre.  The  city 
is  healthful  and  the  climate  moderate.  It  contains  many  beautiful  buildings,  has 
fine,  well  paved  streets,  and  is  covered  with  a  network  of  electric  street  railways. 
There  are  over  150  manufacturing  establishments  in  the  city,  producing  linen, 
cotton,  silk  textiles,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  alcohol,  beer,  flour,  cigars  and 
cigarettes,  chocolate,  hats,  ice,  furniture,  pianos,  matches,  glass,  soap,  bricks,  car- 
riages, etc.  Textiles  and  cigarettes  are  the  most  important  products.  The  city 
has  a  good  water  supply  and  a  modern  drainage  system  was  completed  in  1900. 
It  ranks  among  the  great  engineering  enterprises  of  modern  times.  Sewers  carry 
the  waste  of  the  city  to  a  canal  starting  from  the  San  Lazaro  gates  and  reaching 
43  miles  to  the  town  of  Zumbango,  where  the  canal  empties  into  a  tunnel  dug 
through  the  mountains  for  32,869  feet  to  a  river  which  carries  the  sewage  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  the  official  residence  of  the  United  States  Ambassador  to 
Mexico  and  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul-general. 


Chihuahua 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Chihuahua  River, 
4,650  feet  above  sea  level,  on  the  Mexican  Central  Railway,  250  miles  south  of 
El  Paso,  Texas,  and  974  miles  north  of  Mexico  City.  It  is  regularly  built  and  has 
broad,  well-kept  streets.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  silver-mining  district  and  has 
large  stock  raising  and  industrial  interests.  It  has  large  cotton  and  woolen  mills. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 


Aguas  Calientes 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a  plateau  6,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  300  miles  north  of  Mexico  City.  It  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
state  and  has  several  local  manufactures,  including  tobacco,  pottery,  tanneries,  dis- 
tilleries, cotton  mills  and  railway  shops.  It  exports  copper,  lead,  silver  bullion, 
and  hides  to  the  United  States  and  is  the  scene  of  a  great  annual  fair  in  December 
of  each  year,  lasting  two  weeks.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 


Durango 

This  city  is  situated  on  the  Funal  River  and  on  the  Mexican  International  Rail- 
way, 480  miles  northwest  of  Mexico  City.  It  is  6,321  feet  above  sea  level,  in  a 
Valley  near  the  famous  iron  hill  of  Cerro  del  Mercado.  The  city  is  well  built, 
has  several  handsome  edifices,  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has  street  railways  and 
telephone  service.  Agriculture,  stock  raising  and  mining  are  the  chief  occupations. 
It  has  also  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  flour  mills,  sugar  cane  works,  foundries  and 
tobacco  factories. 


520  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

Guadalajara 

The  capital  of  Jalisco,  is  situated  near  the  Kio  Urande  de  Santiago,  3,600  feet 
above  sea  level,  285  miles  northwest  of  Mexico  City.  It  is  well  built,  has  well  paved, 
wide  streets  and  many  squares.  It  has  many  noteworthy  buildings  and  is  an 
important  educational  and  scientific  centre.  It  has  a  good  water  supply,  has 
electric  lights  and  street  railways.  There  are  cotton  and  flour  mills,  tile  works,  a 
tannery,  and  a  shoe  factory.  Large  quantities  of  manufactured  goods,  including 
machinery,  are  imported  from  the  United  States.  The  surrounding  district  is  a 
fertile  agricultural  region  and  is  rich  in  silver  mines.  It  is  the  residence  of  a 
United  States  consul. 

Guanajuato 

This  city  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet  in  the  Cafiada  de  Marfil,  165 
miles  north  of  Mexico.  It  has  narrow,  tortuous  streets,  but  is  fairly  well  built.  It 
is  the  centre  of  a  large  silver  mining  district.  It  has  electric  light  and  manufac- 
tories of  soap,  chemicals,  pottery  and  some  silverware.  The  water  supply  is 
excellent.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent. 


Vera  Cruz 

The  most  important  port  of  Mexico  is  193  miles  (by  rail  263)  from  the  capital, 
on  the  Bay  of  Campeche.  The  location  is  unhealthful,  but  harbor  improvements, 
new  sewage  and  water  systems,  reclamation  of  waste  lands,  and  modern  pavements 
have  greatly  improved  it.  The  city  is  well  built.  Fishing  and  conmierce  are  the 
principal  occupations.  It  has  manufactories  of  cigars,  preserved  fruits,  furniture, 
textiles,  toys.  The  harbor  has  ample  dock  facilities  and  is  a  safe  refuge  for  vessels 
at  all  times.  Vera  Cruz  exports  various  ores,  coffee,  chicle  gum,  tobacco,  rubber, 
sugar,  hides  and  dyewoods  to  the  amount  of  $42,000,000  yearly.  The  imports  con- 
sist of  textiles,  machinery,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  coal  and  firearms  and 
are  valued  at  .$40,000,000  annually. 

Other  Cities 

Saltillo,  45  miles  southwest  of  Monterey,  has  important  industries  including 
cottons  and  woolens,  knitted  goods  and  flour.  San  Luis  PotoSI  is  215  miles  north- 
west of  Mexico  City.  It  is  well  laid  out  and  has  wide  streets  and  numerous  plazas.. 
It  is  an  important  railway  centre,  and  has  manufactures  of  woolen  goods,  furniture, 
matches,  flour,  soap,  iron  and  brass,  shawls,  and  cigars.  Pottery,  mineral  products 
and  hides  are  exported.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Puebla,  on  the 
Atoyac  River,  60  miles  southeast  of  the  capital,  is  a  pleasant  and  well  built  city, 
regularly  laid  out  with  broad  streets.  It  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  cities  of 
Mexico,  and  is  an  important  commercial  and  industrial  centre.  It  contains  several 
cotton  and  woolen  mills,  foundries  and  glass  factories,  and  has  railway  connection 
with  Mexico  City,  Vera  Cruz,  and,'  4xaca.  Monterey,  the  capital  of  Nuevo 
Leon,  is  about  165  miles  by  rail  south  of  Laredo,  Texas.  It  has  well  paved  arid 
clean  streets  and  has  an  extensive  trade  with  the  United  States.  Its  industries 
include  large  smelters,  an  electric  light  and  power  plant,  a  foundry,  breAveries, 
ice  factories,  and  flour  mills.  Silver  mining  and  agriculture  are  carried  on  in  the 
surrounding  district.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


By  Mahiuon  Wilcox 


A  CONTINENT  of  distinct  geologic  formation,  with  east  and 
west  mountain-folds,  at  right  angles  to  those  of  North  and 
South  America.  Though  on  the  map  it  appears  to  be  a 
mere  isthmus  extending  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  Mexico 
to  Colombia,  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  it 
is  in  fact  structurally  much  more  nearly  related  to  the  West 
Indies,  including  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  than  to  the  main  bodies  of 
the  larger  continents.  Probably  in  the  Tertiary  period  Central 
America  and  the  Antilles  together  formed  a  great  island  or  archi- 
pelago lying  between  North  and  South  America.  (Compare  Rob- 
ert T.  Hill's  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  etc.)  This  subject  will  be 
referred  to  below,  in  connection  with  the  mountain  system* 

Political  Division 

•  Politically,  the  name  groups  together  Guatfe^ala,  Honduras, 
Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  five  republics  which  are 
characterized  in  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Corinto,  Nicaragua, 
20  Jan.  1902,  as  '*  the  Central  American  family."  The  reader  will 
find  special  articles  on  these  fiv^  republics  elsewhere  in  this 
volume.  Moreover,  the  Isthmus  oi  x'anama  at  the  commencement 
of  its  history  under  the  Spanish  regime  was  associated  not  less 
intimately  with  the  settlements  in  the  region  north  and  west  of  it 
than  with  those  of  South  America;  British  Honduras  (Belize) 
also^    a    colony    lying    between    Guatemala    and    the    Caribbean 

[521] 


522  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Sea,  has  been  connected  about  equally  with  the  history  of  the 
Central  American  states  and  with  that  of  Yucatan  (Mexico).  We 
shall  therefore  mention  both  Panama  and  British  Honduras  in  the 
following  historical  sketch. 

Mountain  System 

The  mountains  described  as  extending  directly  at  right 
angles  to  the  cordilleras  of  North  and  South  America  are  part  of 
a  great  Antillean  system.  East  and  west  mountain  ranges  of  this 
type  occur  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Costa  Rica,  and  the  eastern 
parts  of  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  Guatemala,  and  the  adjoining  prov- 
inces of  Mexico,  also  along  the  Colombian  and  Venezuelan  coast 
of  South  America,  and  in  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  the  other  islands  of  the 
Greater  Antilles.  Two  submarine  ridges  stretching  across  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  between  Honduras  and  the  Sierra  Maestra  range 
in  Cuba,  and  from  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios  to  Jamaica,  are  regarded 
as  being  genetically  a  part  of  the  same  system.  The  interesting 
suggestion  is  made  by  Mr.  Robert  T.  Hill  that  the  Caribbean  lands 
before  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period  were  much  more  extensive 
than  now.  "  Geological  surveys,"  he  says,  "  have  proved  that 
during  this  time  of  expanding  Antillean  lands,  the  Gulf  Stream 
flowed  out  from  the  American  Mediterranean  as  now,  but  through 
a  passage  across  the  northern  half  of  Florida.  .  .  .  The  great 
banks  of  the  western  Caribbean  Sea  were  at  that  time  projections 
of  land  probably  connecting  Central  America  with  Jamaica  and 
possibly  Cuba."  Therefore  Florida,  the  Bahamas,  the  Antilles, 
and  at  least  the  eastern  part  of  Central  America,  totally  severed 
from  North  and  South  America,  together  formed  either  one  great 
island,  or,  more  probably,  a  group  of  several  large  islands,  with 
volcanic  chains  on  the  east  and  west,  and  with  characteristic 
rocks,  calcareous  and  igneous,  which  have  weathered  into  soils  of 
unsurpassed  fertility. 

Volcanoes 

A  Central  American  group  of  volcanoes,  with  31  active  craters 
crossing  the  western  ends  of  the  Antillean  folds,  occurs  on  the 
Pacific  side  of  the  republics,  from  Costa  Rica  to  Guatemala.  The 
central  and  eastern  region  is  shown  by  the  observations  of  Mr. 
P.  W.  Chamberlain,  member  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  to  be  well  watered,  with  comparatively  low  mountains, 
very  rich  soil,  and  a  good  climate  —  except  the  Caribbean  coast 
which,  from  Trujillo  downward,  including  the  Mosquito  territory, 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  523 

is  hot  and  insalubrious.     Lack  of  communication  and  means  of 
transportation  has  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  intermediate 
lands,  the  most  attractive   and  extensive  part   of  the  country, 
nearly  or  quite  beyond  the  influence  of  the  volcanic  area.     The 
easily  approachable  volcanic  strip   (in  Nicaragua,  for  example, 
between  the  lakes  and  the  Pacific)  has  been  preferred  hitherto  as 
a  place  of  residence.    Thus  one  who  visits  only  the  principal  cities 
in  the  centre  of  population,  seeing  nothing  of  the  naturally  richer 
and  better  districts,  receives  the  impression  that  this  is  the  most 
volcanic  region  of  the  globe.     The  largest  volcanoes  are  in  the 
north  —  for  example,  the  Acatenango,  14,000  feet  elevation,  in 
Guatemala,  and  in  the  south  —  for  example,  the  Irazii  and  Ture- 
alba,  of  12,000  feet,  in  Costa  Rica.    In  Nicaragua  the  highest,  El 
Vie  jo,  is  only  5,800  feet  above  sea-level.     In  Guatemala  we  find 
the  volcanoes,  Fuego,  Cerro  Quemado,  El  Chato,  etc. ;  in  Salvador, 
Ilopango,  San  Salvador,  and  others.     Earthquake  shocks  in  the 
republics  last  mentioned,  and  also  in  Costa  Rica,  have  been,  as  a 
rule,  very  severe,  while  those  of  Nicaragua  are  comparatively 
mild  in  force  and  extend  over  limited  areas.    The  recorded  seismic 
disturbances  that  have  affected  the  whole  country  are  those  of 
1538,  1648,  1651,  1844,  and  1865.    Central  Nicaragua,  east  of  the 
lakes,  Nicaragua  and  Managua  (the  largest  bodies  of  fresh  water 
in  Central  America),  is  regarded  as  nearly  immune  from  such  dis- 
turbances.     Nicaragua's  centre  of  volcanic  activity  is  a  ridge, 
the  Sierra  de  los  Morabios,  between  the  Cosigiiina  (whose  outburst 
on  2  Jan.  1835  was  considered  the  grandest  on  record  before  the 
eruption  of  Krakato  in  1883),  and  the  Momotombo.    In  this  ridge 
are  10  vents,  two  of  which,  the  Telica  and  Momotombo,  are  active, 
and  none  can  be  properly  called  extinct.     Southeast  from  the 
Morabios  ridge  is  the  isolated  active  volcano  Masaya.    The  Orose 
is  in  Costa  Rican  territory.    The  island  of  Ometepe  in  Lake  Nicar- 
agua has  two  volcanoes,  one  dormant,  the  other  extinct.     Com- 
paratively   few    members    of    the    Central    American    chain    of 
volcanoes  are  of  the  type  with  which  fierce  eruptions  are  com- 
monly associated ;  moreover,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  on  their  flanks, 
due  to  the  high  percentage  of  soda  and  potash  contained  in  vol- 
canic dust,  tempts  agriculturists  to  remain  in  this  neighborhood. 
It  will  be  noted  with  interest,  also,  that  the  line  of  the  interconti- 
nental railway  keeps  near  to  the  Pacific  coast.     It  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  for  many  years  yet  to  come  the  best  part  of  Central 
America  —  the  central  districts  —  will  receive  only  secondary  con- 
sideration, remaining  comparatively  undeveloped. 


524  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


HISTORY 

Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  a  notary  of  Triana,  was  the  first  Span- 
iard to  explore  any  portion  of  the  Caribbean  coast  of  Central 
America.  He  embarked  at  Cadiz  in  October  1500 ;  and,  after  reach- 
ing the  mainland  of  South  America  near  the  present  Venezuelan 
boundary,  coasted  westward  and  made  observations  of  the  isth- 
mus from  a  point  below  Darien  to  Nombre  de  Dios.  Columbus,  on 
his  fourth  voyage  to  America,  sailing  from  Cadiz  9  May  1502,  and 
stopping  at  Santo  Domingo  on  the  way,  arrived  off  the  shore  of 
Honduras  July  30.  There  he  heard  reports  of  the  wealth  of 
Mexico,  but  decided  to  continue  the  voyage  southward,  searching 
for  a  strait  that  should  lead  across  terra  firma  to  India.  Thus  he 
and  his  companions,  including  his  son  and  brother,  passed  a  cape 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  Gracias  a  Dios,  and  on  25  September, 
reached  the  river  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  and  heard  stories  from 
the  natives  which  made  them  believe  they  were  within  a  nine-days ' 
journey  of  a  splendid  land,  such  as  Marco  Polo  had  described  in  his 
veracious  account  of  travels  in  Asia,  and  that  the  river  Ganges  lay 
only  a  little  beyond.  On  7  October  they  came  to  the  beautiful 
Laguna  de  Chiriqui,  and  on  the  adjoining  Veragua  coast  they 
obtained  a  large  amount  of  gold  by  trading  with  the  natives. 

Columbus  lingered  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
Chagre  (now  called  Chagres)  River  and  Colon  —  at  Porto  Bello 
from  2  to  9  November,  and  at  other  points  within  a  few  miles  for 
three  weeks  and  five  days.  Thus  during  more  than  a  month  the 
great  discoverer  hovered  voluntarily  about  the  spot  where  the 
strait  he  dreamed  of  was  to  be  cut  after  four  centuries  should  have 
elapsed.  And  when  he  thought  to  return  by  the  way  he  had  come, 
abandoning  the  search,  stress  of  weather  held  his  vessels  back,  so 
that  it  was  not  until  6  Jan.  1503,  that  they  anchored  in  a  little 
river  just  west  of  Colon.  He  wished  to  plant  a  colony  on  the 
coast  between  Veragua  and  Cerebaro,  but,  hostilities  breaking  out 
between  the  Spaniards  and  the  natives,  the  former  were  obliged 
to  abandon  their  attempt,  and  once  more  Columbus  passed  the 
place  of  the  future  canal,  clinging  to  the  shore  before  setting  a 
straight  course  for  Jamaica. 

First  Spanish  Colonies 

In  1506  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  and  Vicente  Pinzon  sailed  along 
the  coast  of  Honduras  westward,  exploring  the  Gulf  of  Honduras, 
in  search  of  a  passage  by  water  to  the  Far  East  —  India  and 


West  from 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  525 

Cathay.  Several  years  passed  before  the  Spanish  king,  Ferdi- 
nand, authorized  Alonzo  de  Ojeda  and  Diego  de  Nicuesa  to  colonize 
and  govern  in  his  name  the  northern  coast  of  South  and  Cen- 
tral America.  The  river  Darien  or  Atrato  was  made  the  dividing 
line  between  their  dominions.  The  eastern  or  South  American 
portion  was  called  Neuva  Andalucia,  and  of  this  Ojeda  was  made 
governor;  the  western  division  was  named  ''  Golden  Castile," 
Castilla  del  Oro,  and  the  command  given  to  Nicuesa.  The  latter 
secured  the  larger  number  of  followers;  the  former,  however, 
attracted  to  his  standard  Martin  de  Encisco,  afterv\^ard  governor, 
Balboa,  discoverer  of  the  Southern  Sea,  and  Francisco  Pizarro, 
conqueror  of  Peru.  The  forces  of  both  governors  suffered 
extreme  hardships.  Nicuesa 's  capital  was  at  Nombre  de  Dios, 
Ojeda 's  at  San  Sebastian  —  so  named  because  the  Indians  afflicted 
them  as  that  saint  was  tortured.  Ojeda  returning  to  Espafiola, 
where  he  died,  Encisco,  Balboa  and  Pizarro  removed  the  capital 
of  Nueva  Andalucia  to  Antigua  del  Darien  —  that  is,  a  point 
within  Nicuesa 's  dominions;  but  the  natives  of  Darien  did  not 
poison  their  arrows.  In  the  contest  for  supremacy  that  ensued, 
Nicuesa  was  the  loser.  Balboa  assumed  command,  and  Antigua 
became  the  centre  of  Spanish  enterprise  in  that  part  of  America. 
On  25  Sept.  1513,  Balboa  discovered  the  Southern  Sea,  and  four 
days  later  took  possession  of  it,  with  all  its  lands  and  ports  and 
islands  in  the  name  of  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain.  Before  news 
of  this  discovery  reached  the  Spanish  court,  a  successor  to  Balboa 
had  been  appointed  in  the  person  of  Pedrarias  (also  called 
Davila).  In  1517  Balboa  was  falsely  charged  with  treason,  and 
executed.  Pedrarias  Davila,  being  superseded  in  command, 
migrated  to  the  south  coast  and  founded  the  city  of  Panama  (that 
is,  the  old  Panama,  six  miles  from  the  present  city),  15  Aug.  1519. 
A  voyage  into  the  unknown  northwest  from  Panama  was  made 
in  1522  by  Gil  Gonzales,  who  explored  the  Dulce  and  Nicoya  gulfs 
indenting  Costa  Rica's  southern  shore.  Thence  northward  50 
leagues  he  went,  to  the  domain  of  a  chief  whose  name  was  Nica- 
ragua, and  w^ho  dwelt  near  the  principal  lake  of  that  region.  Gon- 
zales learned  that  this  lake,  though  lying  near  the  Southern  Sea, 
had  an  outlet  to  the  Caribbean.  In  his  narrative  he  says  that 
the  discovery  is  important,  inasmuch  as  only  ''  two  or  three 
leagues  of  very  level  road  separate  the  two  seas. ' '  The  expedition 
returned  to  Panama  in  1523,  after  baptizing  thousands  of  natives 
and  securing  112,000  pesos  of  gold.  On  15  Sept.  1521,  Panama  was 
made  a  city  with  royal  privileges;  the  episcopal  see  was  trans- 
ferred to  it ;  from  this  base  expeditions  were  sent  out  toward  Peru 


526  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

as  well  as  into  the  northwest.  Pedrarias,  in  1524,  dispatched  Fran- 
cisco Hernandez  de  Cordoba  with  Hernando  de  Soto  and  other 
captains  to  Lake  Nicaragua.  Gil  Gonzales,  continuing  his  dis- 
coveries in  Honduras  and  Nicaragua,  came  into  collision  with 
de  Soto;  and  only  a  little  later  one  of  the  captains  of  Hernan 
Cortes,  the  Spanish  conqueror  of  Mexico,  appeared  as  a  claimant 
for  the  territory  of  Honduras. 

In  the  latter  part  of  October  1524  Cortes  set  out  from  Mexico, 
marching  to  Honduras  with  an  army  of  about  100  horsemen,  40 
archers  and  arquebusiers,  and  3,000  native  warriors  and  servants. 
After  making  himself  governor  of  the  country,  he  returned  in 
triumph  to  Mexico  City  in  May  1526.  Pedrarias  went  to  Nicara- 
gua about  the  same  time :  there  were  rival  Spanish  governors  even 
then  in  Nicaragua  and  Honduras.  Guatemala  and  Salvador  were 
overrun  by  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  second  in  command  to  Cortes :  the 
former  country,  in  which  a  great  empire  had  existed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era,  was  inspected  by  Alvarado  in  1522,  and 
conquered  with  a  small  force  of  Spaniards  and  native  allies  before 
two  years  had  passed. 

Veragua 

In  1535  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  colonize  Veragua  was 
made  in  the  interest  of  the  descendants  of  Columbus  (on  whom  the 
titles,  ''Duke  of  Veragua,"  etc.,  had  been  conferred),  and  a  still 
more  calamitous  enterprise  was  that  of  Diego  Gutierrez,  a  citizen 
of  Madrid  who  led  an  expedition  to  Costa  Rica  north  of  Veragua 
in  1540.  Francis  Drake,  English  privateersman,  attacked  Nombre 
de  Dios  in  1572.  Again,  in  1595,  Drake  (now  Sir  Francis, 
knighted  for  his  feat  of  sailing  round  the  world).  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins and  others  took  Nombre  de  Dios;  but  an  English  force  of  750 
men  sent  to  attack  Panama  was  defeated  by  the  Spaniards  when 
half-way  across  the  isthmus.  Drake,  dying  on  28  Jan.  1596,  was 
buried  off  Porto  Bello.  The  conquest  of  Costa  Rica  was  under- 
taken by  Nicaraguan  Spaniards  in  1560.  Partial  success  rewarded 
the  efforts  of  the  soldiers;  meanwhile,  however,  great  progress 
had  been  made  in  the  pacification  of  that  province  by  the  efforts 
of  Franciscan  friars. 

Buccaneers  in  the  17th  Century 

Captain  William  Parker,  sailing  from  Plymouth  in  November 
1601,  captured  Porto  Bello.  In  December  1616  the  king  of  Spain 
informed  the  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro  that  he  and  the  com- 
mercial world  believed  that  communication  might  be  established 


-.I" 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  527 

easily  between  the  oceans  by  constructing  a  canal.  This  was  the 
century  of  English  depredations  and  of  Spanish  idle  dreaming  — 
Spain's  centuries  of  vigorous  expansion  having  passed.  In  1668 
the  Welsh  buccaneer  Morgan  plundered  Porto  Bello,  his  foul 
cruelty  rivaling  any  Spanish  misdeed  in  this  blood-stained  region. 
Three  years  later,  having  at  his  disposal  a  fleet  of  37  ships  and  a 
force  of  2,000  fighting  men,  he  captured  Panama  (January  1671). 
The  inhabitants  sot  fire  to  their  homes,  and  built  a  new  city  of  the 
same  name  at  a  little  distance  in  a  locality  less  exposed  to  attack. 
That  was  the  beginning  of  the  present  city  of  Panama.  Granada, 
in  Nicaragua,  was  sacked  by  French  and  English  pirates  in  1686. 

Scotch  Colony  on  the  Isthmus 

A  number  of  influential  Scotchmen,  chief  of  whom  was  the 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  William  Paterson,  were  author- 
ized by  the  Scottish  parliament  in  1695  to  found  colonies  in  sav- 
age lands;  afterward  obtaining  letters  patent  from  William  III 
of  England.  Paterson  chose  Darien,  believing  the  control  of  the 
traffic  of  the  isthmus  to  be  essential  to  the  prosperity  of  England ; 
he  certainly  was  not,  as  is  incorrectly  and  commonly  stated, 
merely  anxious  to  make  money  for  his  company,  and  reckless  of 
consequences  to  the  colonists.  (Consult  Bannister's  Life;  Rod- 
riguez's Anexion  de  Cuba;  etc.)  The  largest  and  most  costly 
expedition  that  had  yet  been  fitted  out  for  colonization  in 
America  sailed  from  Leith,  26  July  1698,  and  founded  '*  New  St. 
Andrew."  Subsequently  recruits  were  sent  out  to  them;  but  the 
project  came  to  a  miserable  end.  More  than  2,000  lives  and  sev- 
eral millions  of  money  had  been  lost,  when  the, survivors  were 
starved  into  surrender  by  the  Spaniards. 

A  British  squadron  commanded  by  Admiral  Edward  Vernon 
(21  Nov.  1739),  took  Porto  Bello,  but  was  defeated  at  Cartagena. 
Meanwhile  English  settlements  of  a  very  peculiar  character  had 
been  begun  in  Mosquitia  and  at  Belize. 

Mosquito  Coast 

The  Misskito  tribe,  called  by  the  Spanish  and  English 
*'  Sambos  "  or  ''  Mosquitos,"  a  hybrid  people,  descendants  of 
fugitive. slaves, ''  Cimarrones,"  and  natives,  ruled  by  an  hereditary 
king,  dwelt  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Honduras  and  NicaragTia  in 
the  17th  century.  Unoccupied  by  the  Spanish,  this  coast  was  fre- 
quented by  buccaneers,  who  made  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  on  the 
dividing  line  between  the  colonies  just  mentioned,  their  rendezvous. 


528  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Small  settlements  of  English  adventurers  existed  in  this  region ; 
by  the  treaty  of  Madrid  (1670)  certain  rights  were  conceded  to 
Great  Britain;  the  British  claim  was  asserted  (1744)  by  sending 
troops  and  building  forts,  but  withdra^vIl  (1786)  when  an  agree- 
ment was  reached  as  to  the  cession  by  Spain  of  the  territory  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  to  which  we  shall  now  refer. 

The  English  Colony 

The  ex-freebooters  of  Belize,  reinforced  by  other  adventurers, 
were  able  to  exploit  the  rich  forests  and  hold  their  ovni,  or  more,  in 
the  contest  for  the  possession  of  this  territory  waged  at  intervals 
between  the  authorities  of  Yucatan  and  the  wood-cutters  (regarded 
as  interlopers)  from  1733  until  the  end  of  the  18th  century.  The 
treaty  of  Versailles  (1783)  defined  the  limits  of  Belize;  such  limits 
were  more  precisely  stated  in  the  treaty  signed  at  London,  14  July 
1786 ;  but  the  boundaries  were  subsequently  extended  by  encroach- 
ments of  the  wood-cutters.  Thus  England,  retaining  the  region 
now  known  as  the  colony  of  British  Honduras,  abandoned  posses- 
V  sion  of  the  Mosquito  coast,  though  her  claim  to  exercise  a  certain 

degree  of  influence  in  the  latter  territory  (from  which  the  Span- 
iards were  expelled  by  the  Sambos  in  1796)  was  not  expressly  and 
absolutely  surrendered  until  1850  or  1860.  (See  treaties  mentioned 
below.)  Before  that  determination,  several  reverses  were  sus- 
tained in  Nicaragua.  An  English  force  was  repulsed  at  Fort 
San  Carlos  in  1769.  A  few  years  later  the  design  to  sunder  the 
Spanish  provinces  of  Central  America,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
capture  a  route  for  an  interoceanic  canal,  by  taking  possession  of 
Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  cities  of  Granada  and  Leon  (see  Ban- 
croft's Central  America),  proved  infeasible.  An  English  force 
of  about  1,800  men,  including  a  party  of  marines  under  Horatio 
Nelson,  was  forced  by  the  deadly  fevers  to  abandon  the  attempt. 

Spain  in  Possession 

Except  Belize,  Mosquitia,  and  large  tracts  in  which  the 
Indians  remained  nearly  undisturbed,  Spain  now  held  the  land,  but 
no  longer  had  energy  or  opportunity  to  develop  its  natural 
resources.  The  natives,  more  docile  and  serviceable  than  in  other 
parts  of  America,  seldom  increased  the  difficulties  of  the  situation 
by  uprisings;  there  was,  however,  little  incentive  to  accumulate 
property  in  a  land  menaced  constantly  for  a  hundred  years  by 
English,  Dutch,  and  French  pirates,  and  the  mother  country  had 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  529 

grown  too  poor  to  take  the  lead  in  industrial  enterprises.  The  sev- 
eral divisions  of  an  apathetic  population  were  easily  drawni 
together  for  administrative  purposes :  the  captain-general  of 
Guatemala  by  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  controlled  the  prov- 
inces of  Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Salvador,  beside 
others  now  within  Mexican  boundaries.  Revolt  against  Spain  was 
the  form  in  which  the  spirit  of  the  people,  awakened  from  this 
lethargy,  naturally  expressed  itself.  Unfortunately  armed  revolt 
has  ever  since  been  too  closely  identified  with  progress  in  the 
popular  conception.  The  first  weak  blow^  for  Central  American 
freedom  w^as  struck  in  San  Salvador,  5  Nov.  1811.  A  sequel  to 
this  attempt  (in  Leon,  Nicaragua,  13  Dec.  1811)  duplicated  this 
Salvadorean  effort,  in  result  as  in  motive.  A  third  failure  was 
recorded  when  the  Colombian  insurgents  (1820)  fitted  out  a  com- 
bined sea  and  land  expedition  to  operate  against  the  towns  of 
Omoa  and  Trujillo.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama  cast  in  its  lot  with 
South  America,  rather  than  with  Central  America,  by  voluntary 
annexation  to  the  republic  of  Colombia  on  28  Nov.  1821.  (For  its 
subsequent  history  see  Colombia  and  Panama.)  The  declaration  of 
independence  at  the  city  of  Guatemala,  15  Sept.  1821,  was  little 
more  than  an  echo  of  the  triumphant  cry  of  other  Spanish- Amer- 
ican colonies  in  revolt;  it  was  soon  followed  (5  Jan.  1822),  by  a 
decree  of  the  junta  directiva  annexing  Central  America  to  Mexico. 
Salvador  refusing  to  join  in  this  surrender,  a  war  with  Guatemala 
ensued.  Before  18  months  had  passed  the  Central  American  prov- 
inces resolved  to  form  a  union  and  constitute  a  single  nation.  On 
1  July  1823  a  national  constituent  assembly  expressed  this  purpose, 
the  name  chosen  for  the  nation  being  Provincias  Unidas  del  Centro 
de  America. 

Slavery  Abolished 

Though  laggards  in  the  race  to  win  freedom,  the  Central 
Americans  were  prompt  in  bestowing  it.  The  laws  of  31  Dec. 
1823,  and  17  and  24  April  1824,  emancipated  their  slaves  and 
declared  that  slaves  of  other  countries  on  coming  to  Central 
America  should  be  freed.  When  dissensions  and  civil  war  broke 
up  their  confederacy,  they  had  at  least  taken  one  step  forward,  in 
advance  of  their  neighbors.  The  congressional  decree  of  30  May 
1838,  granting  to  the  states  the  privilege  of  unrestrained  action  in 
most  important  matters  practically  dissolved  the  union,  though 
Salvador  tried  to  maintain  or  renew  it  long  after  the  other  con- 
federates  withdrew.      Nicaragua,   on   recovering  her   autonomy 

35 


530  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

became  involved  in  a  dispute  with  Great  Britain,  the  latter 
upholding  the  claim  of  the  Mosquito  king  to  all  the  territory  lying 
between  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios  and  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan 
River,  and  sending  (January  1848)  two  warships  to  occupy  the 
port  of  San  Juan.  Nicaragua  yielded  provisionally  to  superior 
force.  At  this  point  the  intervention  of  the  United  States  was 
felt ;  and  soon  afterward  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  concluded  at 
Washington  19  April  1850,  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  provided  that  neither  power  should  occupy,  fortify,  colo- 
nize, or  exercise  dominion  over  any  portion  of  Central  American 
territory  (except  Belize),  or  make  use  of  a  protectorate  in  any 
form.  In  regard  to  this  treaty  the  statements  have  been  made: 
(1)  That  it  guarantees  Central  American  independence;  (2)  That 
it  encourages  the  maintenance  of  English  influence.  Both  state- 
ments are  correct.  The  English  influence  was  considered  bene- 
ficial within  certain  limits.  By  the  Zeledon  Wyke  treaty  of  28  Jan. 
1860,  England  ceded  to  Nicaragua  absolutely  the  protectorate  over 
the  Mosquito  coast. 

Walker's  Campaign 

While  the  diplomacy  of  the  government  of  the  United  States 
was  in  the  main  considerate  and  helpful  at  this  time,  the  conduct 
of  some  of  her  citizens  left  much  to  be  desired.  San  Juan  del 
Norte,  or  Greytown,  was  bombarded  by  the  United  States  sloop- 
of-war  Cyane,  and  burned  to  the  ground  by  a  landing  party  from 
that  vessel,  on  13  July  1854.  William  Walker,  a  native  of  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  of  Scotch  descent,  sailed  from  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
4  May  1855,  on  the  brig  Vesta,  with  58  men,  to  take  part  in  the 
little  wars  of  political  factions  in  Nicaragua.  Before  long  he 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force  composed  of 
Americans,  European  adventurers,  and  natives,  with  whose  aid  he 
became  master  of  the  situation,  forced  the  people  to  elect  him  to 
the  presidency,  and  was  inducted  into  office  12  July  1856. 
Attacked  by  the  combined  forces  of  Salvador,  Costa  Rica,  Guate- 
mala, and  Honduras,  he  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  Returning  in 
1860  with  another  filibustering  expedition  (this  time  landing  at 
Trujillo  on  the  coast  of  Honduras),  he  was  captured,  tried  by 
court-martial,  sentenced  to  death,  and  executed.  Renewal  of  the 
efforts  to  achieve  Central  American  unity  was  due  in  a  measure 
to  President  Barrios  of  Guatemala  (1873-85).  For  the  further 
development  of  this  design;  the  attempt  (1895-98)  to  unite  Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua,  and  Salvador ;  the  treaty  of  20  Jan.  1902,  men- 
tioned above,  and  events  of  the  years  1885  to  1916,  we  refer  our 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  531 

readers  to  separate  articles  on  each  of  the  five  republics.  Only  a 
few  matters  of  general  interest  are  mentioned  in  the  following 
paragraph : 

Events  in  the  Last  Decade 

All  the  Central  American  countries  sent  delegates  to  a  con- 
ference held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  14  Nov.  to  20  Dec.  1907.  As 
a  result  of  their  deliberations  eight  conventions  were  signed,  in 
relation  to  a  general  treaty  of  peace  and  amity,  the  establishment 
of  a  Central  American  court  of  justice,  of  an  international 
bureau,  of  a  pedagogical  institute  also  international  in  design,  etc. 
The  Central  American  Court  of  Justice  was  opened  at  Cartago, 
Costa  Rica,  26  May  1908  in  the  presence  of  representatives  of  the 
five  nations,  of  the  United  States,  and  of  Mexico.  This  interna- 
tional court  is  now  established  at  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica.  On  20 
Jan.  1909  a  meeting  at  Tegucigalpa,  Honduras,  was  attended  by 
delegates  of  the  five  nations  and  an  agreement  was  framed  to 
secure  the  unification  of  the  monetary  systems,  customs  duties, 
weights  and  measures,  fiscal  laws,  and  consular  service.  This  was 
the  year  of  the  Zelaya  episode  (see  Nicaragua  —  History).  Other 
happenings  served  to  concentrate  attention  upon  Nicaragua;  and 
in  1912,  during  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  the  entire 
autumn,  that  country  was  in  a  state  of  revolution  which  imper- 
iled the  lives  and  property  of  foreigners  and  so  led  to  interven- 
tion by  the  United  States.  (Again,  but  in  this  instance  for  an 
account  of  the  employment  of  force  and  its  sequel,  see  Nicaragua 
— History.)  In  January  1914  another  conference  took  place,  which 
carried  even  further  the  recommendations  of  the  conference  of 
1909  and  added  plans  for  agreements  as  to  international  high- 
ways, postal  and  telegraphic  regulations,  and  coasting  trade,  as 
well  as  the  founding  of  a  central  pedagogic  institute  and  a  cen- 
tral mission  of  foreign  relations.  Although  no  united  action  had, 
up  to  February  1917,  been  taken  to  put  in  operation  the  plans  of 
these  conferences,  good  influences  were  at  work  making  for  abetter 
understanding  of  the  essential  community  of  interests  and  respon- 
sibilities and  bringing  nearer  to  realization  the  desired  stabiliza- 
tion of  financial  and  political  conditions.  Thus,  the  convention 
between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  proclaimed  24  June 
1916,  served  to  call  attention  to  the  need  of  increasing  eventually 
the  solidarity  of  four  of  the  states  —  Nicaragua,  Honduras, 
El  Salvador,  and  Costa  Rica  —  while  the  establishment  of  banks 
in  Central  America,  with  the  aid  of  capitalists  in  the  United 
States,  has  proved  the  power  of  such  organizations  to  aid  regular 


532  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  orderly  development  throughout  all  that  region,  wherever 
transportation  routes  can  be  maintained  with  reasonable  economy. 
Consult  in  this  connection  Nicaraguan  Canal  Route  (Treaty 
Series,  No.  624,  Washington  1916)  and  Proceedinfjs  of  the  First 
Pan  American  Financial  Conference  (especially  pages  583-587, 
Washington  1915.) 

Bibliography 

Bandelier,  A.  F.,  Notes  on  the  Bibliography  of  Yucatan  and  Central  America 
(In  American  Antiquarian  Soeietj'  Proceedings,  new  series,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1880, 
Vol.  I,  No.  1);  Brown,  P.  M.,  American  Intervention  in  Central  America  (In 
Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass.),  Latin  America  (New  York  1914) ;  Charnay,  D., 
Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World  (New  York  1887)  ;  Cortes,  H.,  The  Fifth  Letter 
of  Reman  Cortes  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  containing  an  Account  of  his  Expe- 
dition to  Honduras  (London  1868) ;  Enock,  C.  R.,  The  Republics  of  Central  and 
South  America  (London  1913);  Palacio,  D.  Gariade,  Carta  dirigida  al  Rey  de 
Espana,  aho  1576  (New  York  1860) ;  Keane,  A.  H.,  Central  and  South  America 
(London  1909) ;  Palmer,  F.,  Central  America  and  its  Problems  (New  York  1910) ; 
Phillips,  P.  L.,  A  List  of  Books,  Magazine  Articles,  and  Maps  relating  to  Central 
America,  1800-1900  (Washington  1902)  ;  Shepherd,  W.  R.,  Central  and  South 
America  (London  1914) ;  Squier,  E.  G.,  The  States  of  Central  America  (New  York 
1858) ;  Verrill,  A.  H.,  South  and  Central  American  Trade  Conditions  (New  York 
1914);  Walker,  W.,  The  War  in  Nicaragua  (Mobile  1860). 


NATIONAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

COSTA  RICA,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  bounded  by 
Nicaragua,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  Panama,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean;  area  about  22,000  square  miles. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  seven  provinces  and  these  are 
subdivided  into  cantones,  and  the  cantones  into  districts.  Each 
canton  has  a  municipal  organization  elected  by  the  people;  but 
the  political  chiefs  of  the  cantones  and  the  governors  of  the  prov- 
inces are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  republic.  The 
provinces  are :  San  Jose,  Alajuela,  Cartago,  Heredia,  Guanacaste, 
Puntarenas  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  Chilean  Punta  Arenas) 
and  Limon. 

The  mountains  do  not  form  a  continuous  chain,  but  are 
divided  into  two  main  groups,  that  of  the  northwest  and  that  of 
the  southeast,  the  former  including  the  volcanoes  Irazu  (11,200 
feet),  Turialba  (11,000  feet),  Barba  (9,335  feet),  and  Poas  (8,675 
feet).  Eruptions  occurred  in  1723,  1726,  1821,  1847,  1864,  and 
1866.  The  southeastern  or  Talamanca  group,  in  which  there  are 
no  signs  of  recent  volcanic  activity,  includes  the  Buena  Vista 
(10,800  feet),  Chirripo  Grande  (11,850  feet),  Pico  Blanco  (9,650 
feet),  etc.  A  transverse  system,  the  Cordillera  de  Dota,  below 
Cartago,  renders  communication  between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern sections  of  the  country  exceedingly  difficult.  More  than  one- 
half  of  the  area  of  Costa  Rica  lies  between  2,900  and  6,825  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  is  covered  with  virgin  forests,  the  vegetation 
being  so   dense   that   it   is   almost   impossible   to   penetrate   the 

[533] 


534  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

interior  of  these  regions  save  by  way  of  the  rivers.  From  the 
coast  to  a  height  of  2,900  feet  are  tropical  forests  and  savannas ; 
above  6,800  or  6,900  feet,  approximately,  are  the  regions  of  oaks 
and  chaparrales,  extending  up  to  9,800  feet;  and  subalpine  or 
subandine  flora  characterize  the  regions  between  9,800  feet  and 
the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains. 

The  climate  in  general  is  healthful,  fevers  occurring  only  in 
regions  of  less  than  150  feet  elevation,  but  there  is  a  great  variety 
according  to  altitude.  The  coast  lands  and  regions  below  3,000  feet 
have  a  high  temperature,  ranging  from  70°  to  80° F.,  and  in  conse- 
quence a  torrid  climate.  The  temperate  zone  lies  between  3,000 
and  7,500  feet  and  is  very  healthful  with  a  mean  temperature  of 
about  62°F.  Winds  blow  continually  and  are  a  great  cause  of  dis- 
comfort in  the  dry  season  —  December  to  May.  The  annual  rain- 
fall averages  about  100  inches. 

The  tapir,  deer,  puma,  jaguar,  armadillo,  iguana,  and  many 
varieties  of  monkeys,  are  found  in  the  forests,  a  few  species  being 
peculiar  to  Costa  Rica,  while  the  rest  belong  as  well  to  South  or 
North  America.  Of  avifauna  there  are  725  known  species;  of 
reptilia  and  batrachia  over  130  species ;  and  the  species  of  fish  are 
especially  varied  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  those  of  the 
Pacific  are  almost  wholly  different  from  those  of  Caribbean 
waters.  The  flora  is  essentially  tropical.  There  are  mahogany, 
cedar,  brazilwood,  fistic  oak  and  ebony  in  the  forests.  Coffee, 
bananas,  maize  and  sugar  cane  are  commonly  cultivated.  Rubber 
also  is  found. 

From  mines  near  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya  the  exports  of  gold  and 
silver  bullion  in  a  single  year  were  $792,847.  In  1913  gold  and 
silver  to  the  amount  of  $1,021,437  was  mined  and  exported, 
and  to  the  amount  of  $805,897  in  1915.  The  production  of 
one  of  the  three  principal  auriferous  districts  has  exceeded  the 
sum  of  $10,000,000;  and  in  view  of  the  circumstance  that  this  sum 
has  been  produced  by  the  crudest  mining  and  metallurgical 
methods,  the  reward  which  would  follow  the  proper  application  of 
capital  sufficient  to  operate  on  a  large  and  modern  scale  is  sur- 
misable. There  are  deposits  of  iron,  nickel,  and  manganese  in 
several  cantones.  One  manganese  mine  is  in  operation  in  Costa 
Rica.  It  began  shipping  in  May  1916,  and  is  now  sending  out 
about  300  tons  a  month,  all  in  bags.  It  is  making  preparations  to 
install  an  equipment  of  docks,  furnaces,  etc.,  with  a  capacity  of 
3,000  to  5,000  tons  a  month.  An  oil  company  has  acquired  rights 
to  oil  lands  in  Limon,  Gruanacaste  and  Puntarenas. 


COSTA  RICA  535 


HISTORY  OF  COSTA  RICA 

An  account  of  the  Spanish  settlements  at  the  beginning  of 
,  the  16th  century  is  given  in  the  article  Central  America.  The 
Spanish  crown  in  1540  established  the  province  of  Costa  Rica ;  in 
1560  and  1573  defined  its  frontiers;  in  1562  appointed  Juan 
Vasquez  de  Coronado  military  governor  of  Costa  Rica  and 
Veragua.  The  city  of  Cartago,  until  1823  the  capital,  was  founded 
by  Coronado,  but  it  was  a  city  only  in  name.  During  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  existence  of  the  province  no  headway  was  made.  The 
Indian  tribes  were  the  most  intractable  of  their  kind;  white  set- 
tlers were  few.  A  brief  period  of  comparative  prosperity  began 
when  Capt.-Gen.  Sandoval  in  1638-39  made  a  new  port  at  Matina 
and  opened  a  road  from  it  to  the  capital.  The  value  of  cacao 
plantations  near  the  road  increased,  and  the  eastern  coast,  as  well 
as  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  was  visited  by  trading  ships.  But  the  buc- 
caneers swooped  down  upon  the  coast  as  soon  as  there  was 
anything  of  value  to  be  seized,  and  Indians  completed  the  work  of 
destruction.  This  wretched  state  of  things  continued  throughout 
the  18th  century. 

One  hundred  years  ago  Costa  Rica  was  described  as  the  most 
f  benighted,  woeful  province  in  the  whole  Spanish  empire.  Its 
colonists,  ignorant  and  indigent,  ''  clothed  with  the  bark  of  trees," 
had  been  reduced  to  such  misery  —  generation  after  generation 
cut  off  from  communication  with  the  outside  world  —  by  century- 
long  ravages  of  pirates  from  Europe  and  marauding  bands  of 
Indians  from  the  Mosquito  coast.  But  to-day,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
republic  holds  a  leading  position  among  Latin- American  nations 
in  regard  to  public  instruction,  and  (except  the  apparently  chronic 
dislocation  of  the  public  finances)  it  can  no  longer  be  called  a  very 
poor  country.  Every  Costa  Rican  who  cares  to  do  so  can  own 
valuable  property  of  some  sort,  and  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
country  is  far  from  being  contemptible.  The  change  may  be 
described  in  a  few  words. 

Less  than  four  months  after  proclaiming  that  Spanish  control 
was  at  an  end  (15  Sept.  1821),  Costa  Rica  with  the  other  weak 
Central  American  States  was  drawn  into  a  union  with  the  Yturbide 
empire  of  Mexico.  This  dependence  lasted  until  1824,  and  then 
followed  the  experimental  union  of  the  Central  American  coun- 
tries. But  genuine  independence  began  with  self-reliance  after 
1830.  Even  in  that  time  of  extreme  poverty  the  state  acknowl- 
edged and  declared  that  it  could  not  postpone  and  would  not  shirk 
its  duty  to  provide  for  the  education  of  the  people.    In  better  days 


536  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

it  has  devoted  10  per  cent  or  more  of  the  national  revenues  to  this 
use.  Thus  Costa  Eica  's  particular  achievement,  marking  this  little 
republic  for  distinction  among  Latin- American  nations,  has  been 
the  upbuilding  of  character  through  sacrifices  made  in  the  cause 
of  popular  education.  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century 
commerce  received  a  new  impulse  through  the  discovery  of  gold 
in  the  mountains  near  the  Grulf  of  Nicoya,  and  the  extension  of 
coffee  culture.  Several  of  the  presidents  holding  office  since  1824 
have  been  eminently  patriotic  and  far-seeing  men,  under  whose 
guidance  the  graduates  of  Costa  Eican  schools  have  begun  to 
appropriate  some  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  land,  with  little 
aid  from  immigration,  though  not  without  the  aid  of  foreign 
capital.    Immigration  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  small. 

In  1907  Costa  Eica  and  all  the  other  Central  American  States 
sent  delegates  to  a  conference  which  was  in  session  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  from  14  November  to  20  December.  The  conference 
decided,  among  other  things  (see  Central  America),  to  establish 
a  Central  American  Court  of  Justice  and  a  Central  American 
[^  pedagogical  institute,"  both  to  be  located  in  Costa  Bica; 
and  the  delegates,  expressing  the  opinion  that  each  repub- 
lic should  have  the  right  to  maintain  at  the  proposed 
normal  college  not  more  than  200  students  of  both  sexes, 
agreed  to  send  not  less  than  20  students  of  each  sex. 
On  20  Mar.  1910  Costa  Eica  and  Panama  signed  a  protocol  set- 
ting forth  the  basis  of  fact  for  the  arbitration  of  their  boundary 
dispute  by  Chief  Justice  Fuller.  In  May,  Eicardo  Jimenez 
was  inaugurated  as  President  of  the  Eepublic.  An  earth- 
quake wrecked  a  large  part  of  the  city  of  Cartago,  including  the 
new  Palace  of  Peace.  Estimated  loss  of  life  1,800.  In  1913  the 
President  in  his  message  stated  that  the  Government  Avas  particu- 
larly solicitous  for  the  advancement  of  education.  Although  more 
than  one-eighth  of  the  total  revenue  of  the  State  had  been  expended 
for  schools  and  colleges  in  the  preceding  year.  Congress  was 
asked  to  increase  the  inheritance  tax  for  the  benefit  of  the  School 
of  Arts  and  Crafts  and  the  hospital  fund.  Among  the  measures 
passed  by  the  Congress  was  a  law  limiting  the  armed  force  of  the 
President  (the  regular  army)  to  1,000  men  in  time  of  peace  and 
5,000  in  time  of  public  danger  from  insurrection,  etc.  President 
Alfredo  Gonzalez  Flores,  chosen  for  the  ternii  1914  to  1918,  was 
known  to  be  the  moving  force  responsible  for  legislation  in  favor 
of  agriculturists  and  in  defence  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
workingmen  which  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Congress  in  1915 
and  1916. 


COSTA  RICA  537 


GOVERNMENT 

The  legislative  branch  of  the  Government  consists  of  a  single 
house,  called  the  Constitutional  Congress;  its  deputies,  who  are 
chosen,  one  for  every  15,000  inhabitants,  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
assemble  each  year  for  a  60  days'  session  which  may  be  extended 
for  30  days.  One-half  of  the  deputies  retire  every  two  years.  The 
term  of  the  president,  in  whom  is  vested  the  chief  executive  power, 
is  four  years.  Congress  annually  appoints  three  substitutes  called 
designados.  Administrative  departments  in  charge  of  secretaries 
or  ministers  appointed  by  the  president  are  six  in  number.  An 
assistant  secretary  (subsecretano)  assigned  to  an  important 
bureau  (for  example,  public  instruction)  reports  directly  to  the 
constitutional  congress.  Judges  also  hold  office  for  terms  of  four 
years.  The  main  tribunals  are  the  supreme  court  of  justice  (11 
justices),  and  two  appellate  courts  (three  magistrates  each). 
Subordinate  courts  are  established  in  the  provinces.  In  the  chief 
towns  of  each  canton  the  alcaldes  are  judges  of  petty  offenses,  act 
as  committing  magistrates,  and  have  jurisdiction  in  the  less 
important  civil  cases. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Costa  Rica  has  about  twice  as  many  teachers  in  its  schools 
and  colleges  as  soldiers  in  its  army.  Elementary  instruction  of 
both  sexes  is  by  constitutional  mandate  compulsory  and  at  the 
government's  expense.  The  most  recent  statistics  available  at 
present  show  that  about  30,000  children  are  enrolled  as  pupils  in 
428  elementary  schools,  controlled  by  educational  juntas  for  whose 
support  the  government  has  made  a  special  loan  and  imposed  cer- 
tain taxes.  Higher  education  is  provided  at  several  provincial 
institutes,  and  at  the  Liceo  and  Colegio  Superior  de  Seiioritas  — 
both  of  the  latter  in  the  capital.  There  are  schools  of  law  and 
medicine,  a  national  museum,  a  national  library,  the  University  of 
Santo  Tomas,  and  the  Physico-Geographical  and  Meteorological 
Institution.  The  government  has  made  a  practice  of  defraying  the 
expenses  of  a  number  of  young  men  who  are  sent  as  students  to 
European  universities.  Dr.  Claxton,  Commissioner  of  Education, 
Dept.  of  Interior,  Government  of  the  United  States,  writes: 
"  In  Costa  Rica,  which  has  made  greater  advance  in  respect  to 
primary  education  than  any  other  one  of  the  Central  American 
States,  a  very  important  movement  in  rural  education  has  been 


538  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

started  by  the  establishment  of  schools  which  are  furnished  with 
gardens,  orchards,  and  fields,  and  which  provide  for  rural  indus- 
tries carried  on  under  a  special  program  of  instruction."  (Report 
for  year  ended  30  June  1915.)  By  executive  decree  of  14  Jan. 
1915,  rules  for  the  Normal  School  at  Heredia  were  promulgated. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  there  is 
entire  religious  liberty  under  the  constitution.  The  bishop  of  San 
Jose  is  a  suffragan  of  the  archbishop  of  Gruatemala. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

Coffee  raising  was  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  the  most  profit- 
able form  of  agriculture  in  Costa  Rica,  and  the  decline  in  the 
price  of  coffee  brought  on  the  financial  crisis  which  we  noted  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Coffee  invoiced  at  the 
American  consular  agency  at  Puntarenas  for  the  United  States 
during  1916  amounted  to  7,718,057  pounds,  valued  at  $939,543. 
The  systematic  cultivation  of  bananas  has  increased  during  recent 
years  to  such  a  degree  that  it  has  become  Costa  Rica's  leading 
industry.  Indian  corn,  rice,  and  cocoa  grow  readily.  The  live 
stock  consists  of  33,000  cattle,  52,000  horses,  63,000  pigs,  besides 
mules,  sheep  and  goats.  Because  of  the  great  number  of  peasant 
proprietors  agriculture  is  advancing  and  both  the  economic  situa- 
tion and  political  stability  of  the  country  are  on  a  sound  basis. 

Until  the  year  1915  cattle  w^ere  never  exported  from  Costa 
Rica,  but  were  extensively  imported  from  Nicaragua  at  the  rate  of 
from  20,000  to  30,000  head  annually.  During  the  year  1915,how^ever, 
3,151  head  of  cattle,  valued  at  over  $100,000,  were  exported  to  the 
Canal  Zone,  Panama,  for  the  United  States  military  forces  sta- 
tioned there.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  cattle  in  this  district  it  is 
not  likely  that  they  will  continue  to  be  exported  to  any  extent. 
Prices  of  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  beef  are  much  higher  in  Costa 
Rica  than  in  the  United  States,  and  large  quantities  are  imported 
annually. 

The  cultivation  of  cacao  is  becoming  an  important  industry  in 
Costa  Rica.  In  1915,  1,272,905  pounds,  valued  at  $174,809,  were 
exported. 

The  Congress  of  Costa  Rica  in  1917  provided  for  the  pay- 
ment of  bounties  to  the  growers  of  hemp,  sisal,  and  similar  plants. 
This  bounty,  according  to  the  Revista  Economica,  is  to  be  in  the 
form  of  6  per  cent  treasury  bonds,  at  the  rate  of  30  colon 
(colon  =  46.5  cents)  for  each  hectare  (2.47  acres)  of  land  planted 


COSTA  RICA 


539 


in  a  fibre  crop,  and  on  receipt  of  the  bounty  the  grower  will 
execute  a  first  mortgage  on  the  land.  The  total  amount  of  boun- 
ties is  not  to  exceed  500,000  colones,  and  100,000  colones  more  is 
appropriated  for  machinery.  The  bounty  will  be  divided  into 
three  parts,  the  first  to  be  delivered  when  the  fibre  is  planted,  the 
second  part  two  years  later,  and  the  third  when  the  plants  are 
ready  to  be  cut. 

When  the  planter  has  cultivated  his  fibre  crops  for  10  years 
after  receiving  the  first  bounty,  and  has  marketed  his  crops  during 
this  time,  the  mortgage  will  be  canceled  by  the  Government. 
When  owners  of  plantations  representing  200  hectares  of  land  or 
more  wish  to  establish  a  common  fibre  factory,  the  Government 
will  grant  them  a  loan  in  treasury  bonds  for  two-thirds  of  the  cost 
of  the  installation,  taking  a  mortgage  for  the  amount  of  the  loan 
payable  in  10  years  at  8  per  cent  with  amortization  of  10  per  cent. 

In  1914  the  imports  were  valued  at  $7,551,679,  while  the 
exports  surpassed  this  figure  by  $3,310,069.  In  1915  the  imports 
were  valued  at  $4,478,782,  and  the  exports  at  $9,971,582.  Exports 
in  the  last  normal  year  before  the  European  War,  1913,  showed  the 
following  distribution:  To  the  United  States,  $5,297,146;  to  Great 
Britain,  $4,364,436;  to  Germany,  $509,804;  to  France,  $96,665.  In 
the  same  year  Costa  Rica  imported  from  the  United  States  goods 
valued  at  $4,515,871;  from  Germany,  $1,355,417;  from  Great 
Britain,  $1,303,187;  from  France,  $391,681. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  leading  exports  for 
the  last  two  years  and  the  principal  countries  of  destination, 
acording  to  the  customs  statistics : 


Exports  and  countries  of 
destination. 

1914 

1915 

Exports  and  countries  of 
destination. 

1914 

1915 

Bananas 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

$4,725,754 

3,281,012 

1,444,742 

84,507 

9,898 

39,192 

25,253 

4,663,360 

467,269 

3,533,895 

483,124 

888,599 

888,599 

110,780 

50,207 

39,584 

$4,427,566 

3,087,826 

1,339,740 

174,809 

66,897 

101,674 

4,355 

3,730,307 

547,982 

2,877,932 

55,955 

805,897 

805,897 

151,064 

90,069 

Rubber 

United  States 

Germany 

Timber 

Cedar 

United  States . . 

Germany 

Chile 

Mahogany 

United  States.. 

Great  Britain . . 
Cocobolo 

United  States . . 

Germany 

$12,134 

11,148 

221 

123,814 

81,711 

13,299 

10,184 

48,510 

9,786 

2,934 

3,302 

28,388 

21,971 

6,277 

$49,488 
48,192 

Cacao 

49,372 

United  States 

Great  Britain. 

16,908 
13,700 

Coffee 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

14,080 
3,911 
8,370 

Gold  and  silver 

7,977 

United  States 

Hides  (cattle) 

7,970 

United  States 

Germany 

Spain 

38,232 

Small  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  saddles,  harness, 
shoes,  hats,  clothing,  cigars,  cigarettes,  candles,  soap,  beer, 
alcoholic  liquors,  carbonated  waters,  etc.,  exist  in  various  parts. 
There  are  officially  enumerated  3,296  factories  and  industries  in 
the  Republic,  including  coffee-drying  establishments,  starch, 
broom,  and  woodwork  factories. 


540  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  Costa  Rica  Railway  runs  from  Limon  to  the  cities  of  the 
central  uplands,  and  has  several  branch  lines ;  the  Pacific  Railway 
connects  San  Jose  with  a  good  harbor  on  the  western  coast.  In 
all,  there  are  about  430  miles  of  railways,  of  which  69  miles  are 
owned  by  the  government.  Between  Limon  and  New  Orleans  and 
Mobile  there  is  direct  communication  by  steamship  lines  several 
times  each  week.  Between  Limon  and  New  York  steamers  run 
weekly.  There  is  a  regular  service  between  ports  of  the  Central 
American  coast,  from  Colon  to  Belize.  Sailings  to  Jamaica,  Cuba, 
and  England  are  fortnightly.  French,  German  and  Italian  steam- 
ers call  at  Limon  once  a  month.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  are 
three  regular  lines  touching  at  Puntarenas :  the  Pacific  Mail,  and 
the  Chilean  and  British  lines.  There  are  about  130  telegraph 
offices,  and  1,500  miles  of  wire  and  640  miles  of  telephone  lines. 
Wireless  telegraphy  with  300  mile  radius  is  in  operation  at  Limon, 
and  there  is  a  smaller  station  at  Colorado,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
San  Juan  River. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

The  libra  =  1.043  pounds;  manzana^lH  acres;  centaro  = 
4.2631  gallons ;  fanega  =  11  bushels.  The  metric  system  was 
established  by  law,  10  July  1884,  but  has  not  entirely  displaced 
old  weights  and  measures. 


MONEY  AND  BANKING 

The  gold  standard  was  adopted  in  1896;  in  1900  gold  certifi- 
cates were  redeemed  and  gold  put  into  circulation.  The  unit  is 
the  colon.  The  gold  coins  are  2,  5,  10,  and  20  colones ;  the  silver 
coins,  5,  10,  25,  and  50  centimos.  The  principal  banks  are  the 
Banco  Anglo-Costarricense,  established  1863,  the  Banco  de  Costa 
Rica,  established  1867,  and  the  Banco  Comercial.  In  addition  to 
these  three  banks,  the  Government  has  established,  as  a  temporary 
measure  to  cover  the  deficit  of  revenues  and  assist  their  mer- 
chants and  farmers  over  the  crisis  which  the  European  War  inten- 
sified, the  Banco  Intemacional,  with  a  restricted  issue  of  bank 
notes  to  the  extent  of  4,000,000  colons  (or  colones),  secured  by  a 
new  issue  of  2,000,000  colones,  six  per  cent  interior  bonds,  in  con- 
junction with  2,000,000  colones,  exterior  refunding  bonds,  which 
in  1915  were  in  escrow  in  a  New  York  bank. 


COSTA  RICA  541 

The  unit  of  the  monetary  system,  the  colon,  is  divided  into 
100  centimos  and  is  used  only  in  Costa  Rica.  Its  weight  is  0.7780 
grammes  of  .900-fine  gold,  or,  say,  0.7002  grammes  of  pure  gold, 
which  gives  it  a  par  value  of  $0.46536,  currency  of  the  United 
States.  The  par  value  of  $1.00,  currency  of  the  United  States,  is 
2.14887  Costa  Rican  colones.  Under  normal  conditions,  the  com- 
mercial rate  of  exchange  in  Costa  Rica  for  sight  draft  on  New 
York  fluctuates  between  2.13  and  2.18  colones  per  $1.00,  currency 
of  the  United  States.  *'  The  circulation  consists  of  banknotes, 
backed  by  gold  and  other  assets  of  the  issuing  banks.  Foreign 
gold  coins  are  legal  tender  in  Costa  Rica  at  the  following  rates: 
American  dollar  =  2.15  colones ;  French  franc  ~  0.4125  colones ; 
German  mark  =  0.51 ;  English  sovereign  =  10.45  colones.  The 
situation  in  Costa  Rica  has  been  complicated  by  the  recent  failure 
of  the  Banco  Comercial  de  Costa  Rica  [of  Limon,  not  the  Banco 
Comercial  of  San  Jose].  In  order  to  facilitate  the  circulation  of 
the  notes  issued  by  the  new  bank  mentioned  above,  the  Government 
has  decreed  that  all  obligations  which  are  to  be  liquidated  in 
colones,  or  in  other  agreed-upon  moneys,  will  enjoy  the  privilege 
of  a  moratorium  until  one  year  after  the  signing  of  European 
peace,  unless  the  creditors  are  willing  to  accept  payment  in  bills 
of  the  Banco  Intemacional  de  Costa  Rica."  (From  Latin  Ameri- 
can Monetary  Systems,  etc.  See  Bibliography.)  One  of  the  results 
of  the  Pan  American  Financial  Conference  held  at  Washington  in 
1915  was  noted,  as  follows:  Costa  Rica  arranged  with  New  York 
bankers  for  a  credit  of  $500,000,  making  New  York  exchange 
available  in  transactions  between  the  two  countries. 

National  Debt 

The  total  debt  in  1915  was  $19,000,000,  of  which  about  $8,000,- 
COO  was  English  credit,  $7,000,000  was  French  credit,  and  $4,000,- 
000  scattered.  The  economic  problems  of  the  government  were 
acknowledged  in  the  inaugural  message  of  President  Esquivel, 
2  May  1902,  to  be  "  grave  and  complicated."  The  total  foreign 
debt  in  1901  was  £2,080,000 ;  it  was  contracted  in  England  in  1871 
and  1872.  In  March  1901  Costa  Rican  bonds  to  the  value  of 
642,300  colones  were  incinerated,  having  been  issued  in  1897  and 
1899,  and  subsequently  redeemed.  The  revenue  of  the  government 
is  derived  from  custom-house  duties,,  the  liquor  monopoly,  tobacco, 
stamped  paper,  post-office,  etc.,  the  export  duty  on  coffee  having 
been  abolished  1  Sept.  1901.  The  government  revenue  in  1915  was 
$2,945,517,  and  the  expenditures  for  the  same  year  amounted  to 
$4,257,511. 


542  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


ARMY 

All  male  citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  50  may  be  called 
upon  to  do  militar}^  service ;  the  standing  army,  however,  and  the 
militia  together  number  only  6,000.  Supplementing  the  land 
forces  are  the  two  government-owned  motor  launches. 


POPULATION 


The  population  in  1826  was  61,846  and  mainly  by  increase  of 
the  families  whose  ancestors  came  from  Galicia  or  Catalonia 
before  the  date  just  mentioned,  it  had  grown  by  1917  to  411,000. 
In  marked  contrast  with  the  other  Central  American  states,  Costa 
Rica's  population,  in  the  larger  towns  of  the  uplands,  is  almost 
entirely  white.  Only  a  few  thousand  Indians  remain,  and  the 
negroes  (some  25,000  British  West  Indians)  live  near  the  coasts. 

The  character  of  the  people  has  been  tested.  Their  troops 
were  conspicuously  successful  against  the  filibuster  from  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  William  Walker,  who  in  1855  forced  the  Nicaraguans 
to  elect  him  to  the  presidency  (see  Central  America).  This  feat 
established  Costa  Rica  as  one  of  the  controlling  forces  in  a  group 
of  small  states,  but  an  aggressive  policy  was  not  adopted  then, 
nor  has  it  been  subsequently  adopted.  The  obligation  and  ^'  tradi- 
tional "  policy  of  Costa  Rica  is  to  solve  its  own  problems,  and  to 
avoid  complications  with  other  countries.  Since  Walker's  execu- 
tion, the  most  important  events  have  been  the  promulgation  of  the 
constitution  of  1870,  and  the  arbitration  of  the  boundary  disputes. 
The  frontier  line  with  Colombia  (Panama)  was  to  a  certain  extent 
determined  by  the  award  of  the  President  of  the  French  Republic 
as  arbitrator,  11  Sept.  1900.  President  Loubet's  decision  extended 
the  Colombian  frontier  to  Punta  Carreta  on  the  Caribbean  coast, 
thus  depriving  Costa  Rica  of  extensive  territory  to  which  she 
laid  claim.  But  there  is  still  contention  (see  Bibliography) 
between  the  interested  countries  in  regard  to  the  precisely  correct 
interpretation  of  the  terms  of  the  award ;  and  it  is  with  this  quali- 
fication that  our  estimate  is  offered,  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this 
article.  Previous  estimates  have  varied  between  23,000  and  34,000 
square  miles.  On  20  Jan.  1902,  a  "  Convention  of  Peace  and 
Obligatory  Arbitration  "  was  signed  at  the  Port  of  Corinto, 
Nicaragua,-  by  plenipotentiaries  of  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua, 
Honduras,  and  Salvador. 


COSTA  RICA 


543 


Bibliography 

Alfaro,  R.  J.,  Limites  entre  Panama  y  Costa  Rica  (Panama  1913) ;  Anderson, 
L.,  El  Laudo  Loubet:  contribucion  al  Estudio  de  la  cuestion  de  Limited  entre  Costa 
Rica  y  Panama  (San  Jose  1911) ;  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems 
and  Exchange  Conditions  (New  York  1915)  ;  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings 
of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915) ;  James,  W.,  The  Mulberry  Tree 
(Chapters  xiii  and  xiv,  London  1933) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Costa  Rica  (Wash- 
ington 1914) ;  Perigny,  M.  de,  Costa  Rica  (In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  Geographic 
Commereiale,  Tome  xxxii,  Paris  1910) ;  Shepherd,  W.  R.,  Latin  America  (New 
York  1914). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  is  divided  politically  into  Provinces  which  are 
again  divided  into  cantons  and  these  into  districts.  The  political  subdivisions  with 
their  populations  are  as  follows: 


;l  PROVINCES 

Population 

Capital 

Population 

of  the  Canton 

in  which  the 

capital  is 

situated 

125,096 
97,666 
62,283 
44,164 
36.527 
24.111 
21,134 

65,101 

Alajuela 

26,981 

35 , 309 

Herema 

Heredia 

17,088 

6,299 

14,004 

16,867 

410,981 

San  Jose 

The  capital  and  commercial  centre  of  Costa  Rica,  lies  in  a  fertile  valley,  3,868 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  excellent  climate,  well  paved  streets,  beautiful 
parks,  and  magnificent  public  and  private  buildings  make  it  one  of  the  most 
delightful  capitals  of  Latin  America.  It  has  a  good  water  supply  and  is  well 
lighted  by  electricity.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Port  Limon  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  Puntarenas  on  the  Pacific.    It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  region. 

Limon 

The  principal  seaport  of  Costa  Rica  is  situated  on  the  eastern  coast,  at  the  east- 
ern terminus  of  the  interoceanic  railroad  to  Puntarenas.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and 
has  regular  steamship  communication  with  New  York  and  other  North  American 
ports.  Most  of  the  coffee  produced  in  the  country  is  exported  from  this  port. 
It  is  also  prominent  as  a  banana  shipping  point,  besides  rubber  and  dyewoods. 

Puntarenas 

The  principal  seaport  on  the  Pacific,  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  44  miles 
west  of  San  Jose.  The  harbor  is  provided  with  an  iron  breakwater.  It  has 
steamer  communication  with  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States.  Coffee,  rubber, 
tortoise  shell,  and  silver  are  exported.  A  consular  agent  of  the  United  States  is 
stationed  here. 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

THE  Republic  of  Gruatemala  is  a  country  in  Central  America 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mexico,  British  Honduras,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Honduras,  on  the  east  and  southeast  by  British 
Honduras,  the  Gulf  of  Amatique,  Honduras  and  Salvador; 
on  the  south  and  southwest  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  on  the  west 
by  Mexico.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  48,290  square  miles;  its  terri- 
tory extending  from  lat.  13°  42'  to  17°  49'  N.,  and  from  Ion. 
88°  10'  to  92°  30'  W. 

The  mountains  of  Guatemala  are  commonly  referred  to  as 
''  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,"  *'  Guatemalan  Andes,"  or  simply 
** Andes,"  though  there  is  no  propriety  in  those  names.  The  Andes 
terminate  in  northern  Colombia,  and  have  no  genetic  connection 
with  the  mountains  of  Central  America.  In  order  to  understand 
the  independent  character  of  the  latter  (so  far  as  the  great  con- 
tinental ranges  are  concerned),  we  must  realize  that  they  are  also 
in  their  geologic  history  totally  distinct  from  the  Rocky  Mountain 
system,  or  North  American  Cordilleras,  which  terminate  in  south- 
ern Mexico.  If  the  trends  of  the  Andean  and  Rock>^  Mountain 
systems  were  protracted  from  their  termini  (in  70°  W.  and  97°  W., 
respectively),  they  would  not  connect  with  each  other,  but  would 
pass  the  latitude  of  Guatemala  in  parallel  lines  nearly  2,000  miles 
apart.  The  Guatemalan  mountains  belong  to  the  Antillean  system, 
which  lies  between  the  termini  just  referred  to;  its  ranges,  com- 
posed of  folded  sedimentaries,  in  eastern  Guatemala  have  an  east- 
and-west  trend.  But  the  ranges  near  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
republic,  crossing  the  western  ends  of  the  Antillean  corrugations 
diagonally,   or   with   a   northwest-and-southeast   trend,   must   be 

[544] 


GUATEMALA  545 

assigned  to  still  another  class;  they  form  a  part  of  the  volcanic 
chain  which  extends  along  the  entire  western  coast  of  Central 
America,  and  is  continued  in  Mexico.  The  Sierra  Madre  is  the 
principal  range  of  the  west  and  south ;  in  the  central  and  eastern 
districts  are  the  Sierra  de  Chama,  Sierra  de  las  Minas,  Sierra  de 
Santa  Cruz,  and  the  Sierra  de  Copan  —  the  last  named  on  the 
frontier  of  Honduras.  The  highest  points  of  the  Cordillera  are 
given  as:  Tajumulco  volcano  (12,600  feet),  Tacana  volcano  (12,400 
feet),  both  in  the  southwest;  Acatenango  volcano  (11,100  feet), 
south-central;  and  the  volcano  de  Fuego  (11,400  feet),  also  south- 
central. 

Hydrography 

Rivers  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are :  the  Usumacinta, 
on  the  Mexican  frontier,  and  the  Cuilco  and  Salequa,  which  are 
also  tributaries  of  Mexican  streams.  The  following  empty  either 
into  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  or  Izabal  Lake  (Golfo  Dulce) :  the 
Montagua,  Rio  Hondo,  the  Dulce,  the  Belice,  the  Sarstoon,  and  the 
Polochic.  Those  which  flow  into  the  Pacific  are:  Rio  de  los 
Esclavos,  Rio  de  Paz,  the  Michatoya,  Guacalate,  Coyelate,  Patulul, 
Nagualate,  Samala,  Tilapa,  Naranjo,  and  Suchiate.  Steamship 
navigation  has  been  established  on  the  Dulce  and  Polochic  rivers ; 
seven  or  eight  of  the  others  are  navigable  for  small  boats.  The 
most  important  lakes  are:  Atitlan  and  Izabal  (both  navigated  by 
steamers),  Peten,  Amatitlan,  Ayarza,  and  Giiija  (on  the  frontier 
of  Salvador).  Ports  on  the  Caribbean  side  of  the  republic  are: 
Puerto  Barrios,  Livingston,  and  Santo  Tomas  —  the  first  two  being 
ports  of  entry  and  delivery,  while  the  last  is  a  ''  minor  port,"  at 
which  importation  and  exportation  are  restricted  to  certain 
articles.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  most  important  ports  are :  San 
Jose,  7414  miles  from  Guatemala  City;  Champerico,  and  Ocos-— 
all  ports  of  entry  and  delivery,  provided  with  iron  piers,  etc. 

Climate 

The  lowlands  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  coasts  are  torrid; 
interior  table-lands,  at  an  altitude  of  2,000  to  5,000  feet,  have  an 
agreeable  climate;  and  the  high  districts,  w^here  the  elevation  is 
more  than  5,000  feet,  are  decidedly  cool.  The  larger  towns  are 
built  in  the  temperate  or  cool  zones.  The  rainy  season,  beginning 
in  May,  lasts  until  October  in  the  interior,  but  sometimes  until 
December,  on  the  coast.  December  and  January  are  the  coldest 
months ;  March  and  April  the  hottest.  Snow  sometimes  falls  (in 
December  or  January)  on  the  uplands  of  the  cool  zone. 

36 


546  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Flora  and  Fauna 

The  very  name  of  the  country  signified  in  the  Indian  language 
* '  the  land  covered  with  trees. ' '  The  rich  soil  and  varying  climatic 
conditions  favor  a  wide  range  of  products  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom; no  systematic  classification  of  these,  however,  has  yet  been 
made.  The  extent  of  the  forest  land,  which  abounds  in  mahogany, 
is  estimated  at  1,300,000  acres.  The  fauna  and  avifauna  resemble 
those  of  Costa  Rica  in  general,  but  especially  characteristic  of 
Guatemala  are  the  aquatic  birds  on  its  rivers  and  lakes,  and  the 
quetzal  (also  written  quezal  and  quezale).  Mexican  deer  are  quite 
numerous.  The  tapir,  honey-bear,  armadillo,  wild  pig,  cougar, 
jaguar,  etc.,  are  found  as  in  other  parts  of  Central  America.  The 
over-abundance  of  insect  life  is  particularly  noteworthy. 

Geology 

The  calcareous  formations  of  the  Antillean  ridges  and,  gener- 
ally, the  eastern  and  central  regions,  deserve  special  mention. 
Volcanic  products  characterize  the  Pacific  slope  and  Sierra  Madre, 
where  they  occur  in  connection  with  granite  rocks,  porphyries  and 
trachytes. 

Mineral  Resources 

Gold  and  silver  are  found  near  the  Montagua  River  and  else- 
where ;  salt  in  the  departments  of  Alta  Verapaz  and  Santa  Rosa. 
Other  minerals  reported  to  exist  are:  coal,  lignite,  manganese, 
lead,  tin,  cinnabar,  copper,  kaolin,  opals,  slate,  alum,  antimony, 
marble,  alabaster,  sulphur,  ochre,  asbestos,  plumbago,  chalk  and 
bitumen.  A  belt  of  country  extending  from  the  coast  range  of 
mountains  on  the  western  frontier,  near  the  Pacific,  across  the 
Sierra  Madre  to  the  coast  range  of  the  Caribbean  slope,  is 
regarded  as  essentially  a  mineral  territory,  in  which  there  has 
been  comparatively  little  exploiting  or  prospecting,  though  enough 
to  reveal  the  presence  of  the  precious  and  base  metals. 


HISTORY  OF  GUATEMALA 

Pedro  de  Alvarado,  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Cortes,  1523-24 
conquered  the  country,  and  on  25  July  1524  proclaimed  the  sover- 
eignty of  Spain  at  Almolonga,  the  native  town  which  was  after- 
ward to  be  known  as  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros.    The  important 


GUATEMALA 


547 


Cupyi'ight,    Keystone   View   Co. 


View  of  Escuintia,  Guatemala 


,fact  in  connection  with  this  conquest  is  that  it  did  not  lead  to  the 
extermination  of  the  natives.  Two  explanations  of  this  circum- 
stance are  offered.  Mr.  Bancroft  says  that  the  Indians,  after  fight- 
ing desperately  in  defense  of  their  homes,  maintained  a  sullen 
resistance,  and  therefore  both  here  and  in  the  adjoining  state  of 
Chiapas  '^  the  natives  probably  retain  to  the  present  day  their 
original  traits  with  fewer  modifications  than  elsewhere  in  the 
Pacific  States."  But  this  theory  is  at  variance  with  the  Central 
American  records  in  general.  A  suggestion  which  may  be  pre- 
ferred is  that  the  natives  of  Guatemala  were  obviously  available 
as  agricultural  laborers;  that  they  were  not  uninfluenced  by 
that  civilization  which  had  survived  here,  as  in  southern 
Mexico  and  Honduras,  from  very  ancient  times;  that  they  were 
therefore  allowed  to  survive,  after  the  first  decade  of  cruel 
and  useless  oppression  (grossly  exaggerated,  of  course,  by 
Las  Casas),  while  the  more  warlike  tribes,  such  as  those  inhabit- 
ing Costa  Rica  and  Veragua,  were  gradually  being  exter- 
minated. And  their  descendants  in  great  numbers  still  possess  the 
land.  After  the  conquest  all  of  the  territory  now  divided  up 
among  the  Central  American  countries  was  included  in  the  captain- 
generalcy  of  Guatemala.    Independence  was  proclaimed  15  Sept. 


548  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

1821;  annexation  to  the  Mexican  empire  under  Iturbide  followed 
(5  Jan.  1822).  An  assembly  of  representative  citizens  of  Guate- 
mala and  the  other  Central  American  provinces  on  1  July  1823 
declared  the  whole  country  to  be  independent,  with  reference  to 
Mexico,  Spain,  and  all  other  nations,  "  whether  of  the  Old  or  of 
the  New  World,"  Accordingly  the  United  Provinces  of  Central 
America  came  into  existence.  Guatemala  seceded  from  this  union 
17  April  1839.  The  name  Repiiblica  de  Guatemala  was  assumed 
21  Mar.  1847.  Between  1839  and  1851  there  was  a  series  of  bitter 
struggles  with  Salvador  for  supremacy,  fortune  favoring  the 
smaller  republic ;  but  in  the  year  last  mentioned  Guatemala  began 
to  be  successful,  and,  under  the  leadership  of  Rafael  Carrera 
(president  until  1856,  and  subsequently  life-president  or  dictator), 
carried  the  war  into  Salvador  (1863)  and  regained  the  controlling 
position  in  Central  America.  Carrera  appointed  his  own  suc- 
cessor, and  died  in  1865.  The  next  significant  administration  was 
that  of  Gen.  Justo  Rufino  Barrios,  who  was  put  in  office  by  the 
Liberals,  after  their  onslaught  upon  the  Jesuits.  Barillas  was 
elected  to  the  presidency  in  1886.  In  1890  and  1891  the  progress  of 
the  country  was  checked  by  epidemics  of  cholera  and  smallpox. 
On  15  Mar.  1892  Jose  Maria  Reina  Barrios  was  inaugurated  as 
president,  and  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly  (30  Aug. 
1897)  his  term  was  extended  to  15  Mar.  1902  —  in  direct  viola- 
tion of  the  Constitution,  which  was  proclaimed  in  1879  and  modi- 
fied in  1885,  1887,  and  1889.  He  was  assassinated  8  Feb.  1898. 
Sefior  Manuel  Estrada  Cabrera  was  proclaimed  acting  presi- 
dent, and  received  the  support  of  the  army.  An  insurrection  begun 
under  General  Castillo 's  leadership  28  July  was  put  down,  but  only 
to  be  quickly  followed  by  another  revolutionary  movement. 
Insurgent  forces  commanded  by  Morales  offered  a  stubborn  resist- 
ance in  the  southwest,  until  Morales  was  captured.  When  peace 
had  been  restored,  Cabrera  was  the  only  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency, and  his  election  was  announced  25  Sept.  1898.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  government  of  Guatemala  made  a  proposition 
which  was  equivalent  to  repudiation  of  a  part  of  its  foreign  debt, 
but  yielded  to  Germany's  protest  —  or  threat  to  use  force  —  and 
withdrew  the  discreditable  suggestion.  Earthquakes  which 
occurred  in  April  1902  caused  great  damage  in  several  districts. 
Amatitlan,  Mazatenango,  San  Marcos,  Solola,  and  San  Felipe 
suffered  severely,  and  Quezaltenango,  in  importance  the  second 
city  of  the  republic,  was  totally  destroyed.  An  eruption  of  the 
volcano  Santa  Maria  followed  on  24  October,  and  there  were  out- 
bursts from  new  craters  in  November.    Several  thousand  persons 


GUATEMALA  549 

lost  their  lives  through  these  disasters,  and  the  injury  to  prop- 
erty (plantations,  buildings,  machinery,  and  cattle)  has  been  esti- 
mated at  $5,000,000  to  $10,000,000.  Taxes  for  the  relief  of  the 
earthquake  sufferers  were  imposed  by  the  Legislative  Assembly 
24  April  1902.  A  convention  between  the  United  States  and 
Guatemala  relating  to  the  tenure  and  disposition  of  real  and  per- 
sonal property  was  signed  27  Aug.  1901,  and  ratifications 
exchanged  at  Guatemala  16  Sept.  1902.  A  revolt  in  1906,  under 
the  leadership  of  General  Barillas,  spread  to  the  other  Central 
American  countries;  the  governments  of  the  United  States  and 
/  Mexico  interposed;  an  armistice  (19  July)  served  not  only  to 
restore  order  for  the  time  being,  but  also  paved  the  way  for  the 
Central  American  Peace  Conference  held  at  Washington  in  1907. 
(See  Central  America.)  In  1910  Cabrera's  third  complete  term 
as  President  began.  In  1913  Great  Britain  sent  a  warship  to  \  ^ 
Guatemala,  and  demanded  settlement  of  claims.  The  country 
without  a  navy  appealed  to  the  United  States,  and  an  agreement 
was  made  in  regard  to  the  debt.  In  1915  a  boundary  treaty  was 
signed  with  Honduras. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  National  Assembly  (a 
single  house),  whose  members  (deputies)  number  one  for  every 
20,000  inhabitants,  and  are  elected  for  four  years  by  popular  vote. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  president,  elected  for  six  years 
by  direct  vote  of  the  people.  The  administration  is  carried  on 
under  the  president,  by  "  six  secretaries  of  state,"  each  of  whom 
has  charge  of  a  separate  department  (ministerio) .  These  depart- 
ments are:  Government  and  Justice,  Foreign  Relations,  Public 
Instruction,  Promotion  of  Public  Welfare  (Fomento),  Treasury 
and  Public  Credit,  and  War.  The  council  of  state  is  an  advisorj^ 
board,  of  which  five  members  are  chosen  by  the  assembly  and  four, 
in  addition  to  the  cabinet,  appointed  by  the  president. 

Local  Government 

The  *'  Political  Chief  "  {Jefe  Politico)  of  each  department 
of  the  republic  is  appointed  by  the  president,  whose  authority  he 
exercises  in  provincial  matters.    The  local  officials  locally  elected 


550  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

are:  the  Alcaldes  (one  or  more  for  each  municipal  district)  and 
the  Regidores  (members  of  the  municipal  council),  Alcalde  and 
Regidor  correspond  to  mayor  and  alderman;  the  jefe  politico 
takes  the  place  of  a  governor,  and  his  relation  to  the  chief  execu- 
tive in  a  centralized  republic  fairly  indicates  the  limits  within 
which  local  self-government  is  permitted. 

Judiciary 

The  supreme  court  of  justice  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and 
four  associates,  elected  by  the  people.  There  are  six  courts  of 
appeal,  each  consisting  of  a  chief  justice  and  tw^o  associates,  also 
elected  by  the  people.  Courts  of  the  first  instance  are  29  in  num- 
ber: their  judges  are  selected  by  the  president  among  the  candi- 
dates approved  by  the  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Public  instruction,  supported  by  the  government,  is  secular 
and  gratuitous ;  primary  instruction  is  obligatory ;  free  education 
is  guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  In  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  the  Year  ended  SO  June  1915  (Wash- 
ington 1915)  we  read  that  "  the  chief  institutions  for  secondary 
education  in  Guatemala  are  the  Central  National  Institute  for 
Boys,  with  an  enrollment  in  1913  of  553  pupils;  the  Central 
National  Institute  for  Grirls,  with  385  pupils;  the  National  Insti- 
tute and  Normal  School  Annex  for  Boys,  at  Chiqumula,  with  274 
pupils;  and  a  similar  school  for  girls  in  the  same  city,  with  an 
enrollment  of  80  pupils ;  the  National  Institute  for  Boys  and  Prac- 
tical and  Commercial  School  Annex  at  Quezaltenango,  with  40 
pupils."  The  national  library  contains  30,000  volumes  and  many 
valuable  unpublished  documents.  Other  libraries  accessible  to  the 
public  are  those  of  the  professional  schools,  the  supreme  court, 
national  institute  for  men,  and  academy  of  teachers.  Public 
libraries  are  maintained  in  the  larger  towTis.  The  national  print- 
ing-office at  the  capital  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  establish- 
ments of  its  kind  in  Latin  America.  More  than  30  daily  papers 
and  other  periodicals  are  published  in  the  country.  The  constitu- 
tion guarantees  liberty  of  conscience.  The  government  recognizes 
no  creed.    The  prevailing  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 


GUATEMALA  551 


AGRICULTURE 

Goffee  grows  in  the  regions  between  1,000  and  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea-level.     The  districts  best  suited  for  growing  coffee  are 
Antigua,    Barberena,  Costa   Chuva,   Alta  Verapaz,    Costa   Cuca, 
Costa  Grande,  Pochuta,  and  Tumbador.      The  total  production 
for  the   1916-17   season  was  80,000,000  pounds  valued  at  from 
$10,000,000  to  $12,000,000  gold.    The  average  yield  per  acre  was 
approximately  800  to  830  pounds,  the  total  area  under  coffee  cul- 
tivation being  98,800  acres.    Germans  own  and  control  between  50 
and  60  per  cent  of  the  coffee  plantations ;  only  a  very  small  pro- 
portion represents  American  investments.     In  1915  the  United 
States  took  66  per  cent  of  the  crop,  and  between  75  and  80  per 
cent  the  year  following,  the  remainder  going  to  the  Scandinavian 
countries.    Sugar  cane  grows  between  sea-level  and  6,200  feet.    In 
1915,  30,000,000  pounds  of  sugar  were  produced,  an  increase  of 
20  per  cent  over  the  crop  of  1914.    The  bulk  of  this  production 
was  exported  to  the  United  States  and  to  British  Columbia.    Cacao 
grows  in  the  lowlands  or  those  regions  having  an  altitude  of  less 
than  3,000  feet.     Tobacco  and  wheat  are  also  produced  in  large 
quantities.    Corn,  or  maize  and  beans  or  frijoles  form  almost 
exclusively  the  daily  food  of  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  people  of 
Guatemala.    The  production  of  corn  is  sufficient  for  local  consump- 
tion, amounting  to  600,000,000  pounds,  a  yield  of  1,300  to  1,800 
pounds  per  acre  annually.     Of  beans  the  annual  production  is 
about  180,000,000  pounds.     Stock-raising  has  been  encouraged  in 
the  departments  of  Izabal,  Zacapa,  Peten,  and  Alta  Verapaz,  by 
decrees  authorizing  the  political  chiefs  of  those  departments  to 
make  grants  of  land  to  persons  who  establish  ranches.     Money 
premiums  have  been  offered  to  cultivators  of  india  rubber,  cacao, 
sarsaparilla,  and  hemp ;  grants  of  land  to  those  who  engage  in  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  and  bananas.    Proprietors  of  large  cotton  or 
tobacco  plantations,  and  reliable  day  laborers  on  large  plantations 
of  coffee,  sugar  cane,  bananas,  or  cacao,  are  exempted  from  mili- 
tary service.     No  tax  of  any  kind  is  levied  for  10  years  upon 
plantations  of  hemp,  flax,  ramie,  cotton,  grapes,  and  one  or  two 
other  products.     Large  cash  premiums  to  encourage  the  produc- 
tion of  grapes,  hemp,  cotton,  flax,  wheat,  and  tobacco  were  offered, 
particularly  during  the  decade  1886-96;  in  1899  the  government 
offered  113%  acres  of  the  public  lands  as  a  reward  for  every 
20,000  rubber-plants,  four  years  old,  planted  after  14  Jan.  1899. 
The  chicle  industry  is  growing  fast,  particularly  in  Peten.     In 
1915,  7,238  quintals,  valued  at  $231,624,  were  exported. 


552 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY 

In  1915  Gruatemala 's  imports,  including  freight  and  other 
charges  on  the  merchandise,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Direct- 
or-General of  Customs,  were  valued  at  $5,072,476,  and  exports  at 
$11,566,585,  making  the  total  foreign  commerce  in  value  only 
$16,639,061,  with  which  we  contrast  the  total  for  1914,  over  $22,- 
000,000,  and  that  for  1913  over  $24,500,000.  The  principal  exports 
were,  in  1914  —  Coffee,  831,341  quintals  (1  quintal  =  101  pounds 
approximately);  bananas,  3,390,470  IJunches ;•  cattle  hides,  17,055 
quintals;  chicle,  7,116  quintals;  sugar,  295  quintals;  rubber, 
118,127  quintals.  Distribution  of  foreign  trade  was  given  as  fol- 
lows —  United  States,  imports  $4,879,200  and  exports  $4,874,379 ; 
Great  Britain,  imports  $1,389,645  and  exports  $1,476,706;  Ger- 
many, imports  $1,842,738  and  exports  $5,412,580;  France,  imports 
$317,631  and  exports  $34,186.  The  value  of  the  coffee  exported 
is  about  80  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  country's  exports. 
During  1915  Guatemala  manufactured  11,893,456  bottles  of 
aguardiente,  or  brandy,  valued  approximately  at  $1,200,000  United 
States  gold,  and  imported  wines,  liquors,  and  beer  to  the  value  of 
$125,583  United  States  gold.  Of  the  total  amount  of  such  imports 
for  1915,  France  supplied  $42,241  worth;  the  United  States, 
$39,327;  England,  $19,698;  Germany,  $2,916;  Spain,  $13,200. 
Besides  its  imports  of  wines  and  liquors,  Guatemala  exported  in 
1915,  chiefly  to  the  United  States,  aguardiente  to  the  value  of 


The  Post  Office,  Guatemala  City,   Guatemala 
(Courtesy   of  the   run   Auiericau   Uiilonj 


GUATEMALA  553 

$5,054  United  States  gold.  In  this  year  perfumery  of  all  kinds 
was  imported  to  the  value  of  $15,225  United  States  gold;  of  this 
$5,963  represented  importations  from  the  United  States  and 
$5,796  represented  importations  from  France.  Boots,  shoes  and 
leather  to  the  value  of  $94,660  were  imported,  of  which  $87,199 
w^orth  were  brought  from  the  United  States.  Besides  the  hides 
used  in  the  Guatemala  tanneries,  the  Republic  during  1915 
exported  104,593  hides,  valued  at  $506,961.  Of  this  total  100,931 
hides  were  sent  to  the  United  States.  Hides  are  subjected  to  an 
export  tax  of  $1.50  United  States  gold  per  100  kilos.  Cotton  fabrics 
were  imported  to  the  value  of  $758,570,  of  which  $455,540  worth 
came  from  the  United  States,  a  gain  of  32  per  cent  over  1914  for 
American  cotton  goods.  The  value  of  the  imports  of  woolens  and 
worsteds  was  $52,308,  of  which  $9,308  came  from  the  United 
States.  Electrical  goods  and  wares  of  the  value  of  $33,590  United 
States  gold  were  imported;  of  this  amount  $23,247  worth  came 
from  the  United  States.  Iron  and  steel  imports  were  valued  at 
$121,198,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  $86,796.  Products 
of  iron  and  wood  imported  were  valued  at  $86,726,  of  which 
$34,473  worth  came  from  the  United  States.  The  imports  of  drugs 
and  medicines  had  a  total  value  of  $108,666,  of  which  the  United 
States  supplied  $68,239  worth.  (luatemala  in  1915  also  imported 
6,000  reams  of  news  paper,  valued  at  $16,000,  from  the  United 
States,  while  paper  of  other  classes  to  the  value  of  nearly  $131,000 
was  imported.  Of  this  latter  the  United  States  furnished  $102,- 
000  worth  and  Spain  $29,000.  Advance  figures  give  the  total  for- 
eign trade  in  1916  as  $17,336,761  United  States  gold,  of  which 
$10,617,295  represented  exports  and  $6,719,466  imports.  The 
exports  to  the  United  States,  according  to  customs  statistics,  were 
valued  at  $8,668,573.  Coifee  constituted  the  chief  article  of  ship- 
ment, the  value  being  $6,301,337,  followed  by  bananas,  valued  at 
$1,035,427,  and  hides,  over  $500,000.  In  the  imports  the  share  of 
the  United  States  was  $5,228,897,  or  77.74  per  cent  of  the  total. 
The  chief  import  from  the  United  States  was  cotton  goods  valued 
at  $952,086,  followed  by  flour  amounting  to  $612,809. 


MANUFACTURES 


For  the  partial  supply  of  local  needs  a  number  of  small  estab- 
lishments are  maintained,  the  chief  products  being  coarse  textiles, 
hats,  leather,  shoes,  pottery,  cement  tiles  (^' canefas  "),  cigars, 
musical    instruments,    furniture,    agricultural    implements,    and 


554  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

liquors.  The  salt  industry  is  important  on  the  Pacific  coast  and 
there  are  salt  mines  in  Huehuetenango  and  Verapaz.  In  1915  the 
production  amounted  to  8,740,000  kilos   (kilo  =  2.204  pounds). 


SHIPPING  AND  NAVIGATION 

Steamers  of  the  coastwise  service  between  San  Francisco  and 
Panama  make  regular  calls  at  San  Jose,  Ocos  and  ChampeKico. 
From  New  York  to  Puerto  Barrios,  passengers  and  freight  are 
carried  by  two  steamship  lines.  The  steamers  of  the  American 
Fruit  Company  ply  between  New  Orleans  and  Puerto  Barrios. 


RAILWAYS,  ROADS,  TELEGRAPHS,  ETC. 

The  Central  Railway,  the  first  line  built  in  the  Republic,  was 
completed  in  1882.  It  connects  the  port  of  San  Jose  with  Guate- 
mala City.  The  Champerico  Railway  runs  from  the  Pacific  port  of 
that  name  to  Retalhulen  and  San  Felipe,  a  distance  of  41  miles. 
The  Ocos  Railway  connects  the  wharf  at  Ocos  with  the  town  of 
Ayutla,  near  the  Mexican  frontier,  and  ends  at  Vado  Ancho.  The 
Northern  Railroad  which  connects  Puerto  Barrios  with  Guatemala 
City  (and  thus,  in  conjunction  with  the  Central,  supplies  railway 
transportation  from  coast  to  coast),  has  a  total  length  of  195 
miles.  In  1916  there  were  about  500  miles  of  railway  in  the 
republic,  and  new^  lines  are  projected  or  in  course  of  construction. 
In  January  1917  freight  and  passenger  services  were  inaugurated 
on  the  new  12-mile  line  from  Puerto  Barrios  to  Manoca.  A  tunnel 
planned  and  completed  by  American  engineers,  cutting  the  steep 
grade  at  Corozo  Hill,  made  possible  the  improved  schedules. 

An  important  highway  from  Sanarate  has  been  completed, 
giving  access  to  the  northern  agricultural  districts.  The  republic 
had  in  actual  operation  in  1916  about  4,300  miles  of  telegraph  and 
telephone  wires,  with  over  333  offices  and  stations. 


FINANCES 


The  foreign  debt  is  held  mainly  in  England  and  Germany,  and 
interest  on  it  is  already  about  18  years  in  arrears ;  the  total  public 
debt  being  approximately  $17,600,000  gold,  of  which  about  $12,- 
000,000  (including  arrears  of  interest)  is  the  present  amount  of 


GUATEMALA  555 

the  foreign  debt.  The  public  revenues  are  derived  chiefly  from 
duties  on  imports  and  an  export  tax  on  coffee.  The  budget  for 
1915-16  was  estimated  at  60,082,640  pesos  paper,  or  a  little  more 
than  $3,000,000. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES  AND  MONEY 

The  French  metric  system  is  used,  concurrently  with  the  old 
Spanish  system  of  weights  and  measures.  The  latter  has:  Oma 
(ounce),  libra  (pound,  strictly  1.043  pounds),  arroha  (25  libras), 
quintal  (100  libras),  tonelada  (ton  20  quintals),  and  fanega  (II/2 
bushels).  Guatemala  has  nominally  the  silver  standard.  The 
present  currency,  however,  is  inconvertible  paper,  which  although 
it  circulates  freely  in  the  republic,  has  no  fixed  value  in  relation  to 
gold  or  foreign  exchange.  The  silver  peso,  divided  into  100  cen- 
tavos  and  weighing  25  grammes  of  silver,  .900  fine,  or  say  22.500 
grammes  fine  silver,  was  adopted  in  1870  as  the  monetary  unit.  It 
is  in  reality  the  unit  of  account.  At  present,  practically  no  gold  or 
silver  coins  circulate.  (Consult  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American 
Monetary  Systems  and  Exchanr/e  Conditions,  New  York  1915). 
The  principal  banks  —  all  located  in  Guatemala  City  —  are  the 
Banco  Americano  de  Guatemala,  Banco  de  Guatemala,  and  Banco 
Internacional. 


POPULATION 


Full-blooded  Indians  are  much  more  numerous  in  Guatemala 
than  in  other  Central  American  countries;  in  fact  they,  with  the 
Indians  of  mixed  blood,  ladinos  and  mestizos,  make  up  the  bulk  of 
the  population.  The  natural  increase  among  these  people  is  indi- 
cated in  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  public  works  for  1901,  which 
shows  66,728  births  in  that  year  against  35,618  deaths,  a  gain  of 
31,110  persons.  The  total  number  of  inhabitants  in  1916  was  given 
as  2,119,165. 

Bibliography 

Alvarado,  P,  de,  Documentos  Antiquos :  copia  de  dos  Cartas  de  don  Pedro  de 
Alvarado  (Guatemala  1913);  Donville-Fife,  C.  W.,  Guatemala  and  the  States  of 
Central  America  (London  1913) ;  Habel,  S.,  The  Sculptures  of  Santa  Lucia 
C osumalvihuapa  iti  Guatemala  (Washington  1878) ;  Hewett,  E.  L.,  Two  Season's 
Work  in  Guatemala  (Archseol.  Inst,  of  America  Bull.,  Norwood,  Mass.  1911) ;  Pan 
American  Union,  Guatemala  (Washington  1915),  and  Latin  America  (Washington 
1916) ;  Sands,  W.  F.,  Mysterious  Temples  of  the  Jungle:  the  Prehistoric  Ruins  of 
Guatemala  (National  Geog.  Mag.,  Washington  1913)  ;  Squier,  E.  G.,  The  States  of 
Central  America  (New  York  1858). 


556 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 


Guatemala  is  administratively  divided  into  22  Departments.  The  total  area  of 
the  Republic  is  estimated  at  48,290  square  miles  and  the  population  in  1916  was 
estimated  at  2,119,165.  The  Departments,  with  their  capitals  and  the  populations 
of  the  latter,  are  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENT 


Capital 


Population 


Alta  Verapaz. . . 

Amatitlan 

Baja  Verapaz ,  . 
Chimaltenango . 
Chiquimula .  .  .  . 

ElPet6n 

EIQuich6 

Esquintla. . . , .  . 

Guatemala 

Huehuetenango 

Izabal 

Jalapa 

Jutiapa 

Quezaltenango . 
Retalhuleu. . . . , 
Sacatepequez . . 
San  Marcos . . . . 
Santa  Rosa .  .  .  . 

Solol4 

Suchitepequez . , 
Totonicapam . . 
Zacapa 


Cobdn 

Amatitlan 

Salami 

Chimaltenango . 
Chiquimula .... 

Flores 

Santa  Cruz .... 

Esquintla 

Guatemala  City 
Huehuetenango . 

Livingston 

Jalapa 

Jutiapa 

Quezaltenango . 
Retalhuleu.  .  .  . 

Antigua 

San  Marcos. . .  . 
Cuajiniquilapa. 

Solold 

Mazatenango.  . 
Totonicapam .  .  , 
Zacapa 


30,770 

8,408 

10,608 

3,749 

12,562 

1,671 

11,914 

12,343 

72,102 

10,279 

1,978 

12,246 

11,023 

28,940 

6,327 

10,150 

6,036 

3,062 

7,627 

6,970 

28,310 

11,964 


Guatemala  or  Santiago  de  Guatemala 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  is  situated  on  a  plateau  5,000  feet  above  sea  level, 
85  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  surrounded  by  green-clad  hills  and  imposing 
volcanoes.  The  climate  is  that  of  perpetual  spring.  Broad  streets  and  attractive 
buildings  are  characteristics.  The  city  has  a  good  water  supply,  and  has  electric 
lights,  street  cars,  and  all  modern  conveniences.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  International 
Bureau  for  promoting  the  agriculture,  commerce  and  industries  of  the  Central 
American  republics.  The  city  has  a  modern  brewery  and  manufactories  of  earthen- 
ware, cotton  goods,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  leather,  gold  and  silver  articles,  and  is 
the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Guatemala  is  connected  by  railway  with  Puerto 
Barrios,  194  miles  distant  on  the  east  coast,  and  with  San  Jose,  85  miles  distant 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Quezaltenango 

The  second  city  of  Guatemala  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  7,351  feet  above  sea 
level,  120  miles  west  of  the  capital  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway.  It  is 
also  connected  by  rail  with  the  Pacific  port  of  Champerico,  75  miles  distant.  The 
surrounding  valleys  are  rich  and  productive  and  celebrated  for  the  yield  of  corn, 
wheat,  and  in  the  lower  districts  for  coffee.  The  climate  is  cool  and  healthful  and 
the  water  supply  of  the  city  is  good.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  region  and  there  are  a  modern  brewery  under  native  management 
and  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods  mostly  to  supply  home  consumption. 


HONDURAS 


By  Marrion  Wii.cox 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION 

THE  Republic  of  Honduras  is  a  country  of  Central  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  the  Gulf  of  Hon- 
duras and  the  Caribbean  Sea;  on  the  southeast  and  south 
by  Nicaragua ;  and  on  the  southwest  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean 
(Gulf  of  Fonseca),  Salvador,  and  Guatemala.  Estimated  area, 
46,250  square  miles.  The  republic,  divided  into  17  departments 
and  one  territory,  has  as  its  present  capital  the  city  of  Teguci- 
galpa, the  only  national  capital  in  the  new  world  without  a  railway. 
The  number  of  Tegucigalpa's  inhabitants  was  given  in  1916  as 
40,000.  It  is  situated  on  an  interior  plateau  about  3,200  feet  above 
sea-level,  12  hours'  journey  by  automobile  from  the  nearest  port. 
Amapala. 

Mountain  ranges,  which  rise  to  heights  of  5,000  or  even  10,000 
feet,  are  massed  in  the  western  half  of  the  republic ;  the  Juticalpa, 
Camasca,  and  Tompocente  ranges,  however,  are  near  the  frontier 
of  Nicaragua  in  the  east.  Rivers  emptying  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
or  Gulf  of  Honduras  are  the  Patuca,  in  the  east,  and  the  Ulua,  etc., 
in  the  west.  The  Choluteca  flows  southward  from  the  Misoco 
Mountains  near  Tegucigalpa,  and  empties  into  Fonseca  Bay,  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  Large  lakes  are  the  Caratasca  (more  properly,  a 
lagoon),  on  the  Mosquito  coast,  and  Yojoa,  among  the  western 
mountains.  The  chief  port  on  the  Pacific  is  Amapala;  other  ports 
of  entry  are  Puerto  Cortes  (on  the  Gulf  of  Honduras),  La  Ceiba, 
Trujillo,  Roatan,  and  Omoa. 

[557] 


558 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


HISTORY 


The  first  place  of  debarkation  of  Christopher  Columbus  on 
the  American  mainland  was  near  the  present  Cape  Honduras, 
where  he  landed  on  Sunday,  14  Aug.  1502.  On  the  following  Wed- 
nesday Bartholomew  Columbus  landed  at  the  mouth  of  Rio  Tinto. 
They  sailed  thence  along  the  coast  to  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios.  (See 
Central  America).  The  conquest  of  the  country  was  effected  by 
Hernan  Cortes,  who  found  the  natives  manageable,  but  their 
land  "  covered  with  awfully  miry  swamps,"  as  he  wrote  to  the 
Spanish  monarch  3  Sept.  1526.  "  I  can  assure  your  majesty," 
he  adds,  ^'that  even  on  the  tops  of  the  hills  our  horses,  led  as  they 
were  by  hand,  and  without  their  riders,  sank  to  their  girths  in  the 
mire."  (Fifth  letter  of  Cortes  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.).  The 
most  important  fact  in  the  history  of  Honduras  —  the  fact  that 
the  Indians  remained  in  possession  of  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
country  that  their  descendants  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion to-day  —  is  a  consequence  of  the  policy  observed  by  Cortes 
and  his  successors.  The  natives  were  tractable;  without  their 
assistance  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  move  about  among 
the  dense  forests,  swamps,  and  mountains;  therefore  the  Span- 
iards realized  that  more  was  to  be  accomplished  by  diplomacy 
than  by  force.  Massacres  occurred,  but  extermination  was  not 
attempted ;  on  the  contrary,  Honduras  became  in  time  a  nation  of 
Spanish-speaking  Indians,  those  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  blood 
being  more  numerous  now  than  before  the  conquest.  (For  the  eras 
of  the  struggle  for  independence  and  of  confederation  with  the 
neighboring  states,  see  Central  Amerkja)  .    Three  years  before  the 


View  of   Central    Part   of    Tegueigalpa,  Honduras 


HONDURAS  559 

violent  termination  of  the  last  effort  to  form  a  political  union  with 
Nicaragua  and  Salvador,  Honduras  was  called  upon  to  resist 
(1860)  the  landing  at  Trujillo  of  a  small  filibustering  expedition 
from  the  United  States  led  by  William  Walker.  Between 
1871  and  1877  the  country  endured  both  war  and  revolution. 
Comayagua  ceased  to  be  the  national  capital,  and  the  government 
was  established  at  Tegucigalpa  in  1880.  General  Sierra  was 
elected  to  the  Presidency,  1899-1903 ;  Gen.  Manuel  Bonilla,  1903- 
07.  Honduras  and  Salvador  were  at  war  with  Guatemala  for  a 
short  time  in  1906.  In  1910-11  two  revolutionary  movements 
occurred,  and  intervention  by  the  United  States  became  necessary. 
Seiior  Davila  resigned  the  Presidency;  General  Bonilla  was 
elected  for  the  term  1912-16,  but  died  31  March  1913.  The  unex- 
pired term  was  filled  by  Sr.  Francisco  Bertrand,  who  retired 
from  office  28  July  1915  in  order  to  comply  with  the  constitutional 
provision  that  no  one  shall  assume  the  Presidency  who  has  held 
that  office  at  any  time  during  the  six  months  immediately  preced- 
ing the  inauguration.    He  was  duly  re-elected  for  the  term  1916-20. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   ARMY 

The  first  constitution  of  Honduras  was  adopted  in  1848,  the 
second  in  1865,  the  third  in  1880,  and  the  fourth,  under  which  the 
country  is  governed  to-day,  became  operative  1  Jan.  1895.  (Moe's 
Honduras:  see  Bibliography).  There  were,  in  addition,  other 
even  more  tentative  schemes  of  government,  which  hardly  merit 
inclusion  in  this  sequence.  The  usual  division  of  authority 
between  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  branches  is  followed; 
the  Congress,  however,  is  a  single  body,  ''  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  consisting  of  42  members,  elected  by  direct  vote  for  a 
term  of  four  years  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  10,000 
inhabitants."  {General  Descriptive  Data:  see  Bibliography). 
The  chamber  is  renewed  by  halves  every  second  year,  and  for  each 
deputy  a  substitute  is  elected  to  take  his  place  whenever  neces- 
sary. All  male  literate  citizens  over  18  years  of  age  if  married, 
or  21  if  unmarried,  "  are  not  only  entitled  but  are  compelled  to 
vote."  The  President  and  Vice-President  are  elected  for  a  term 
of  four  years  by  direct  vote.  The  President  is  assisted  by  a  cabi- 
net of  six  ministers :  Minister  of  Government  and  Justice ;  of 
Promotion  (Fomento),  Public  Works  and  Agriculture;  Foreign 
Relations  and  Public  Instruction;  War  and  Navy;  Treasury  and 


560 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Public  Credit.  The  judicial  branch  includes  a  supreme  court  (five 
justices  elected  by  popular  vote  for  four  years) ;  municipal  courts 
(judges  appointed  by  supreme  court),  and  justices  of  the  peace 
elected  by  popular  vote.  Title  III,  Art.  10  of  the  constitution 
declares  that  "  The  Republic  of  Honduras  is  a  sacred  refuge  for 
every  person  fleeing  to  its  territory,"  and  by  Title  V,  Art.  27  the 
death  penalty  is  absolutely  abolished.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory. The  standing  army  numbers  2,000,  approximately,  and 
the  reserve  has  45,000  officers  and  men.  Two  small  vessels  are 
placed  in  the  care  of  the  Minister  of  War  and  Navy,  for  patrol 
duty  along  the  coasts. 


Cathedral  at  Tegucigalpa,   Honduras 


EDUCATION    AND   RELIGION 

The  institutions  for  secondary  education  under  public  control 
are  the  National  Institute  of  Tegucigalpa,  the  National  College  of 
Santa  Rosa,  ''  La  Independencia  "of  Santa  Barbara,  and  *'  La 
Fraternidad  "  of  Juticalpa.  A  school  of  commerce  is  annexed  to 
the  National  Institute.  {Dept.  of  the  Interior:  Report  of  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  Vol.  I,  Washington  1915).  Education  is 
nominally  ''free  and  compulsory";  and  facilities  are  actually 
provided  at  Ceiba,  where  schools  are  supported  by  the  municipal 
government,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  poorer  sections  by  a  small 
tax  or  assessment  imposed  by  the  national  government.  The 
university  at  Tegucigalpa  has  faculties  of  medicine,  law,  etc. 
According  to  an  official  statement,  "  mixed  "  schools,  attended  by 
boys  and  girls  together,  will  be  established  in  rural  districts.    Pro- 


HONDURAS  561 

vision  for  agricultural  training  has  not  been  made  on  an  adequate 
scale.  Freedom  of  worship  is  secured  by  constitutional  guaranty ; 
the  government  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of  any  church ; 
the  prevailing  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 


AGRICULTURE 


Agriculture  receives  more  attention  than  formerly.  The  lead- 
ing product  for  home  consumption  is  still  maize,  of  which  about 
500,000  bushels  are  raised  annually,  chiefly  in  the  departments  of 
Copan,  Gracias,  and  Santa  Barbara.  Bananas  are  cultivated  for 
export  principally;  and  we  find  that,  although  the  banana  grows 
wild  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Honduras  up  to  an  elevation  of  3,000 
feet,  the  industry  (at  present  the  most  important  one)  of  cultiva- 
ting this  fruit  for  export  is  confined  to  the  hot  lands  along  the  north 
coast,  not  extending  farther  inland  than  50  or  75  miles.  Naturally 
the  shipping-points  are  Puerto  Cortes,  Ceiba  and  Trujillo,  adjoin- 
ing such  lands,  and  from  the  first-mentioned  the  shipments  '*  aver- 
age about  $1,000,000  in  value  a  year."  (From  General  Descriptive 
Data:  see  Bibliography.)  The  annual  wheat  crop  is  about  15,000 
bushels;  rice  4,000,000  pounds,  and  tobacco,  1,500,000  pounds. 
Nearly  20,'000  acres  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  plantains. 
Cocoanuts,  lemons,  and  oranges  are  produced  for  export 
on  a  large  scale.  Sugar  cane  is  cultivated  on  13,263  acres ;  indigo 
on  about  9,000  acres.  The  total  value  of  agricultural  products 
annually  is  about  $3,000,000.  The  number  of  cattle  is  estimated 
at  571,120;  horses,  43,549;  mules,  about  14,000,  etc.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  sarsaparilla  (the  product  of  the  smilax  medic.a)  are  exported 
to  the  United  States. 


COMMERCE   AND   MANUFACTURES 

The  fiscal  year  1913-14  is  the  latest  to  which  we  should  direct 
our  attention  Avhen  studying  normal  conditions  of  commerce  in 
Honduras,  for  the  simple  reason  that  prolonged  drought  during 
subsequent  years  occasioned  short  crops  and  '*  has  been  a  calamity 
perhaps  greater  for  Honduras  than  the  European  war."  (Group 
Conference  Report,  in  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings,  etc.  See 
Bibliography).  The  total  value  of  the  republic's  foreign  com- 
merce in  the  fiscal  year  1913-14  was,  then,  $10,046,261,  that  being 

37 


562 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


the  sum  of  imports,  $6,624,980,  and  exports  $3,421,331.  Products 
exported  were:  Bananas,  6,610,164  bunches;  coffee,  1,214,454 
pounds;  cocoanuts,  10,366,955;  hides,  805,861  pounds;  deerskins, 
81,791  pounds;  gold  and  silver  cyanides,  156,685  pounds.  The  dis- 
tribution of  foreign  trade  was :  United  States,  $5,262,043  imports 
and  $2,914,157  exports ;  Great  Britain,  $459,762  imports  and  $17,- 
896  exports;  France,  $141,597  imports  and  $5,353  exports;  Ger- 
many, $521,837  imports  and  $164,607  exports. 


Pile    of    Tailings,      Mining    District    of    Honduras 

MINERALS  AND  WOODS 

Gold  is  found  between  the  south  and  centre;  silver  in  almost 
all  sections.  Lead,  copper,  saltpeter,  iron,  coal,  zinc,  and  antimony 
are  also  widely  distributed.  The  value  of  ores  produced  annually 
is  approximately  $1,000,000  (that  is  20,000  ounces  of  gold,  1,000,000 
ounces  of  silver,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  copper).  Only 
about  5  per  cent  of  the  mines  of  the  country  are  being  worked.  The 
forests  from  sea-level  to  an  altitude  of  1,000  feet,  contain 
mahogany,  ebony,  dye  woods,  sarsaparilla  and  other  medicinal 
plants,  and  cabinet  woods,  cedar,  etc.  At  an  elevation  of  1,800  feet 
are  dense  and  very  extensive  forests  of  pine  and  similar  woods. 


BANKING   AND  FINANCE 

The  unit  of  the  monetary  system,  which  is  based  on  the  silver 
standard,  is  the  peso,  divided  into  100  centavos  and  weighing  25 
grammes  of  silver  .900  fine,  or  say  22.500  grammes  fine  silver. 
The  value  of  the  peso  of  Honduras  fluctuates  with  the  rise  and 


HONDURAS  563 

fall  of  the  price  of  silver  in  the  international  market.  Thus,  it 
was  given  as  about  $0.42  currency  of  the  United  States  in  April 
1916;  but  $0.39786,  with  silver  at  55  cents  an  ounce  as  a  basis,  is 
the. value  assigned  in  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and 
Exchange  Co7iditions  (New  York  1915)  and  in  Gonzales,  V.,  Mod- 
em Foreign  Exchange  (New  York  1914).  Principal  banks,  in 
1915,  were  the  Banco  de  Honduras  and  the  Banco  de  Comercio  at 
the  capital  and  the  Banco  Atlantida  at  Ceiba.  The  interior  debt 
of  the  nation,  according  to  the  message  of  the  President  to  Con- 
gress in  1915,  amounted,  on  31  July  1914,  to  4,611,464.68  pesos. 
The  Group  Conference  Report  in  Financial  Conference  Proceed- 
ings (see  Bibliography)  contains  the  following  statements: 
*^  There  is  a  heavy  external  debt  weighing  upon  the  credit  of  the 
Republic.  This  consists  principally  of  bonds  issued  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  railway  from  Puerto  Cortes  to  La  Pimienta  and 
the  arrears  of  interest  thereon.  The  British  Council  for  Foreign 
Bondholders  represents  the  holders  of  these  bonds."  *'  The 
establishment  of  the  gold  standard  in  Honduras  would  be  a  very 
desirable  reform.  It  is  not  probable  that  this  could  be  carried  out 
until  the  country 's  external  debt,  now  in  default,  has  been 
adjusted."  The  amount  of  the  external  debt  was  given  (1  Jan. 
1914)  as  £23,693,969,  of  which  £18,295,399  represented  arrears  of 
interest.  In  other  words,  a  debt  of  less  than  $26,000,000  increased 
to  $120,000,000,  approximately,  by  1917.  The  budget  for  1915-16 
estimated  receipts  at  5,929,420  pesos,  and  the  value  of  the  peso  at 
that  time  was  approximately  36.15  cents,  currency  of  the  United 
States. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  National  Railway  extends  from  Puerto  Cortes  to 
Pimienta,  56  miles.  Privately  owned  lines  in  the  banana  regions 
aggregate  about  109  miles.  The  Ulua  River  is  navigable  for  a  dis- 
tance of  125  miles,. and  other  streams  facilitate,  to  a  limited  extent, 
communication  between  the  north  coast  and  the  interior.  On  that 
coast  service  with  Puerto  Cortes  (and  occasionally  Ceiba,  Trujillo, 
and  Tela)  is  maintained  by  steamers  from  New  Orleans,  New 
York,  and  Mobile.  On  the  Pacific  coast  dependence  is  placed  upon 
the  San  Francisco-Panama  steamship  lines.  There  are  278  post 
offices.  The  number  of  letters  (both  internal  and  foreign  corre- 
spondence) is  not  more  than  1,550,000  in  a  year.  The  republic  has 
4,281  miles  of  telegraph  wire;  the  capital  and  some  other  towns 
telephone  services. 


564  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Bibliography 

Biblioteca  Nacional  de  Honduras,  Revista  del  Archivo  y  de  la  '  Proeeso  Contra 
el  Filibustero  William  Walker',  Ultima  Expedieion  de  Walker,  etc.  (Tegucigalpa 
1907);  Financial  Conference,  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washing- 
ton 1915);  Gordon,  G.  B.,  Caverns  of  Copan,  Honduras  (Cambridge,  Mass.  1898) 
and  The  Hieroglyphic  Stairway  (Cambridge,  Mass.  1902) ;  Lombard,  T.  R.,  The 
New  Honduras  (New  York  1887);  M'oe,  A.  K.,  Honduras  (Washington  1904); 
Pan  American  Union,  Honduras:  General  Descriptive  Data  (Washington  1915) 
and  Latin  America  (Washington  1916)  ;  Squier,  E.  G.,  Honduras  (London  1870) 
and  the  edition  "  Corregida  y  anotada  por  J.  M.  C."  (Tegucigalpa  1908) ;  Vera,  R., 
Apuntes  para  la  Historia  de  Honduras  (Santiago  de  Chile  1899);  Vivas,  F.  S., 
Guia  de  Honduras  (Tegucigalpa  1905). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Honduras  is  divided  politically  into  17  Departments  and  one 
Territory,  which  are  again  divided  into  districts.  The  principal  cities  are  as 
follows : 

Tegucigalpa 

•  The  capital  of  the  Republic,  lies  on  an  interior  plateau  at  an  elevation  of  about 
3,200  feet,  and  is  the  only  capital  of  Latin  America  without  a  railway.  A  fine 
road  connects  the  south  (Pacific)  coast  at  San  Lorenzo,  across  a  bay  from  Amapala, 
with  the  capital,  and  an  automobile  service  covers  the  approximately  62  miles  in 
less  than  12  hours.  The  city  has  several  substantial  buildings  and  a  fine  public 
square.  The  location  is  healthful  and  the  surrounding  region  is  thickly  populated. 
Mines  of  gold,  silver  and  marble  are  worked  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  consul.    The  population  is  estimated  at  22,923. 

'  Other  Cities 

San  Pedro  SuliA,  near  the  north  coast,  is  connected  by  rail  with  Puerto  Cortes, 
•and  is  a  thriving  centre  of  trade  in  the  products  of  the  surrounding  district ;  these 
include  cotton,  sugar  cane,  coffee,  tobacco,  bananas,  and  other  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical products,  also  timber  and  dyewoods.  Puerto  Cortes  is  of  growing  import- 
ance as  a  port.  It  has  regular  steamer  communication  with  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  New  York.  The  shipments  of  bananas  from  Puerto  Cortes  average  about 
$1,000,000  in  value  a  year.  La  Ceiba,  Tela,  and  Trujillo  on  the  north  coast  are 
other  important  shipping  points  for  the  banana  industry.  Amapala  on  the  south 
coast  is  the  most  active  port  in  the  Republic  for  the  foreign  commerce  passing 
through  it.  It  has  regular  steamer  communication  with  San  Francisco.  There 
are  United  States  consuls  at  Ceiba  and  Puerto  Cortes,  and  consular  agents  in  Tela, 
San  Pedro  Sula,  and  Amapala. 


NICARAGUA 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


NATURAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  Republic  of  Nicaragua  is  a  country  of  Central  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Honduras,  on  the  east  by  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  south  by  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the 
southwest  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  200  miles  of  sea- 
coast  on  the  Pacific  and  about  300  miles  on  the  Caribbean.  Its 
area,  according  to  conservative  estimates,  was  formerly  given  as 
40,000  square  miles ;  including  Mosquitia  it  is  49,200  square  miles. 
(For  departments,  departmental  capitals,  and  districts,  see 
Political  Divisions  and  Cities,  p.  579).  The  strip  of  Caribbean 
coast  *'  annexed  "  in  1894  by  President  Zelaya  was  formerly  the 
Mosquito  Reserve,  or  Mosquitia,  a  British  protectorate;  but 
Great  Britain  has  gradually  withdrawn  in  Nicaragua's  favor  her 
claim  to  exercise  jurisdiction  there.  This  eastern  coast  is  now 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  republic;  and 
of  the  "Atlantic  Slope  "  —  the  Caribbean  side  in  general  —  we 
may  say  that  it  contains  placer  mines,  its  fruit  industry  is  already 
profitable,  large  plantations  of  rubber  trees  are  being  cultivated, 
and  rosewood,  cedar,  and  mahogany  are  taken  from  its  forests. 

Physical  Features 

The  Sierra  de  los  Morabios,  running  from  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca 
to  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Managua,  appears  to  be  the  centre 
of  volcanic  energy  in  Nicaragua.  It  has  the  following  vents: 
Cosigiiina  (famous  on  account  of  the  terrific  explosion  of  2  Jan. 
1835),  Chonco,  El  Viejo  (quiet  since  1684),  Santa  Clara,  Telica, 
San  Jacinto,  Rota,  Las  Pilas  (eruption  in  1850),  Asososco,  and 

[565] 


566  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Momotombo  (eruptions  in  1870  and  1886) ;  and  though  only  two  of 
these  may  be  described  as  active,  the  others  are  dormant,  rather 
than  extinct.  This  ridge  is  near  the  Pacific  coast,  and  its  south- 
easterly trend  is  continued  by  the  isolated  volcanoes  Masaya 
(active),  Apoyo  (extinct),  Mombacho,  Ometepe,  and  Madera 
(extinct).  The  two  last  are  on  an  island  near  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  but  a  few  miles  from  the  nearest  point  in 
Costa  Rica.  In  other  words,  practically  the  entire  Pacific  coast 
range  is  intensely  volcanic;  the  only  exception  being  found  at 
Brito  and  the  neighborhood  southwest  and  south  of  Ometepe  and 
Madera,  where,  according  to  the  views  of  some  geologists,  the 
*'  internal  fissure  in  the  earth's  crust  that  gave  rise  to  the  several 
volcanic  vents  of  Central  America  "  is  "  completely  built  up  and 
healed.  Hence  the  low  gap  in  the  grand  American  cordillera 
found  at  that  place,  which  has  a  mean  height  of  about  150  feet 
above  sea-level,  the  lowest  gap  from  Alaska  to  Tierra  del  Fuego. ' ' 
Through  this  gap,  over  this  "  healed  fissure,"  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  (q.v.)  was  to  have  been  cut.  The  volcanic  characteristics 
are  not  found  far  inland,  but  are  restricted  almost  entirely  to  the 
western  border ;  nevertheless  the  principal  cities  are  built  in  this 
narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Pacific  and  the  lakes.  Chinan- 
dega,  near  the  coast  in  the  northwest,  has  about  11,000  inhabitants ; 
Leon,  63,000;  Managua,  capital  of  the  republic,  35,000;  Masaya, 
13,000 ;  and  Granada,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  17,000. 
Of  these  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  city,  Leon,  contains  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Peter  which,  it  is  said,  was  built  at  a  cost  of 
$5,000,000  when  labor  was  valued  at  25  cents  a  day.  From  the  roof 
of  this  great  church  can  be  seen  in  one  view  13  volcanoes.  In  the 
central  region  the  largest  town  is  Matagalpa  (15,000  to  16,000). 
The  western  strip,  despite  its  insecurity  and  oppressive  climate, 
has  been  preferred  as  a  place  of  residence  by  the  majority  of  the 
Nicaraguans  on  account  of  its  facilities  for  communication  and 
transportation  —  among  which  are  to  be  reckoned  the  great  lakes, 
Nicaragua  (92  miles  long  by  34  miles  wide)  and  Managua  (32 
miles  long  by  16  miles  wide),  connected  by  a  river  which  could, 
without  difficulty,  be  rendered  navigable.  The  greater  part  of  the 
republic,  stretching  eastward  from  the  lakes  to  the  department  of 
Zelaya,  is  of  a  different  geologic  formation.  It  is  covered  with  a 
chain  of  mountains  of  moderate  height,  and  transverse  spurs 
which  are  not  volcanic  extrusions  but  Antillean  folds.  (See  article 
Central  America,  p.  521).  Many  parts  of  the  central  uplands  are 
comparatively  cool  and  well  watered,  with  very  rich  soil  and 
nearly  untouched  treasures  in  forest  and  minej  but  they  have 


NICARAGUA  567 

remained  undeveloped  hitherto  chiefly  on  account  of  the  hxck  of 
good  roads.  The  earthquake  shocks  of  Nicaragua  are  less  severe 
than  those  of  Guatemala  and  Salvador,  and  dangerous  fevers  pre- 
vail chiefly,  though  not  exclusively,  in  the  lowlands  or  near  stag- 
nant water.  The  large  rivers,  rising  in  the  central  mountains  and 
emptying  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  are  the  Segovia,  also  called  Coco 
or  Wanks,  which  forms  the  boundary  with  Honduras,  the  Grande, 
the  Kurringwas,  and  the  Bluefields  or  Mico.  The  San  Juan  flows 
from  Lake  Nicaragua  to  the  Caribbean,  and  in  part  forms  the 
boundary  with  Costa  Kica  on  the  south.  The  route  of  the  Carib- 
bean section  of  the  canal,  for  which  the  waters  of  the  San  Juan 
would  have  been  utilized,  included  a  cut  through  Costa  Bican 
territory  west  of  Ochoa. 

Fauna  and  Flora 

The  fauna  includes  the  puma,  deer,  jaguar,  monkeys,  alli- 
gators, armadillos,  ant-eaters,  guatuso,  peccaries  or  wild  hogs,  and 
many  species  of  reptiles,  some  very  poisonous.  There  are  large 
herds  of  cattle.  Prominent  among  avifauna  are  macaws,  parrots, 
buzzards,  wild  turkeys,  and  humming-birds.  Insect  life  is  super- 
abundant. Great  trees  extend  over  the  eastern  plain  and  the 
ground  beneath  them  is  covered  with  a  dense  network  of  vines 
and  bushes.  There  are  over  70  varieties  of  fruit  trees,  of  which 
about  55  receive  a  measure  of  cultivation.  About  50  varieties  fur- 
nish various  gums,  resins,  balsams,  oils,  spices,  fibres,  used  in  the 
industries  and  in  medicine,  and  about  an  equal  number  of  varieties 
furnish  hardw^ood  lumber.  Citrus  fruits  abound  in  the  western 
portion,  and  rubber  also  is  plentiful.  The  forest  resources  have 
been  utilized  but  little.  Most  tropical  crops  such  as  bananas, 
cocoanuts,  plantains,  oranges  and  pineapples,  coffee,  sugar,  corn 
and  beans,  are  grown  and  the  area  of  cultivation  is  on  the 
increase  and  would  increase  more  rapidly  but  for  the  scarcity  of 
labor.     (See  article  Latin  America:  Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  11). 

Mineral  Resources 

Among  the  Central  American  republics,  Nicaragua  ranks 
second  (Honduras  being  first)  in  respect  to  mineral  wealth.  Gold 
and  silver  are  found  in  the  departments  of  New  Segovia,  Chon- 
tales,  Zelaya,  Leon,  Matagalpa,  and  Tinotega;  copper  in  Leon, 
New  Segovia,  and  Matagalpa ;  lead  and  iron  in  New  Segovia  and 
Matagalpa ;  mercury,  salt,  sulphate  of  lime,  sulphur,  and  combus- 
tible minerals  in  Leon;  tin  in  New  Segovia;  nickel  and  zinc  in 


568 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Matagalpa,  More  than  500  mines  are  registered  in  the  national 
bureau  of  statistics,  and  494  of  these  are  set  down  as  producers  of 
gold.  Antimony,  arsenic  and  other  metals  have  been  found  but  in 
unimportant  quantities.  In  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  great 
quantities  of  silver  were  produced  and  rich  deposits  of  this  metal 
are  known  to  exist. 


HISTORY 

On  21  Jan.  1522  Gil  Gonzalez  Davilla  with  four  vessels  sailed 
westw^ard  from  Panama  in  search  of  the  Spice  Islands.  Proceed- 
ing along  the  Pacific  coast,  after  m.any  mishaps,  he  reached  the 
home  of  an  Indian  chief  whose  name  was  Nicaragua,  and  converted 
him  to  Christianity.  On  the  same  day  9,017  natives,  if  we  may 
believe  the  commander's  assertion,  accepted  baptism.  Nicara- 
gua's town  stood  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  to  which  his  name  has 
been  given.  Gil  Gonzalez  heard  from  the  pilots  he  had  with  him 
that,  by  way  of  the  lake  and  river,  there  was  easy  communication 
between  the  "  North  Sea  "  and  the  "  South  Sea  ";  and  he  wrote 
that  only  ' '  2  or  3  leagues  of  very  level  road  ' '  separated  the  ocean 
from  the  lake.  Until  1718  the  isthnms,  including  the  province  of 
Nicaragua,  was  subject  to  the  viceroy  of  Peru ;  after  that  to  the 
Spanish   representative   at  Bogotii.     New   Granada    (Colombia) 


In  Granada,  Nicaragua 


Ck>pyrlght,    Keystone    View    Co. 


NICARAGUA  569 

continued  to  claim  certain  rights  in  the  entire  isthmian  territory, 
even  up  to  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios.  The  most  interesting  period  is 
that  in  which  occurred  the  invasion  and  temporary  conquest  of 
Nicaragua  by  William  Walker,  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  with  his  56 
*'  emigrants."  Walker  became  virtually  dictator  in  1856.  His 
aim,  disclosed  to  one  of  his  associates,  was  to  found  an  empire 
embracing  Central  America  and  Mexico.  (See  Bibliography). 
In  1895  the  short-lived  "  Greater  Republic  of  Central  America  " 
was  formed  by  the  association  of  Nicaragua  with  Salvador  and 
Honduras.    It  could  hardly  be  called  a  genuine  union. 

Three  years  later  that  attempt  to  displace  permanently  the 
separatist  tendencies  was  abandoned;  but  again  (in  1907)  a 
similar  object  was  sought,  and  on  this  occasion  the  consequences 
were  twofold  —  not  alone  the  comparatively  unimportant  attacks 
by  means  of  which  Zelaya  hoped  by  force  to  drive  the  Central 
American  states  into  a  confederation  under  his  own  leadership, 
but  also  the  truly  important  interposition  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  and  the  peace  conference  held  at  Washington  in  November 
and  December.  The  conference  was  attended  by  delegates  from 
all  the  Central  American  countries,  and  a  progressive  effort  then 
and  there  began  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  all  by  treaty  and  by 
conventions  that  seemed  in  the  main  well  and  wisely  planned.  In 
1908  Great  Britain  recognized  Nicaragua's  sovereignty  over  the 
Mosquito  Reservation,  and  in  the  same  year  Nicaragua  concluded 
treaties  of  commerce  with  Italy  and  Belgium.  In  1909  the  measure 
of  local  discontent  with  President  Zelaya 's  aggressive  foreign 
policy,  and  perhaps  even  more  with  the  monopolies  and  conces- 
sions that  seemed  oppressive  in  Nicaragua  itself,  was  filled  to 
overflowing.  Among  other  difficulties,  there  was  a  claim  advanced 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States;  and  the  presence  of  American 
cruisers  in  the  vicinity  of  Nicaraguan  ports  soon  lent  a  threaten- 
ing aspect  to  a  demand  (17  March)  for  the  submission  of  that  claim 
to  arbitration.  It  was  so  referred  in  May.  Early  in  October  a 
candidate  for  the  office  of  chief  executive.  Gen.  Juan  J.  Estrada, 
secured  a  following  that  justified  revolution;  the  Atlantic  coast 
towns  over-promptly  surrendered  to  him  or  his  forces ;  there  were 
several  miniature  battles;  and  finally  he  was  proclaimed  the  "  pro- 
visional President, ' '  although  Zelaya  was  still  to  be  reckoned  with. 
On  18  November  reports  of  the  shooting  of  Groce  and  Cannon 
(citizens  of  the  United  States)  by  Zelaya 's  order  led  to  a  declara- 
tion (22  November)  that  the  government  of  the  United  States 
would  demand  reparation;  and  on  1  December  the  Estrada  gov- 
ernment was  recognized,  and  Zelaya 's  representative  at  Washing- 


570  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

ton  was  dismissed  with  the  warning  that  the  United  States  w^ould 
hold  those  who  had  ordered  the  execution  of  Groce  and  Cannon 
personally  responsible.  On  16  December  Zelaya  at  last  surren- 
dered the  cares  of  office.  During  1910  the  ruinous  civil  war  con- 
tinued, arraying  East  against  West,  until  the  latter  section  yielded 
and  its  capital,  Managua,  w^as  taken  at  the  end  of  August.  Then 
General  Estrada  asserted  authority  as  Provisional  President,  issu- 
ing on  15  September  a  call  for  a  presidential  election.  Before  that 
could  be  held  Adolfo  Diaz  was  inaugurated  as  Provisional  Presi- 
dent. On  7  Oct.  1911  the  National  Constituent  Assembly  elected 
General  Mena  President  for  a  four-year  term.  Many  concessions 
that  Zelaya  had  granted  w^ere  now^  repealed,  on  the  ground,  of 
course,  that  the  lawful  authority  of  a  president  had  been  exceeded, 
to  the  detriment  of  the  country's  interests.  Re-establishment  of 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  United  States  was  marked  by  the 
appointment  of  Elliott  Northcott  as  minister,  and  San  Juan  del 
Norte,  or  Greytown,  was  made  a  free  port.  But  the  crisis  was  not 
past. 

The  election  of  Mena  by  the  Constituent  Assembly,  as  men- 
tioned above,  w^as  simply  invalid  in  view  of  a  certain  agreement, 
known  as  the  Dawson  conventions,  to  which  Mena  was  a  party  and 
which  provided  that  a  quite  different  method  should  be  adopted  — 
an  election  by  the  people  rather  than  by  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly —  to  ascertain  the  nation's  real  choice  of  successors  to  the  Pro- 
visional President  and  Vice-President.  Mena,  refusing  to  accept 
his  fate,  revolted  on  29  July  1912;  the  Minister  of  the  United 
States  thereupon  demanded  protection  for  American  lives  and 
property;  Provisional  President  Diaz  requested  assistance;  in 
response  marines  under  Rear-Admiral  Southerland  were  sent  to 
Nicaragua,  and  the  surrender  of  Mena  with.  700  men  took  place  on 
25  September  at  Granada  —  at  which  city  also  the  American  Red 
Cross  supplies  of  food  were  afterward  distributed.  By  successes 
at  Masaya,  Granada,  Leon,  Chichigalpa  and  Chinandega,  the 
American  forces  gained  mastery  of  the  entire  region  along  the 
railway  from  Corinto  to  Managua,  and  fighting  came  to  an  end. 
A  prompt  withdrawal  of  the  American  forces  should  be  noted :  by 
1  December  only  a  legation-guard  of  400  marines  remained  at 
Managua.  The  elections  held  on  2  November  resulted  in  the  choice 
of  Adolfo  Diaz  for  a  four-year  term  beginning  1  Jan.  1913.  Peace 
having  been  established,  indispensable  arrangements  were  made 
with  foreign  bondholders  and  the  National  Bank  of  Nicaragua, 
Inc.,  designed  to  act  as  fiscal  agent  of  the  republic,  began  its 
useful  work  at  the  capital  in  October  1912. 


NICARAGUA  571 

The  "Nicaragua  Canal  "  Treaty 

On  26  Feb.  1913  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  took  into 
consideration  a  proposed  new  convention  or  treaty  with  Nicara- 
gua, negotiated  with  the  object  of  granting,  on  the  one  side,  and  of 
securing,  on  the  other  side,  to  the  United  States  as  an  exclusive 
privilege  the  perpetual  right  to  construct  a  canal  across  Nicaragiia. 
That  convention,  signed  in  1914  and  ratified  by  Nicaragua  but  not 
by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  until  1916,  made  provision  for 
the  payment  of  $3,000,000  for  the  canal  option  and  (among  other 
things)  for  a  naval  station  on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  at  which  begins 
the  boundary  with  Honduras  and  upon  which  the  Republic  of 
Salvador  also  looks  out.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  control  of  that 
important  gulf  is  shared  among  the  three  nations  of  the  old 
"  Greater  Republic  of  Central  America  "  mentioned  above;  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  route  Costa  Rica's  boundary  must  be 
crossed;  and  this  division  of  interest  and  control  is  but  a  reminder 
of  difficulties  that  have  been  encountered  whenever  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  in  the  past,  before  the  selection  of  the 
Panama  route,  endeavored  to  make  satisfactory  arrangements  for 
cutting  a  canal  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  Ratification  of  the 
"  Convention  between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua  "  was 
advised  by  the  Senate,  with  amendments,  18  Feb.  1916;  on  19 
June  1916  the  convention  was  ratified  by  the  President;  on  24 
June  1916  it  was  proclaimed  {Treaty  Series,  No.  624,  Washington 
1916).  In  Article  I  "  The  Government  of  Nicaragua  grants  in 
perpetuity  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  forever  free 
from  all  taxation  or  other  public  charge,  the  exclusive  proprietary 
rights  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construction,  operation 
and  maintenance  of  an  interoceanic  canal  by  way  of  the  San  Juan 
River  and  the  Great  Lake  of  Nicaragua  or  by  way  of  any  route 
over  Nicaraguan  territory."  In  Article  II  the  Government  of 
Nicaragua  *^  leases  for  a  term  of  99  years  to  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  the  islands  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  known  as 
Great  Corn  Island  and  Little  Corn  Island ;  and  the  Government  of 
Nicaragua  further  grants  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
for  a  like  period  of  99  years  the  right  to  establish,  operate  and 
maintain  a  naval  base  at  such  place  on  the  territory  of  Nicaragua 
bordering  upon  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  as  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  may  select.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  the  option  of  renewing  for  a  further  term  of  99  years 
the  above  leases  and  grants  upon  the  expiration  of  their  respective 
terms,  it  being  expressly  agreed  that  the  territory  hereby  leased 


572  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  the  naval  base  which  may  be  maintained  under  the  grant 
aforesaid  shall  be  subject  exclusively  to  the  laws  and  sovereign 
authority  of  the  United  States  during  the  terms  of  such  lease  and 
grant  and  of  any  renewal  or  renewals  thereof."  Article  III 
relates  to  the  payment  above  mentioned,  etc.  The  consent  of  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  to  the  ratification  of  this  convention 
w^as  given  with  the  proviso  '^  that  nothing  in  said  convention  is 
intended  to  affect  any  existing  right  "  of  Costa  Rica,  Salvador 
and  Honduras. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  present  constitution  was  promulgated  12  March  1912  and 
came  into  operation  on  5  April  1913,  with  the  exception  of  Articles 
168  and  170.  The  congress,  composed  of  two  chambers,  the  Senate 
of  13  members,  and  a  Chamber  of  40  Deputies,  meets  annually  at 
Managua,  15  December.  Both  senators  and  deputies  are  chosen 
by  direct  popular  vote,  and  all  male  citizens  over  the  age  of  21 
are  entitled  to  vote,  as  are  also  "  those  over  18  years  of  age  who 
are  married  or  who  can  read  and  write  "  {Pan  American  Union 
Handbook:  see  Bibliography).  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  re- 
newed by  halves  and  the  Senate  by  thirds  every  two  years.  Sena- 
tors are  elected  for  six  years  and  must  be  secular  citizens  over  40 
years  of  age.  Deputies  are  elected  for  four  years  and  must  be 
secular  citizens  over  25  years  of  age.  Senators  and  Deputies 
are  elected  directly  by  the  vote  of  the  people,  the  department  of 
the  Republic  being  divided  into  electoral  districts,  there  being  one 
deputy  for  each  15,000  inhabitants  or  fraction  above  8,000.  Each 
district  elects  one  Deputy  and  one  Alternate.  Each  department 
elects  one  Senator  and  one  Alternate  for  each  two  Deputies  to 
which  it  is  entitled.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Presi- 
dent and  a  Vice-President,  who  must  be  native  citizens  over  30 
years  of  age,  and  who  are  elected  by  direct  popular  vote  for  a 
four-year  term,  with  the  express  provision  that  the  President  is 
ineligible  to  succeed  himself  in  office.  There  are  five  cabinet  min- 
isters, the  departments  being:  Government,  Justice,  Police,  and 
Charities;  Foreign  Relations  and  Public  Instruction;  Treasury 
and  Public  Credit;  War  and  Navy;  Promotion  (Fomento)  and 
Public  Works.  A  supreme  court  of  justice  holds  its  sessions  at 
Managua.  There  are  also  courts  of  appeals  in  Leon,  Granada, 
and  Bluefields,  besides  several  district  or  local  courts.  The 
governors  of  the  departments  are  appointed  by  the  President. 
They  also  command  the  local  military  forces. 


NICARAGUA  573 

Education  and  Religion 

Earnest  efforts  are  being  made  by  the  Government  to  secure 
competent  instructors  and  to  increase  the  number  of  school  build- 
ings. The  school  age,  as  prescribed  by  law,  is,  for  each  child,  the 
period  from  five  to  14  years.  The  principal  university,  with  facul- 
ties of  law  and  medicine,  is  located  at  Leon.  Other  universities 
are  situated  at  Granada  and  Managua,  with  faculties  of  law  only. 
There  are  two  normal  schools  and  eight  colleges  at  Managua, 
and  schools  of  telegraphy  at  Managua  and  Granada.  A  national 
industrial,  commercial  and  scientific  museum  has  been  established 
at  Managua.  Altogether  there  are  about  40  institutions  for 
higher  education,  and  about  350  elementary  schools  in  the  republic 
supported  by  the  government.  These  employ  over  390  teachers 
and  are  attended  by  more  than  15,000  pupils.  There  are  a  few 
private  schools.  The  prevailing  form  of  religion  is  Roman  Cath- 
olic but  freedom  is  accorded  to  all  denominations  and  special 
favors  prohibited  to  any.  The  Roman  church  has  two  arch- 
bishoprics, Managua  and  Leon,  and  two  bishoprics,  Granada  and 
Matagalpa. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

The  forests  contain  mahogany,  ebony,  cedar,  quebracho,  light 
rosewood,  mora,  brazilwood,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  vegetable  wax, 
ipecacuanha,  quinquina,  copaiba,  balsam,  rhubarb,  etc.  In  many 
parts  of  the  republic  —  near  both  coasts,  in  the  valleys,  on  the 
slopes  and  plateaus  near  the  lakes  and  rivers  —  soils  of  excep- 
tional value  for  agricultural  purposes  are  found;  and  though  the 
system  of  cultivation  is  rudimentary,  extraordinary  results  are 
sometimes  achieved.  Thus,  it  is  said  on  good  authority  that  sugar 
cane  produces  at  least  two  annual  crops,  and  sometimes  three; 
cotton  planted  in  October  is  picked  the  following  February  on  all 
the  western  lands ;  the  virgin  soil  of  the  eastern  slope  yields  four 
crops  of  maize  in  a  year ;  and  indigo  can  be  cut  three  times  before 
replanting  becomes  necessary.  Coffee  thrives  best  at  elevations 
between  2,000  and  3,000  feet  above  sea-level.  In  the  highlands  of 
the  northwest  coffee  is  extensively  grown.  In  1913,  11,192,908 
kilos,  value  at  $5,004,449,  were  exported.  Rice  produces  abun- 
dantly on  central  and  eastern  slopes.  The  systematic  cultivation 
of  rubber  has  been  undertaken  recently.  Bananas  are  grown  in 
the  west,  principally  in  the  departments  of  Leon  and  Managua, 
for  home  consumption;  in  the  east,  on  a  large  scale,  for  export. 


574  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  annual  yield  of  cacao  is  insufficient  to  supply  the  local 
demand;  in  quality,  however,  it  is  so  excellent  that  it  brings  a 
higher  price  in  the  home  market  than  the  imported  chocolates. 
The  selling  price  is  from  20  to  25  cents  gold  per  pound.  Tobacco 
and  aguardiente  (made  from  sugar  cane)  are  government  monop- 
olies. Tobacco  is  grown  in  several  districts,  the  best  being  pro- 
duced on  the  island  of  Omotepe,  in  Lake  Nicaragua.  Cotton,  corn, 
breadfruit,  black  beans,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  produced  in  large 
quantities  in  the  western  part  of  the  republic,  and  occasionally 
small  quantities  of  beans,  corn,  cheese,  lard,  and  sugar  are 
exported  to  the  neighboring  republics.  In  the  upland  regions  the 
vegetables  of  the  temperate  zone  are  produced.  Cattle  raising  is 
becoming  an  important  industry  in  the  northwest,  and  quantities 
of  hides  are  exported.  There  are  1,200,000  cattle  in  Nicaragua. 
Horses  and  swine  are  reared. 

Cigars  are  produced  in  large  quantities.  There  are  few 
manufacturing  enterprises  and  these  are  engaged  in  turning  out 
articles  of  a  cheap  grade  for  domestic  consumption.  Thus  coarse 
cotton  fabrics,  boots  and  shoes,  candles  and  soap  are  manufac- 
tured and  also  a  cheap  grade  of  furniture.  Roofing  tiles  and 
pottery  are  also  produced  and  the  Indian  population  turns  out 
hammocks,  straw  hats,  gold  and  silver  .jewelry  and  carvings.  For 
the  better  grades  of  manufactures  the  main  reliance  is  upon  the 
country's  imports. 

Exports  consist  principally  of  coffee,  rubber,  bananas,  gold, 
hides,  sugar,  fine  woods,  cacao,  cocoanuts,  cotton  dyes  and  dye- 
woods,  and  silver.  The  imports  are  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  flour,  chemicals,  drugs  and  medicines,  etc.  In  the 
last  normal  year,  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe, 
imports  were  valued  at  $5,770,006  and  exports  $7,712,047.  The 
principal  exports  in  this  year  consisted  of  11,192,908  kilos  of  coffee, 
valued  at  $5,004,449;  gold  Jo  the  value  of  $T,0()3,007;  bananas, 
1,393,026  bunches,  vame'$429,802 ;  hides  and  skins,  684,082  kilos, 
value  $326,559;  7,734  tons  of^^ value  $321,869;  rubber,  221,432 
kilos,  value  $278,763 ;^caca^6H^  kilos,  value  $39,828;  dyewoods 
and  dyes,  3,984,053  kilos,  value  $39,455 ;  sugar,  497,217  kilos,  value 
$31,805 ;  864,857  cocoanuts,  value  $18,741 ;  silver.  508  kilos,  value 
$17,137.  In  the  same  year  the  principal  imports  were:  Cotton 
goods,  $1,417,032;  food  products,  $890,017;  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures, $786,901 ;  liquors,  beer,  wines,  etc.,  $238,881 ;  hides  and 
skins,  $223,205;  chemicals,  drugs,  and  medicines,  $231,959;  silk 
goods,  $149,905;  vegetable  fibers  and  manufactures,  $135,008; 
petroleum,  $106,377 ;  woolen  goods,  $95,797 ;  paper  and  manufac- 


NICARAGUA 


575 


tures,  $81,776.  For  the  calendar  year  1915  the  total  value  of 
Nicaragua's  imports  was  $3,159,218  and  of  exports  $4,567,202;  her 
imports  from  the  United  States  alone  were  valued  at  $2,592,799 
and  exports  to  the  same  country  $3,079,810. 


SHIPPING,  RAILWAYS,  ETC. 

Corinto,  the  principal  western  port,  has  the  advantage  of  the 
Pacific  coast  lines  of  steamships,  American,  Chilean,  British,  etc. 
Bluefields,  on  the  eastern  coast,  has  regular  communication  with 
the  United  States  by  means  of  the  vessels  of  New  Orleans  and 
Mobile  steamship  companies.  The  Pacific  Railroad  of  Nicaragua 
is  the  only  line  in  the  republic,  in  connection  with  which  steamers 
ply  on  the  lakes.  San  Juan  del  Sur  is  another  important  port  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  while  on  the  east  coast  in  addition  to  Bluefields 
are  the  ports  of  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  Las  Perlas,  and  Greytown 
(San  Juan  del  Norte).  There  is  now  a  continuous  line  connecting 
the  port  of  Corinto  to  Chinandega,  Leon,  Manangua,  Masaya, 


Topyright,    Keystone   View   Co. 


Railway  Station,  Granada,   Nicaragua 


576  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Granada  and  Diriamba,  with  branches  to  El  Viejo  and  Momotombo 
and  several  other  branch  lines  are  projected.  The  total  system  in 
operation  is  171  miles  long.  There  are  20  miles  of  private  railway 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  near  the  Rio  Grande,  and,  on  the  west  side  of 
Lake  Nicaragua,  three  private  steam  tramways  aggregating  three 
miles  in  length.  The  steamers  running  on  the  San  Juan  River  and 
on  the  lakes  now  belong  to  the  Government,  as  well  as  steamers 
for  traffic  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  The  national  rail- 
ways have  been  leased  to  a  company  for  15  years  and  the  steamers 
for  25  years  from  1  Jan.  1905.  In  1901  an  American  syndicate 
undertook  the  construction  of  cart  roads  to  supply  communication 
with  Matagalpa,  New  Segovia,  and  other  points  in  the  interior. 
There  are  in  operation  about  3,637  miles  of  telegraph  lines  with 
130  offices,  also  805  miles  of  telephone  lines  and  29  telephone  sta- 
tions. The  number  of  post  offices  was  about  135  in  1915.  The 
Government  is  installing  wireless  telegraph  stations  at  Managua, 
Granada,  San  Carlos,  San  Juan  del  Norte  and  Castillo. 


MONETARY  SYSTEM,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  in  use,  and  the 
present  monetary  system  has  the  gold  standard  as  its  basis,  the 
theoretical  unit  being  the  cordoba,  divided  into  100  cen- 
tavos.  '^  The  weight  of  the  theoretical  gold  unit,"  Mr.  Cosby 
writes  (see  Bibliography),  ''  is  1.6718  grammes  of  gold  .900  fine, 
or  say  1.50464  grammes  of  fine  gold,  and  its  value  in  terms  of  U.  S. 
currency  is  $1.00.  The  circulation  consists  of  silver  coin  and  bank 
notes  guaranteed  to  be  payable  in  gold."  Until  24  Mar.  1913 
the  monetary  unit  was  the  silver  peso  with  a  nominal  value  of 
$0,435,  but  the  actual  currency  was  inconvertible  paper,  and  the 
exchange  rates  ranged  from  1,000  per  cent  to  1,700  per  cent 
premium  for  sight  bills  on  New  York.  After  the  establishment  of 
the  National  Bank  of  Nicaragua,  Inc.,  certain  New  York  capital- 
ists undertook,  through  the  medium  of  that  bank,  the  rehabilitation 
of  Nicaragua's  finances,  with  the  result  that  the  present  mone- 
tary system,  provided  for  under  the  act  of  20  Mar.  1912,  went  into 
effect  24  Mar.  1913.  Under  this  system  the  old  paper  peso  circu- 
lation is  being  retired  at  the  rate,  now  invariable,  of  one  cordoba 
for  12.50  pesos.  To  maintain  the  cordoba  at  par,  there  is  a  ''  con- 
version fund  "  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 


^riCARAGtJA  til 

BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

A  series  of  economic  reforms  designed  to  '*  remedy  the 
unsatisfactory  economic  situation  of  Nicaragua,"  as  the  delegate 
from  that  country  to  the  Pan  American  Financial  Conference 
expressed  it,  began  with  the  effort  to  put  the  currency  on  a  sound 
basis,  as  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  Dr.  Cuadra's 
memorandum  and  the  Group  Conference  Committee  Report, 
both  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  Finan- 
cial Conference  (Washington  1915),  contain  an  authoritative 
statement  of  Nicaragua's  financial  problems;  and  we  notice 
particularly  the  importance  attached  to  the  establishment 
of  the  National  Bank  of  Nicaragua,  which  has  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  issuing  legal  tender  notes,  subject  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  monetary  law  and  for  the  account  of  the  republic 
only.  The  National  Government  owns  49  per  cent  of  its  stock, 
51  per  cent  being  the  property  of  American  bankers.  It 
has  a  special  issue  department  for  the  maintenance  of  the  national 
currency,  and  its  capital,  $300,000,  may  be  increased  if  neces- 
sary to  meet  the  country's  needs.  There  are  two  other  banks  — 
private  credit  institutions  that  do  every  kind  of  banking  busi- 
ness except  the  issuing  of  notes.  Dr.  Cuadra  states  frankly  that 
the  public  treasury  has  been  and  still  is  in  difficulties,  which  are 
ascribed  to  the  long  period  of  inflation,  the  frequent  recurrence  of 
revolutions,  and  former  bad  governments.  "  To  remedy  this  evil 
the  present  Government  of  Nicaragua  asked  a  helping  hand  from 
the  United  States  ";  and  through  the  good  offices  of  the  State 
Department  Nicaragua  was  enabled  to  enter  into  such  relations 
with  two  important  American  banking  houses  that,  with  their  aid, 
it  became  possible  to  effect  a  reorganization  of  the  national  rail- 
way as  well  as  the  monetary  reform  and  the  establishment  of  the 
national  bank.  The  government 's  income  is  only  about  $2,500,000, 
and  almost  all  of  its  debts  (aggregating  $13,780,662)  are  described 
as  past  due  or  ''  pressing."  The  interior  debt  was  given  recently 
as  $6,670,662  and  the  foreign  debt  $7,110,000.  Speaking  as  the 
delegate  of  Nicaragua,  Dr.  Cuadra  said  that  his  government,  hav- 
ing tried  repeatedly  but  without  success  to  obtain  a  foreign  loan, 
''  now  expects  to  apply  the  $3,000,000  to  be  paid  under  the  canal 
treaty  with  the  United  States  to  the  payment  of  those  debts  which 
are  more  pressing,  paying  off  the  rest  with  bonds."  The  Group 
Conference  Committee  expressed  the  belief  that  the  treaty  would 
encourage  the  investment  of  American  capital  in  Nicaragua  "  by 

38 


578  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

insuring  a  continuation  of  present  stable  and  peaceful  conditions." 
Summarizing  the  country's  natural  resources,  the  committee 
reported  that  the  lands  in  the  various  sections  are  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  coffee,  cacao,  bananas,  cocoanuts,  pineapples,  citrus 
fruits,  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton,  and  rubber,  *'  the  success  of  which 
has  been  practically  demonstrated,  but  in  a  crude  and  limited  man- 
ner ";  that  large  areas  are  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  cattle, 
being  covered  throughout  the  year  with  natural  grasses  of  remark- 
ably high  food  value  and  watered  by  perennial  streams ;  that  the 
country  is  analogous  geologically  to  the  State  of  Nevada,  produc- 
ing both  gold  and  silver  in  paying  quantities,  although  the  mines 
are  operated  in  the  crudest  manner;  that  an  extensive  area  is 
heavily  wooded  with  primeval  forests  of  mahogany,  cedar  and 
other  valuable  hardwoods,  pine  and  dye-woods ;  and  finally  that  the 
need  of  additional  transportation  facilities  is  emphasized  by -the 
fact  that  inhabitants  of  the  one  coast  are  under  the  necessity  of 
importing  articles  which  are  actually  produced  in  and  exported 
from  regions  along  the  other  coast,  though  the  two  littoral  regions 
are  only  200  miles  apart. 


POPULATION 


The  estimated  population  on  31  Dec.  1914  was  703,540,  as 
against  689,891  on  31  Dec.  1913.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  inhab- 
itants live  in  the  western  half  of  the  country.  The  people  of  this 
section  are  principally  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  extraction, 
though  there  are  a  few  families  of  pure  Spanish  descent  and 
many  full-blooded  Indians.  The  population  of  the  eastern  half  is 
composed  mainly  of  Mosquito  and  Zambo  Indians  and  negroes 
from  Jamaica  and  other  islands  in  the  Caribbean,  with  some 
Americans  and  a  small  number  of  Nicaraguans  from  the  w^est 
coast.  The  Indian  population  is  docile  and  industrious,  furnish- 
ing most  of  the  country's  labor.  The  Government  has  made  sev- 
eral efforts  to  induce  immigration,  but  so  far  the  result  has  been 
negligible. 


ARMY  AND   NAVY 


Military  service  is  compulsory  between  17  and  55  years  of  age, 
but  the  law^  in  this  regard  is  not  rigidly  enforced.  The  period  of 
active  service  is  one  year.  In  the  active  army  there  are  about 
4,000  men ;  in  the  reserve,  about  36,000.  The  naval  branch  includes 
10  small  gunboats  or  revenue-cutters,  of  which  four  are  on  the 
lakes,  three  on  the  Caribbean,  and  three  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


NICARAGUA  579 

Bibliography 

Bransford,  J.  F.,  Archceologieal  Researches  in  Nicaragua  (Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, Washington  1881);  Cosby,  J.  T.,  Latin  American  Monetary  Systems  and 
Exchange  Conditions  (New  York  1915)  ;  Los  Estados  Unidos  y  su  Politica 
en  Nicaragua  (Cuba  Contempordnea,  Tomo  7,  pp.  306-313,  Habana  1915); 
Nicaraguan  Affairs:  Hearing  Before  a  Subcommittee  on  Foreign  Relations,  U.  S. 
Senate,  Sixty-second  Congress,  second  session  (Washington  1913)  ;  Pan  American 
Union,  Nicaragua  (Washington  1915)  ;  Scroggs,  W.  0.,  Filibusters  and  Financiers: 
the  Story  of  Williayn  Walker  and  his  Associates  (New  York  1916),  and  here,  of 
course,  we  mention  also  William  Walker's  own  account,  entitled  The  War  in 
Nicaragua;  Squier,  E.  G.,  Nicaragua:  its  People,  Scenery,  etc.  (London  1871); 
Walker,  eJ.  W.  G.,  Ocean  to  Ocean:  an  Account,  personal  and  historical,  of 
Nicaragua  and  its  People  (Chicago  1902);  Zelaya,  J.  S.,  Nicaraguan  President 
1894~19C9,  The  lievolution  of  Nicaragua  and  the  United  States  (Madrid  1910). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

Departments. —  Bluefields  (formerly  Zelaya),  cap.  Bluefields;  Managua,  cap. 
Managua;  Granada,  cap.  Granada;  Leon,  cap.  Leon;  Carazo,  cap.  Jinotepe;  Rivas, 
cap.  Rivas;  Chinandega,  cap.  Chinandega;  Esteli,  cap.  Esteli;  Jinotega,  cap. 
Jinotega;  Nueva  Sevogia,  cap.  Ocotal ;  Matagalpa,  cap.  Matagalpa;  Rio  Grande, 
cap.  Rio  Grande;  Chontales,  cap.  Juigalpa. 

Districts. —  Cabo  Gracias,  Prinzapolca,  Rio  Grande,  Siquia,  San  Juan  del 
Norte. 

Managua 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  is  situated  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Managua,  in  a 
healthful  and  fertile  district.  It  is  of  little  importance  save  as  a  capital.  There  is 
some  trade  in  coffee  which  is  grown  in  the  neighl)oring  districts.  It  has  rail  con- 
nection with  the  port  of  Corinto  on  the  Pacific  and  with  Granada  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Nicaragua.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.    Population  34,872. 

Leon 

The  former  capital  and  still  the  largest  city  of  Nicaragua  is  situated  13  miles 
from  the  Pacific  coast  and  45  miles  northwest  of  Managua.  A  railway  connects 
it  with  the  port  of  Corinto  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  imported  articles  and  in 
the  products  of  the  region.     The  population  is  estimated  at  62,569. 

Other  Cities 

Granada,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Lake  Nicaragua,  is  situated  in  a  cacao- 
growing  district  and  has  an  active  trade  in  cacao,  hides,  and  dyewoods.  It  has 
steamer  communication  with  San  Juan  del  Norte  on  the  Caribbean  coast. 
Granada  is  connected  by  railway  with  Managua,  Leon  and  Corinto.  The  chief 
port  on  the  Pacific  is  Corinto,  through  which  flows  practically  all  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  western  division  of  the  Republic.  On  the  east  coast  the  most 
important  port  is  Bluefields.  This  is  fast  becoming  a  centre  for  a  very  large 
banana  industry.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  San  Juan  del  Norte 
(Greytown)  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  northern  arm  of  the  San  Juan  River 
delta  in  the  extreme  southeast  corner  of  the  Republic.  The  climate  is  unhealthful 
and  the  place  is  losing  its  position  as  a  port  because  of  the  filling  up  of  the  harbor. 


NICARAGUA   CANAL 


REFERENCES  to  the  earliest  and  latest  phases  of  the  history 
of  this  proposed  interoceanic  waterway  will  be  found  in  the 
article  Nicaragua.  Advocacy  of  this  route  as  Panama's 
chief  rival  was  most  interesting  during  the  19th  century  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  20th.  In  1838  the  Mayor  of  New  York  City, 
Aaron  Clark,  together  with  other  influenl^ial  citizens,  memorialized 
Congress  in  the  interest  of  a  canal  planned  to  connect  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  recommending  that  negotiations  should  be 
opened  between  New  Granada  (now  Colombia),  Central  America 
and  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  entering  into 
a  general  agreement  for  the  promotion  of  the  project.  President 
Van  Buren  sent  John  L.  Stephens  as  an  agent  to  the  Isthmus,  and 
Mr.  Stephens,  recommending  the  Nicaragua  route  as  the  most 
desirable,  estimated  the  cost  of  a  canal  in  that  locality  at 
$25,000,000  but  did  not  think  the  time  favorable  for  undertaking 
such  a  work,  because  of  the  unsettled  and  revolutionary  conditions 
then  prevailing.  In  1826  John  Bailey  was  sent  out  by  an  English 
company  to  survey  the  Nicaragua  route,  and  negotiated  for  a 
concession.  Though  he  failed  in  his  main  purpose,  he  remained  in 
Central  America,  and,  in  1837,  determined  what  he  considered  the 
best  route  for  a  canal  —  extending  from  San  Juan  (now  Grey- 
town)  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  across  the  lake  to  Lajas,  and  thence  to 
San  Juan  del  Sur  on  the  Pacific.  The  reasons  for  the  general 
interest  in  the  question  are  well  stated  by  General  Goethals*  in  his 
introduction  to  the  valuable  work.  The  Panama  Canal,  etc.  (see 
Bibliography),  in  substance  that  the  settlement  of  the  northwest- 
ern boundary  question,  by  which  the  United  States  came  into 
possession  of  Oregon,  and  the  termination  of  the  Mexican  war,  by 
which  California  was  added  to  the  Union,  followed  by  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  the  territory  recently  acquired,  brought  promi- 

[580] 


NICARAGUA  CANAL  581 

neiitly  to  the  attention  of  the  American  people  the  matter  of  trans- 
portation via  the  Isthmus.  Communication  overland  was  so  difficult 
and  dangerous  that  the  main  current  of  immigration  was  via  Cape 
Horn.  To  make  the  newly  acquired  territory  more  accessible, 
lines  of  steamers  were  inaugurated  from  New  York  to  the  Isthmus, 
and  from  the  Isthmus  to  California  and  Oregon.  But  the  passage 
across  the  Isthmus  was  attended  with  serious  personal  incon- 
veniences and  suffering,  as  well  as  exorbitant  charges. 

The  importance  of  making  a  connection  across  the  Isthmus 
aroused  the  government  to  action,  and  arrangements  were  made 
for  treaties  with  both  New  Granada  (Colombia)  and  Nicaragua. 
The  right  of  transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  was  secured 
and  ratifications  were  exchanged  10  June  1848;  subsequently 
Nicaragua  conferred  on  the  United  States,  or  a  company  of  its 
citizens,  the  exclusive  right  to  construct  canals,  railways,  or  any 
kind  of  roads,  so  as  to  open  a  passage  and  communication  by  land 
or  water,  or  both,  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  return  the  United  States  was  to  aid  and  protect 
Nicaragua  in  all  defensive  wars  to  the  extent  of  protecting  and 
preserving  its  territorial  limits.  The  Nicaragua  treaty,  however, 
was  not  approved  at  Washington,  and  the  American  charge,  who 
had  exceeded  his  authority  in  negotiating  it,  was  removed. 

Contract  with  Citizens  of  the  United  States 

His  successor  arranged  a  treaty  upon  the  subject,  and  a 
contract  with  the  American,  Atlantic,  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Com- 
pany, composed  of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  Joseph  L.  White, 
Nathaniel  Wolfe,  and  their  associates.  While  the  treaty  was  not 
ratified,  the  contract  was  protected,  the  company  securing  for  that 
purpose  articles  of  incorporation  from  Nicaragua.  By  the  terms 
of  the  contract  the  company  had  the  exclusive  right  of  cutting  a 
ship  canal  from  Greytown  to  any  point  on  the  Pacific,  by  way  of 
the  San  Juan  River,  Lake  Nicaragua,  the  Tipitapa  River  or  any 
other  waters  wdthin  Nicaragua's  jurisdiction.  It  also  gave 
exclusive  right  for  the  construction  of  rail  or  carriage  roads,  or 
both.  The  company  determined  that  there  should  be  a  careful  sur- 
vey made  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  that  a  line  of  location  should 
be  determined.  Colonel  Orville  W.  Childs,  of  Philadelphia,  was 
appointed  chief  engineer,  and  took  charge  of  the  work  in  1850, 
completing  it  in  1852.  He  reached  the  conclusion  that  a  ship  canal 
by  the  Nicaragua  route  was  practicable  only  by  following  up  the 
valley  of  the  San  Juan  River  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  from  the 
lake  either  southwesterly  along  a  line  through  some  valley  extend- 
ing across  the  dividing  ridge,  or  northwesterly  up  the  Tipitapa 


582  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Eiver  to  Lake  Managua,  thence  through  the  valley  extending 
through  the  head  of  that  lake  to  some  suitable  seaport  on  the 
Pacific.  As  between  these  two  routes,  an  examination  led  him  to 
believe  that  the  one  leading  from  the  lake  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lajas 
River,  up  the  eastern  slope  of  the  divide,  and  down  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande  on  the  western  slope  to  the  Pacific,  presented  more 
favorable  conditions  than  any  other  between  Lake  Nicaragua  and 
the  Pacific,  and  was  superior  to  any  route  by  way  of  Lake 
Managua.  His  project  has  been  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  ones. 
At  the  request  of  the  company  the  President  of  the  United  States 
submitted  Colonel  Child's  report  of  the  survey  and  location  to 
topographical  engineers  of  the  United  States,  for  their  inspection 
and  opinion,  and  they  reported  in  March  1852  that  the  plan  pro- 
posed was  practicable,  but  recommended  certain  changes  and 
modifications.  Nothing  further  was  done  by  the  American,  Atlan- 
tic, and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company  toward  the  construction  of  a 
maritime  canal,  and  its  contract  w^as  forfeited. 

The  Treaty  of  1884 

In  December  1884  a  treaty  was  negotiated  between  the  United 
States  and  Nicaragua  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  by  the  former, 
to  be  owned  by  the  two  contracting  parties.  While  the  treaty  was 
pending  in  the  Senate  in  1885  it  was  withdrawn  by  the  President 
for  the  reason  that  the  perpetual  alliance  with  Nicaragua  which 
the  treaty  proposed,  as  well  as  the  protection  of  the  integrity  of 
the  territory  of  that  state,  was  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  United 
States.  In  1887  Nicaragua  granted  a  concession  to  A.  G.  Menocal 
and  others  for  the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  from  Greytown  to 
Brito,  and,  as  the  canal  would  affect  the  territory  of  Costa  Rica 
also,  a  similar  concession  was  secured  from  this  republic  in  1888. 
The  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua  was  organized  and 
incorporated  by  the  Congress  in  1889,  for  the  construction  of  the 
canal.  Actual  construction  was  begun  in  October  of  1889  and  was 
continued  for  over  three  years,  but  comparatively  little  was  accom- 
plished. Work  was  suspended  during  1893.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  secure  government  aid,  but  without  avail.  A  bill  for 
this  purpose,  after  its  passage  by  the  Senate  in  1895,  was  pending 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  (where  it  subsequently  failed) 
when  an  amendment  was  made  to  the  Sundry  Civil  Bill  which  pro- 
vided for  a  board  of  three  officers,  one  from  the  Army,  one  from 
the  Navy,  and  one  from  civil  life,  to  make  a  personal  investigation, 
and  to  examine  the  *'  plans,  profiles,  sections,  prisms  and  specifica- 


NICARAGUA  CANAL  583, 

tions  "  for  the  various  parts  of  Menocal's  plans  for  the  Nicaragua 
Canal,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  "  the  feasibility,  per- 
manence, and  cost  of  construction  and  completion  of  the  canal." 
The  board  appointed  consisted  of  Lieut.-Col.  William  Ludlow, 
Corps  of  Engineers,  Army  of  the  United  States,  M.  T.  Endicott, 
civil  engineer.  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  Alfred  Noble,  civil 
engineer.  The  board  found  it  impracticable,  within  the  time  fixed 
by  law  and  with  the  limited  means  appropriated  for  its  work,  to 
make  a  full  and  thorough  examination  of  the  route  and  obtain  the 
necessary  data  for  a  final  project,  and  recommended  that  further 
explorations  should  be  undertaken  and  observations  made,  to  col- 
lect information  and  data,  so  as  to  determine  the  location  and  cost 
of  the  work.  The  board  submitted,  however,  a  tentative  estimate 
of  the  cost. 

Decision  in  Favor  of  the  Nicaragua  Route 

Carrying  out  the  recommendations  of  the  board  organized 
under  the  Sundry  Civil  Act  of  1895,  Congress  appropriated  by  the 
Act  of  4  June  1897  funds  to  **  continue  the  surveys  and  examina- 
tions authorized  by  the  Act  approved  2  March  1895  into  the  proper 
route,  feasibility,  and  cost  of  construction  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal, 
with  a  view  to  making  complete  plans  for  the  entire  work  of  con- 
struction of  such  canal  as  therein  provided."  The  President 
appointed  Admiral  John  G.  Walker,  Capt.  Oberlin  N.  Carter 
(replaced  18  October  by  Col.  Peter  C.  Hains),  and  Professor 
Lewis  M.  Haupt  to  constitute  the  commission  required  by  the  law. 
This  board  submitted  its  report  in  May  1899,  with  the  necessary 
detailed  data  and  estimates  for  the  construction  of  the  Nicaragua 
Canal.  The  Act  of  3  March  1889  authorized  the  President  to 
investigate  particularly  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  routes  with  a 
view  to  deciding  which  was  the  more  practical  and  feasible  route 
for  a  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  together 
with  the  approximate  and  probable  cost  of  construction  of  a  canal 
by  each  of  thi3  two  or  more  routes.  In  compliance  with  this  Act  the 
President  appointed  Admiral  J.  G.  Walker,  Samuel  Pasco,  Alfred 
Noble,  George  S.  Morison,  Col.  Peter  C.  Hains,  Professor  William 
H.  Burr,  Lieut.-Col.  O.  H.  Ernst,  Professor  Lewis  M.  Haupt  and 
Emory  R.  Johnson  as  a  commission  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  Con- 
gress as  expressed  by  the  Act.  This  board  submitted  its  report  on. 
16  Nov.  1901.  With  regard  to  the  choice  of  routes,  the  board 
reported:  ''  There  are  certain  physical  advantages,  such  as  a 
shorter  canal  line,  a  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  country 
through  which  it  passes,  a  lower  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation, 


584  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

in  favor  of  the  Panama  route,  but  the  price  fixed  by  the  Panama 
Canal  Company  for  a  sale  of  its  property  and  franchises  is  so 
unreasonable  that  its  acceptance  cannot  be  recommended  by  this 
commission.  After  considering  all  the  facts  developed  by  the 
investigations  made  by  the  commission,  and  having  in  view  the 
terms  offered  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  this  commis- 
sion of  the  opinion  that,  the  most  practicable  and  feasible 
route  for  an  Isthmus  canal  to  be  under  the  control,  management 
and  ownership  of  the  United  States,  is  that  known  as  the 
Nicaragua  route." 

Decision  Favoring  Panama  Route 

The  price  fixed  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  was 
$109,141,500;  but  the  board  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  value  of  the 
French  property  referred  to  was  only  $40,000,000;  and  if 
the  figure  had  been  acceptable  the  report  leaves  no  doubt  that  the 
recommendation  of  the  board  would  have  been  different.  Because 
of  lack  of  funds  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  could  not  carry 
the  work  to  completion,  and  their  only  hope  for  any  return  for  the 
investment  was  from  the  United  States.  In  these  circumstances 
the  company  on  4  Jan.  1902  declared  itself  ready  to  transfer 
to  the  United  States  its  properties  and  concessions  on  the  payment 
of  $40,000,000.  This  put  the  matter  in  a  new  light,  and  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  was  called  together,  changed  its 
previous  recommendation,  and  on  18  Jan.  1902  reported  that 
in  view  of  ' '  conditions  that  now  exist  and  all  the  facts  and  circum- 
stances upon  which  its  present  judgment  must  be  based,  the  com- 
mission is  of  the  opinion  that  the  most  practicable  and  feasible 
route  for  an  Isthmian  canal,  to  be  under  the  control  and  manage- 
ment and  ownership  of  the  United  States,  is  that  known  as  the 
Panama  route."  (For  the  convention  between  the  United  States 
and  Nicaragua,  proclaimed  24  June  1916,  see  Nicaragua, 
Republic  of). 

Bibliography 

Childs,  0.  W.,  and  Fay,  J.  D.,  Report  of  the  Survey  and  Estimates  of  the  cost 
of  constructing  the  Inter-Oceanic  Ship  Canal  in  the  State  of  Nicaragua  (New 
York  1852)  and,  in  same  year,  Supplemental  Estimates;  Frank,  J,  C,  American 
Interoceanic  Canals,  a  List  of  References,  etc.  (New  York  1916) ;  Goethals,  G.  W., 
The  Panama  Canal:  an  Engineering  Treatise  (Introduction,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-30, 
account  of  Nicaragua-Panama  competition,  New  York  1916)  ;  Menocal,  A.  G., 
Report  of  Nicaragua  Surveying  Party  (Washington  1886)  ;  Napoleon  TIT,  Le 
Canal  de  Nicaragua,  etc.  {Revue  Britannique,  Paris  1849)  ;  Nicaragua  Canal  Con- 
struction Company,  The  Interoceanic  Canal  of  Nicaragua  (New  York  1891)  ; 
Rival  Isthmian  Canal  {Nation,  New  York  1913)  ;  Squier,  E.  G.,  Interoceanic  Canal 
(in  his  Nicaragua,  New  York  1852). 


ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 


Bv  Marrion  Wilcox 


THE  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  the  tongue  of  land  connecting  the 
central  and  southern  American  continents  and  varying  in 
width  from  31  to  a  little  more  than  110  miles,  the  former 
measurement  being  taken  from  the  Gulf  of  San  Bias  and  the  latter 
including  Azuero  Peninsula.  The  isthmus  runs  east  and  west  with 
a  double  curve  in  either  coast  line,  so  that  the  western  hollow 
made  by  Mosquito  Bay  on  the  north  side  and  the  eastern  indenta- 
tion of  the  Gulf  of  Panama  on  the  south  side,  each  with  a  cor- 
responding bulge  opposite,  give  the  entire  isthmus  the  shape  of  a 
recumbent  S  or  of  the  sign  of  variation.  In  this  more  extended 
use  of  the  term  the  words  Isthmus  of  Panama  are  applied  to  the 
entire  republic  of  Panama  (q.v.),  that  is,  what  was  formerly  the 
isthmian  seginent  of  Colombia  (q.v.).  The  term  is  also  used  to 
designate  the  eastern  and  narrower  part,  corresponding  roughly 
with  that  Miocene  causeway  between  the  northern  and  the  Neo- 
tropical regions  (see  the  article  on  Latin  America  —  section 
Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  11)  to  which  the  name  of  Darien  was 
originally  applied.  The  istlmius  was  reached  by  Columbus  in  1502, 
and  was  crossed  in  1513  by  Balboa,  who  ''  from  a  peak  in  Darien  " 
discovered  the  Pacific.  The  cities  of  Panama  and  Nata  were 
colonized  before  1520.  The  isthmus  was  also  the  scene  of  the 
Darien  scheme  of  colonization  fathered  by  William  Paterson. 
In  spite  of  its  having  been  known  so  long  to  European  explorers, 
large  parts  of  the  Isthmus  remained  as  a  virgin  field  for 
ethnologists,  geographers  and  naturalists  long  after  the  first  Canal 
Commission  from  the  United  States  undertook  the  great  con- 
structive work.  The  geologist  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
contributed  to  the  Scientific  American,  18  Oct.  1913,  pp.  303-5,  a 

[585] 


586  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

study  of  the  geological  conditions  on  the  isthmus,  giving  prom- 
inence to  the  fact  that  there  are,  within  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
high  mountain  groups,  but  few,  if  any  mountain  ranges,  properly 
so  called.  ''  The  older  geographies,"  he  writes,  ''  informed  us 
that  the  North  and  South  American  Cordilleras  were  practically 
one  continuous  chain  from  Alaska  to  Cape  Horn.  This  is  quite 
incorrect,  for  the  mountains  of  Panama  .  .  .  are  units  quite 
distinct  geographically  from  the  greater  northern  and  southern 
continental  ranges.  Furthermore,  they  have  had  a  different  origin, 
for  they  are  not  due  to  folding  by  lateral  pressure,  but  originated 
from  intrusions  of  volcanic  rocks,  as  necks,  cores,  masses  and 
irregular  dikes."  These  intrusive  rocks  are  of  five  types:  basalts, 
diorites,  andesites,  granodiorites,  and  rhyolites.  They  were 
extruded  in  a  molten  condition  through  volcanic  agglomerates, 
breccias  and  tuffs;  through  sandstones,  limestoiies,  argillites  and 
shale  beds,  mostly  of  Oligocene  age.  A  fact  that  any  serious 
student  will  notice  is  that  the  bedded  rocks  cut  by  these  bodies  of 
igneous  or  volcanic  rock  are  not  well  consolidated,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  higher  mountains  where  they  have  undergone  such 
induration  as  the  heat  of  the  great  masses  of  ejected  lava 
occasioned.  The  basalt,  the  esite  and  rhyolite  extrusions  are  prin- 
cipally post-Oligocene,  ' '  and  seem  to  be  largely  Miocene  in  age. ' ' 
The  diorite  is,  at  least  in  part,  pre-Oligocene,  probably  of  Eocene 
time.  The  fact  that  the  earthquakes  are  coextensive  with  these 
mountain  groups  is  evidence  that  the  latter  have  been  pushed  up 
beyond  the  supporting  power  of  their  foundations  and  are  even 
now  settling  back  to  adjustment.  This  consideration  has  an 
obvious  bearing  upon  the  problem  of  the  "  slides  "  in  Culebra  Cut. 
(See  Panama  Canal).  Both  Gold  Hill  and  Contractors'  Hill  are 
examples  of  such  settled-down  masses.  Within  the  Canal  Zone 
there  are  only  two  peaks  that  attain  approximately  1,000  feet  in 
altitude;  and  no  summits  within  30  miles  of  the  Canal  Zone  are 
higher  than  2,000  feet.  In  fact,  this  marked  depression  is  so 
extensive  that  no  mountains  above  4,000  feet  in  height  are  found 
within  100  miles  of  the  canal's  terminal  ports.  In  the  western 
regions,  however,  and  in  those  districts  long  the  subjects  of  con- 
tention on  account  of  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama  (as  inheritor  of  Colombia's  contentions)  and  Costa  Rica, 
we  find  high  mountains,  attaining  11,000  feet  in  two  instances,  and 
unquestioned  evidences  of  much  more  recent  plutonic  activity. 
(For  Climate,  fauna  and  flora,  Iwdrography,  ethnology,  etc.,  see 
Latin  America,  p.  7,  and  Panama,  Republic  of,  p.  587.  See  also 
Panama  Canal,  p.  601). 


PANAMA 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 

NATURAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

THE  Republic  of  Panama  is  a  country  of  Latin  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  east  by 
Colombia,  on  the  south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  west 
by  Costa  Rica.  We  find  in  the  interior  a  great  number  of  hills  and 
mountains,  a  few  being  extinct  volcanoes.  These  have  no  geologi- 
cal connection  either  with  the  North  American  Cordilleras  or  with 
the  Andes.  The  only  systematic  ranges  are  a  bit  of  the  Costa 
Rica  central  divide,  which  runs  over  into  western  Panama,  and  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  further  east  the  Cordillera  de  San  Bias.  The 
detached  and  irregular  hills  are  often  separated  by  streams, 
greatly  subdivided,  whose  banks  (like  the  hillsides  and,  indeed,  the 
greater  part  of  the  country)  are  covered  with  dense  tropical  vege- 
tation. The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  a  few  treeless  uplands 
along  the  Pacific  side  between  the  Costa  Rica  border  and  the  Gulf 
of  Panama.  The  rivers  and  streams  are  the  ill-named  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Chagres,  which  have  been  factors  in  the  Canal  Zone  prob- 
lems; the  Tuyra  and  the  Bayano,  in  the  eastern  and  central 
regions;  and  in  the  western  region,  where  the  water-parting  is 
more  distinctly  marked,  many  rivulets  that  flow  from  the  central 
range  northward  to  the  Caribbean  or  southward  to  the  Pacific.  The 
area  of  the  republic  was  officially  given  in  1916  as  32,380  square 
miles."  Of  the  Canal  Zone  (see  Panama  Canal,  p.  601)  the  area  is 
474  square  miles.  Political  aspects  of  the  acquisition  of  this  strip, 
the  precise  terms  of  the  grant,  etc.,  are  examined  and  stated  in  the 
section  History. 

[587] 


588  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Climate 

The  chief  hydrographer  of  the  Panama  Canal,  Mr.  F.  D.  Will- 
son,  writes  that  on  the  Isthmus  average  temperatures  decrease 
approximately  one  degree  Fahrenheit  with  every  330  feet  increase 
in  elevation.  The  influence  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  lying  to  the  wind- 
ward, is  shown  in  the  climate  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  is  nearly 
of  the  moist  and  equable  oceanic  type ;  but  climatic  conditions  on 
the  Pacific  slope  and  throughout  the  interior  exhibit  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  continental  typo,  because  the  prevailing  winds 
over  these  sections  blow  from  off  the  Isthmian  land  areas.  A  large 
percentage  of  the  rainfall  comes  in  the  form  of  afternoon  tropical 
showers,  the  period  from  two  o'clock  p.m.  to  three  p.m.  being  the 
hour  of  heaviest  rainfall  as  a  general  rule.    Almost  the  only  gen- 


Copyright,    Brown  &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
Front  Street,  the   Broadway  of  Colon,  Panama 


eral  storms  that  visit  the  section  of  the  Isthmus  traversed  by  the 
canal  are  the  so-called  "  northers  "  during  the  period  from 
October  or  November  to  April,  inclusive.  Characterized  by  steady 
winds  of  a  velocity  of  30  or  more  miles  per  hour,  these  "  north- 
ers "may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  heavy  rainfall.  The 
winds  alone  are  usually  of  insufficient  force  to  hinder  navigation 
at  the  Atlantic  entrance  of  the  canal:  the  high  waves  accompanying 
these  storms,  however,  were  injurious  to  shipping  interests  before 
the  breakwaters  that  now  protect  the  inner  bay  were  constructed. 
The  average  annual  sea  temperature  is  about  82°  F.  on  the  Carib- 
bean coast  and  80°  F.  on  the  Pacific  side.  The  absolute  range  on 
the  former  side  is  only  about  12°  F.,  while  on  the  latter  (at  Balboa) 


PANAMA  58^ 

the  absolute  range  is  29°  F.  Hail  has  fallen  in  the  Canal  Zone 
or  vicinity  three  times  since  observations  were  begun  in  1906. 
Water  spouts  have  been  seen  at  both  canal  entrances.  Generally 
speaking,  the  climate  is  unhealthful  except  in  those  places  where 
modern  sanitation  methods  have  eliminated  the  causes  of  tropical 
diseases. 

Seismology 

Before  the  occupation  of  the  Canal  Zone  by  the  Commission 
from  the  United  States,  there  had  been  28  recorded  earthquakes, 
but  only  one  or  two  that  can  be  classed  as  destructive  —  possibly 
the  shock  which  occurred  in  1621  and  certainly  that  of  7  Sept.  1882. 
Since  1904,  seismic  disturbances  were  thought  to  be  negligible 
except  during  the  fiscal  year  1913-14  and  in  1915.  During  the 
former  year  87  shocks  were  recorded  at  Ancon.  Of  these,  55  or  56 
were  of  comparatively  local  origin,  less  than  200  miles  distant ;  31 
or  32  were  tremors  from  shocks  of  remote  origin.  Nearly  all  of 
the  local  shocks  appeared  to  originate  about  115  miles  southwest 
of  Ancon  Hill  in  Los  Santos  Province.  Ten  of  these  were  felt 
generally  over  the  Isthmus,  and  the  shock  of  28  May  1914  damaged 
slightly  the  new  Administration  Building  at  Balboa.  In  1915  sharp 
shocks  were  felt  on  24,  25  and  26  January  and  on  28  June.  These 
did  not  originate  in  the  Zone,  and  caused  little  damage  there  or 
elsewhere  on  the  Isthmus. 

Tides 

On  the  Pacific  side  the  average  tidal  range  for  consecutive 
tides  is  about  12.5  feet,  the  maximum  spring  range  occasionally 
exceeding  20  feet;  but  at  the  northern  entrance  to  the  canal  the 
average  tidal  range  is  only  about  0.9  feet,  and  the  extreme  range 
approximately  two  feet.  Within  and  beyond  this  tidal  area  we 
find  a  coral  formation  of  a  comparatively  recent  date,  which 
fringes  both  the  Pacific  and  Caribbean  coasts  and  extends  inland 
several  miles  near  the  rivers. 

The  Chagres  River 

This  famous  river  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  two  streams 
at  Dos  Bocas,  the  main  stream  originating  among  the  mountains 
of  the  San  Bias  cordillera,  where  peaks  2,000  to  4,000  feet  in  alti- 
tude are  found.  Mr.  Willson  says  that  although  nearly  the  entire 
country  from  headwaters  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  canal  is 
clothed  with  vegetation,  much  of  which  is  dense,  the  slopes  are  so 
precipitous  and  rock  lies  so  near  the  surface  that  severe  tropical 
rain  storms  cover  its  banks  with  small  torrents  and  cascades,  from 


590  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP'  LATIN  AMERICA 

time  to  time  causing  the  river  to  rise  suddenly  and  to  discharge 
almost  incredible  volumes  of  water.  Its  drainage  area  before  it 
reaches  the  canal  is  1,320  square  miles.  In  the  upper  reaches  there 
are  two  canyons,  each  about  a  mile  in  length,  and  a  number  of 
rapids.  By  damming  its  waters  at  Gatun,  the  engineers  of  the 
Commission  have  formed  the  dominating  feature  of  the  Panama 
Canal  —  Gatun  Lake,  which  has  an  area  of  164  square  miles  at  an 
elevation  of  about  87  feet  above  sea-level  and  contains  192.24  bil- 
lion cubic  feet  of  water. 

Fortifications 

Modern  defensive  works  are  maintained  only  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  canal.  General  Goethals  (see  Bibliography)  writes: 
"  In  1910  Congress  voted  in  favor  of  fortifying  the  canal  and,  sub- 
sequently, of  having  a  garrison  permanently  located  within  the 
Zone.  These  defenses  consist  of  seacoast  fortifications  for  the 
protection  of  the  entrances  against  naval  attack  and  land  defenses 
around  the  locks,  the  most  vulnerable  features  of  the  canal,  against 
any  force  that  might  be  landed  from  an  attacking  fleet  for  raiding 
purposes." 

Population 

The  number  of  inhabitants  was  given  as  450,000  in  1916.  (Pan- 
American  Union,  Latin  America,  Washington  1916).  The  esti- 
mates for  1911  and  1912  were,  respectively,  337,000  and  341,000, 
exclusive  of  the  Canal  Zone.  In  the  Eepublic  as  a  whole  the  mesti- 
zos are  most  numerous  (about  190,000  to  200,000);  whites  about 
one-fourth  as  many. 


HISTORY 


Columbus  landed  on  the  Isthmus  in  1502.  Then  came  further 
'  exploration  and  in  its  train  colonization,  still  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  16th  century.  In  the  more  flourishing  days  of  Spanish  rule 
in  that  century  and  the  next  the  country  in  general  and  the  city 
of  Panama  in  particular  enjoyed  the  advantages  coming  from 
the  shipment  of  South  American  silver  and  gold.  But  this  pros- 
perity had  so  dropped  at  the  close  of  the  18th  century  that  Panama 
was  largely  isolated  from  Colombia  and  took  comparatively  little 
part  in  the  various  revolts  that  culminated  in  Colombian  inde- 
pendence in  1819.  Two  years  after  that  date,  however,  the  people 
of  Panama  proclaimed  their  independence  and  became  part  of  the 
old  Republic  of  Colombia.  This  was  a  strongly  centralized  gov- 
ernment held  together  by  little  but  Bolivar's  personal  influence 


PANAMA  591 

and  power.  It  was  shattered  in  1831,  the  year  after  his  death,  and 
three  new  republics  were  formed,  namely,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  and 
New  Granada.  The  last  named  included  the  Isthmus.  Strangely 
enough  the  form  of  government  of  the  new  republic  was  practically 
identical  with  that  which  had  brought  it  to  revolt  against  Colom- 
bia, and  equally  ill-adapted  to  its  heterogenous  elements.  More- 
over there  was  no  simple  and  speedy  means  of  intercommunication 
such  as  might  have  welded  the  country  into  some  national  unity. 
In  the  existence  of  this  type  of  government  is  the  philosophic  key 
to  the  history  of  both  the  old  republic  of  Colombia  down  to  1831, 
and  after  that  date  of  New  Granada,  the  United  States  of  Colom- 
bia, and  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  (the  present  name  of  the  coun- 
try). It  was  in  the  very  nature  of  things  that  as  New  Granada 
had  broken  from  Colombia,  so  Panama,  New  Granada's  remotest 
part,  must  break,  or  attempt  to  break  from  New  Granada.  A 
state's  rights  or  Federalist  party  did  rapidly  rise  throughout  New 
Granada.  In  1840  revolutions  broke  out  in  most  of  the  provinces. 
An  independent  "  State  of  the  Isthmus,"  containing  the  provinces 
of  Panama  and  Veragua,  was  proclaimed  in  1841,  but  the  Central- 
ists were  successful,  the  revolution  was  suppressed,  and  the  old 
regime  was  restored.  The  sentiment  against  this  method  of  gov- 
ernment steadily  increased  until  in  1855  by  an  act  of  the  Congress 
of  New  Granada  at  Bogota  the  autonomous  state  of  Panama  was 
erected  out  of  the  Isthmian  provinces.  But  the  sincerity  of  this  act 
may  well  be  questioned  and  its  aim  was  probably  political  and  the 
purpose  to  crush  the  Federalist  party  for  good  and  all.  But  the 
attempt  of  the  national  government  to  revoke  its  act,  and,  it  seems, 
to  provoke  a  revolution,  and  then  in  crushing  that  revolution  to  put 
a  stop  to  all  Federal  agitation,  overreached  itself.  The  revolution 
in  behalf  of  the  new  constitution  was  completely  successful.  For 
a  score  of  years  and  more  Panama,  like  the  other  states  in  the 
Colombian  Union,  enjoyed  (more  or  less  interruptedly)  its  individ- 
ual rights.  A  Centralist  uprising  in  1885,  however,  effected  a 
return  to  old  conditions.  The  former  state  of  Panama  was  again 
ruled  from  Bogota,  and  became  a  department  called  Panama.  This 
department  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  Chiriqui,  Veraguas, 
Azuero,  and  Panama ;  the  last  named  province  occupied  the  east- 
ern half,  approximately,  of  the  department  of  the  same  name,  with 
which  it  is  very  easily  confused. 

During  this  revolution  in  1885  the  United  States  landed 
marines  to  protect  the  transit  of  the  Isthmus  between  the  cities  of 
Colon  and  Panama,  a  circumstance  of  material  assistance  to  the 
Centralist  insurgents,  but  an  act  undertaken  simply  for  the  sake  of 


592  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

inter-oceanic  and  trans-Isthmian  commerce.  That  it  could  have 
been  for  any  reason  other  than  this  is  impossible,  since  the  right 
and  duty  of  the  United  States  to  preserve  neutrality  in  the  Isth- 
mian strip  was  due  to  a  treaty  made  in  1846  with  the  government 
of  New  Granada,  a  government  not  in  existence  in  1885.  In  short 
the  obligation  was  one  to  a  territory  and  not  to  any  power ;  and  if 
to  any  power  simply  to  that  in  control  of  the  Isthmus,  no  matter 
what  its  relation  to  the  original  treaty-making  power. 

After  1885  the  relations  of  Panama  with  Colombia  were  no 
closer  nor  more  familiar  than  before.    Several  revolts  took  place, 
and  in  July  1900  under  the  lead  of  Porras,  later  a  leading  candi- 
date for  the  vice-presidency  of  the  republic,  a  desperate  but  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  by  a  Liberal  army  to  get  control  of  the 
city  of  Panama.     In  1903  a  more  successful  plot  was  planned, 
growing  out  of  the  discontent  of  the  people  of  Panama  with  the 
attitude  of  Colombia  toward  the  Panama  Canal  Treaty  with  the 
United  States.     Whether  through  fear  that  the  United  States 
would  in  time  gain  sovereignty  over  the  canal  —  there  was  an  old 
saying  that  the  canal  when  built  would  become  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States  —  or  a  hope  that  the  bid  for  the  canal 
might  be  largely  increased,  the  Colombian  Congress  refused  to 
ratify  this  treaty  and  adjourned  31  Oct.  1903.    By  the  terms  of  the 
Spooner  Bill  this  made  the  Panama  Canal  apparently  an  impossi- 
bility and  the  Nicaragua  Canal  a  certainty,  for  the  President  had 
been  bidden  to  treat  for  the  Panama  Canal,  and  if  such  negotia- 
tions failed  to  carry  through  the  project  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal. 
In  short,  the  people  of  Panama  would  have  been  deprived  of  the 
fulfilment  of  their  hopes  of  renewed  commercial  importance  by  this 
inexplicable  action  of  the  Colombian  Congress,  had  not  the  revolu- 
tion planned  as  early  as  the  summer  of  1903  offered  a  solution. 
How  the  desire  for  autonomy,  the  desire  for  a  canal,  and  the  desire 
for  the  money  to  be  paid  for  the  canal,  respectively,  bulked  in  the 
minds  of  the  revolutionary  plotters  it  is  difficult  to  say.    The  fore- 
going sketch  of  Panama 's  political  history  would  show  at  least  that 
a  revolution  for  purely  political  reasons  was  a  possibility.     The 
mixture  of  motives  amounts  to  little  more  than  a  coincidence  of 
several  impulses,  each  of  which  alone  would  have  been  sufficient. 
On  3  Nov.  1903  —  that  is  three  days  after  the  adjournment  of  the 
Colombian  Congress  —  the  municipal  council  of  the  city  of  Panama 
proclaimed  the  independent  Republic  of  Panama.     There  was  no 
bloodshed.    An  army  of  400  Colombians  (mostly  boys  between  12 
and  14)  arrived  4  November  in  Colon,  whence  its  general  with  his 


PANAMA  593 

staff  went  to  Panama;  and  upon  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  the 
new  republic,  of  which  he  knew  nothing  until  the  evening  of  the 
4th,  was  imprisoned  for  a  few  days,  but  on  the  7th  with  his  army 
was  shipped  back  to  Cartagena  from  Colon.  In  the  meantime 
upon  6th  November  the  United  States  recognized  the  new  repub- 
lic, being  satisfied  that  there  was  not  the  slightest  internal  oppo- 
sition to  its  establishment.  France's  recognition  followed  10 
November,  and  soon  afterward  like  action  w^as  taken  by  Germany, 
England  and  Russia.  The  remarkable  haste  with  which  the  pro- 
visional government  was  recognized  by  that  of  the  United  States 
is  not  without  precedent ;  in  a  Senate  debate  5  Jan.  1904,  Senator 
Lodge  pointed  out  that  in  1848  the  French  republic  was  recognized 
after  three  days  and  that  the  Republic  of  Brazil  had  received 
formal  recognition  within  two  days  after  its  formation.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  also  that  Panama's  government  may  justly  be  reckoned  a 
"resum])ti()n"  of  jirovious  independence.  As  to  tlie  action  of  our 
government  in  landing  marines  to  protect  the  trans-isthmian  rail- 
road, its  defense  lies  in  an  appeal  to  the  treaty  of  1846,  to  the 
precedent  of  188."),  when  the  Centralist  cause  was  as  much  (and  as 
unintentionally)  aided  as  it  was  checked  in  1903,  and  to  the 
principle  that  it  is  the  Isthmian  commerce  that  we  aim  to  protect 
by  keeping  the  strip  neutral  rather  than  any  government,  and 
hence  that  an  appeal  from  any  established  power  in  the  Isthmus 
for  protection  of  the  railroad  must  be  met  by  speedy  and  unhesi- 
tating action.  The  objections  to  this  view  of  the  case  and  the  dis- 
agreement with  the  actions  of  the  existing  administration  came 
from  various  sources:  first,  as  in  the  case  of  the  New  Haven  peti- 
tion sent  to  the  Senate  11  Jan.  1904,  from  unpartisan  constitutional 
experts ;  and  second  from  the  opposition  in  Congress  and  the  sup- 
porters of  the  Nicaragua  route,  who  saw  their  last  chance  to  win. 
The  New  Haven  petitioners  simply  asked  the  Senate  to  make  a 
careful  and  deliberate  investigation.  The  opposition  in  Congress 
(and  in  the  press)  urged  that  the  revolution  in  Panama  was  fos- 
tered if  not  actually  started  by  the  Republican  administration  and 
the  landing  of  troops  was  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  Colombia 
from  subjugating  the  rebellious  department;  in  fine,  that  both 
revolution  and  recognition  grew  out  of  pure  self-interest  in  the 
proposed  canal.  Whatever  the  merits  of  these  arguments,  the 
inability  of  the  Democratic  caucus  to  bind  its  members  to  oppose 
the  Canal  Treaty,  the  instructions  from  the  Mississippi  Legislature 
to  the  Senators  from  that  State,  and  11  Jan.  1904  the  practical 
confirmation  of  the  nomination  of  W.  I.  Buchanan  to  be  minister 
39 


594  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  Panama  by  the  tabling  of  Senator  Morgan's  motion  to  recon- 
sider, seemed  to  show  that  the  actual  opposition  was  political  and 
temporary. 

The  provisional  government  founded  3  November  was  in  the 
hands  of  a  junta  consisting  of  J.  A.  Arango,  Tomas  Arias,  and 
Federico  Boyd.  The  last-named  member  of  the  junta  arrived  in 
the  United  States  on  18  December  and  late  the  same  day  a  Canal 
Treaty  was  signed  by  Secretary  of  State  John  Hay  and  the  min- 
ister from  Panama  to  the  United  States,  Philippe  Bunau-Varilla, 
who  had  been  formally  received  at  Washington  eight  days  before. 
This  treaty  closely  resembles  the  convention  made  with  Colombia ; 
the  compensation  is  the  same ;  but  the  canal  strip  is  made  wider 
and  the  powers  granted  to  the  United  States  are  larger.  The  junta 
named  above  took  control  of  the  government,  being  assisted  by  the 
following  provisional  cabinet:  Minister  of  Government,  Eusebio 
Morales;  Minister  of  Finance,  Dr.  Manuel  Amador  Guerrero  (later 
elected  president) ;  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  F.  V.  de  la 
Esprilla;  Minister  of  Justice,  Carlos  Mendoza;  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  N.  Victoria ;  and  Minister  of  War  and  Marine,  M.  de 
Obarrio,  Jr.  On  27  December  a  general  election  of  delegates  to  a 
national  convention  took  place.  In  most  instances  municipal 
authorities  acted  as  electors,  the  scheme  of  manhood  suffrage 
originally  promulgated  having  proved  impracticable.  Four  dele- 
gates were  chosen  from  each  province  except  Panama,  which 
elected  eight,  making  a  total  of  32.  These  delegates,  meeting  15 
Jan.  1904,  were  called  to  frame  a  constitution  and  to  elect  a  presi- 
dent. The  provisional  government  ratified  the  Canal  Treaty 
2  Dec.  1903,  and  five  days  afterward  the  treaty  was  submitted  to 
the  United  States  Senate  for  ratification  by  that  body.  On  16  Feb. 
1904,  Guerrero  was  elected  president,  with  Arosemena,  Obaldia, 
and  Mendoza  as  designados,  or  vice-presidents. 

Article  2  of  the  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  which  was  ratified  by  the  United  States 
Senate  23  Feb.  1904,  and  went  into  effect  26  Feb.  1904,  provided 
for  the  cession,  in  perpetuity,  by  Panama,  of  a  strip  of  territory 
adjacent  to  the  canal,  as  follows : 

"  The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to,  the  United  States  in  perpetuity  the  use, 
occupation,  and  control  of  the  zone  of  land  and  land  under  water  for  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  operation,  sanitation,  and  protection  of  said  canal  of  the 
width  of  ten  miles,  extending  to  the  distance  of  five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  centre 
line  of  the  route  of  the  canal  to  be  constructed;  the  said  zone  beginning  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  three  marine  miles  from  mean  low-water  mark,  and  extending  to 
and  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  a  distance  of  three 


PANAMA  595 

marine  miles  from  mean  low-water  mark,  with  the  proviso  that  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon  and  the  harbors  adjacent  to  said  cities,  which  are  included  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  zone  above  described,  shall  not  be  included  within  this  grant. 
The  Republic  of  Panama  further  grants  to  the  United  States  in  perpetuity  the  use, 
occupation,  and  control  of  any  other  lands  and  waters  outside  of  the  zone  above 
described  which  may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construction,  maintenance, 
operation,  sanitation,  and  protection  of  the  said  canal  or  of  any  auxiliary  canals  or 
other  work  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation, 
sanitation,  and  protection  of  the  said  enterprise.  The  Republic  of  Panama  further 
grants  to  the  United  States  in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupation,  and  control  of  all 
islands  within  the  limits  of  the  zone  above  described,  and  in  addition  thereto  the 
group  of  small  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Nacs,  Culebra,  and 
Flamingo." 

In  compensation  the  United  States  paid  $10,000,000  for  the 
concessions  and  agreed  to  pay  $250,000  annually  beginning  in  the 
tenth  year  after  the  ratification  of  the  treaty. 

The  uneasy  conditions  prevailing  throughout  the  Central 
American  countries  during  1907  and  the  early  part  of  1908  were 
particularly  manifest  in  Panama,  especially  as  the  time  for  the 
election  of  a  new  president  drew  near.  This  uneasiness  caused 
some  apprehension  at  Washington  lest  the  Canal  Zone  might 
become  affected  in  some  way.  Charges  had  been  made  by  one  of 
the  political  parties  that  frauds  had  been  perpetrated  in  the 
previous  elections  and  that  the  members  of  the  opposition  party 
had  not  been  allowed  to  register.  A  request  was  therefore  sent 
in  May  1908  to  the  United  States  to  appoint  a  commission  to 
assure  a  fair  election.  In  order  to  pacify  all  the  political  elements 
I  Secretary  of  War  Taft  was  sent  to  Panama. 

Ricardo  Arias,  Secretary  of  Foreign  Relations,  was  the  can- 
didate of  the  Government  party  for  the  presidency  and  Jose 
Obaldia  w^as  the  candidate  of  the  Liberal  party  in  opposition  to 
the  government.  The  latter,  while  popular  with  the  people,  was 
not  so  with  the  government,  and  apprehension  was  expressed  lest 
the  former  should  use  the  power  of  the  government  and  police 
forces  to  hold  a  dummy  election  and  declare  himself  elected. 

Upon  his  arrival  Taft  decided  to  appoint  American  repre- 
sentatives to  observe  the  elections  which  were  to  be  held  on  12  July, 
and  made  it  plain  to  the  political  parties  that  if  frauds  were  per- 
;T  mitted  that  might  lead  to  disorder,  riot,  or  insurrection,  the  United 
"■  States  would  preserve  order  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 
]■  A  commission  of  electoral  inquiry  was  appointed  by  Panama  to 
investigate  and  a  list  of  the  actual  voters  in  each  polling  precinct 
was  made.  Thereupon  Arias  withdrew  from  the  contest  and  Obal- 
dia Avas  elected  almost  without  opposition. 


596  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


GOVERNMENT 

By  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  adopted  13  Feb.  1904,  the 
country  has  a  centralized  republican  form  of  government.  The 
executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  President  elected  for  a  term  of 
four  years  by  popular  vote ;  the  President  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet 
of  five  members.  The  legislative  branch  of  the  government  con- 
sists of  a  single  body  of  deputies  called  the  National  Assembly 
and  the  members  are  elected  for  four  years.  The  sessions  of  this 
Assembly  are  held  at  the  city  of  Panama  once  every  two  years, 
and  extraordinary  sessions  may  also  be  called  by  the  President  of 
the  Republic.  The  judicial  branch  comprises  a  supreme  court  of 
five  judges,  appointed  by  the  President  for  a  term  of  four  years; 
a  superior  court  and  several  circuit  courts  (appointments  to  both 
made  by  the  supreme  court  for  four  years) ;  and  municipal  courts, 
whose  judges  are  appointed  by  those  of  the  circuit  courts  for  one- 
year  terms.  For  local  government  the  republic  is  divided  into 
eight  provinces,  each  of  which  in  turn  is  divided  into  municipal 
districts.  The  affairs  of  the  provinces  are  administered  by 
governors,  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic  for  one- 
year  terms,  and  those  of  the  municipal  districts  by  mayors  and 
municipal  councils,  the  latter  elected  by  direct  vote  for  two  years, 
the  former  (the  mayors  or  "  alcaldes  ")  appointed  for  one  year  by 
the  provincial  governors. 


EDUCATION 


The  Department  of  Public  Instruction  has  charge  of  all  ele- 
mentar}^,  secondary,  and  special  schools  and  establishments  of 
learning,  both  public  and  private ;  of  the  Pedagogical  Library  and 
of  the  National  Museum.  The  system  of  public  education  includes 
the  kindergarten,,  for  children  five  and  six  years  of  age,  and 
primary  schools  for  children  of  the  ages  seven  to  fourteen ;  these 
primary  schools  being  organized  in  six  grades,  for  which  official 
courses  of  study  are  provided;  and  the  instruction  must  be  under 
official  supervision  even  when  given  in  private  schools  or  at  home. 
An  obligatory  course  of  only  three  years  is  established  in  rural 
schools.  Among  the  special  institutions  above  referred  to  are  the 
school  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  the  National  School  of  Music,  the  Col- 
lege of  Commerce  and  Languages,  the  National  Institute,  and  a 
recently  established  school  for  the  instruction  of  native  Indians. 


PANAMA  597 

(Consult  Report  of  C ommissiofier  of  Education,  Washington  1915, 
and  Pan  American  Union  handbook  Panama,  Washington  1916). 
In  1917  the  National  Assembly  authorized  the  Executive  to  found 
and  maintain  a  Pan  American  University  in  Panama  City.  The 
university  is  to  give  preference  to  courses  in  Spanish  and  English 
literature,  tropical  medicine  and  law.  The  National  Institute  of 
Panama  is  to  serve  as  a  base  for  the  new  university.  Altogether 
the  government  maintains  364  public  schools  throughout  the  prov- 
inces. There  are  about  375  teachers  in  these  schools,  and  about 
14,500  pupils  (excluding  1,720  children  enrolled  in  the  schools  of 
the  Canal  Zone).  There  are  also  about  12  private  institutions  and 
about  60  young  men  and  women  are  being  educated  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere  at  the  cost  of  the  Panama  Government. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

The  cultivation  of  bananas  on  a  large  scale,  and  of  cacao, 
sugar-cane,  tobacco,  rice,  maize,  etc.,  on  a  small  scale,  should  be 
mentioned.  Agriculture  is  practically  undeveloped  because  of 
poor  transportation  facilities.  The  sugar  industry  is  important 
in  Los  Santos  and  Veraguas,  but  could  be  greatly  extended.  The 
cocoanuts  and  pineapples  of  this  region  deserve  their  good  report. 
Stock-raising  is  also  an  important  branch  (estimated  number  of 
cattle  about  65,000;  horses,  17,000;  mules,  1,500;  pigs,  28,000;  and 
goats,  3,000).  Mining  is  carried  on  in  the  Darien  district  and 
Veraguas  Province;  pearls  are  obtained  at  the  Pearl  Islands, 
Panama  Bay,  and  coral  and  sponges  are  found  near  the  coasts. 
Forest  products  (see  Isthmus  of  Panama,  p.  585)  are  both  valuable 
and  interesting.  Manufactures  are  few  and  unimportant.  Choco- 
late, mineral  waters,  ice  and  soap  are  made  for  local  consumption. 
The  government  maintains  a  monopoly  in  the  production  of  tobacco, 
cigars,  cigarettes  and  salt,  and  lets  these  to  individuals. 

A  law  fixing  the  responsibility  of  employers  for  accidents  to 
workmen  was  passed  by  the  Congress  of  Panama  on  6  Nov.  1916, 
and  was  promulgated  in  the  Gaceta  Oficial  10  days  later.  One  of 
the  features  of  the  law  is  that  if  insurance  companies  are  estab- 
lished in  the  country,  employers  may  insure  their  employees  for 
the  amounts  which  would  be  due  them  in  case  of  injury  by  acci- 
dent while  at  work.  The  part  of  the  law  that  provides  for 
indemnity  to  victims  of  accident  became  etfective  16  May  1917, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  law  went  into  effect  on  16  Feb.  1917. 

Chief  exports  are  bananas,  cocoanuts,  cocobola  wood,  ivory 


598  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

nuts,  medlar  juice,  mother-of-pearl,  hides,  tortoise  shell,  rubber 
(from  trees  scattered  in  the  forests),  skins,  ipecac,  sarsaparilla, 
brown  sugar,  cacao  and  balata.  Chief  imports  are  rice,  cigarettes 
and  cigars,  sugar,  lard,  coffee,  kidney  beans,  eggs,  candles,  choco- 
late, Indian  corn  (maize),  cheese,  beer,  food  pastes,  petroleum, 
gasoline,  leather,  butter,  leaf -tobacco,  etc.  In  the  last  normal  year 
before  the  war  (1913)  imports  from  the  United  States  were  valued 
at  $6,378,702.29;  from  Great  Britain,  $2,465,431.54;  from  Germany, 
$1,078,167.72;  from  France,  $336,816.38;  from  China  and  Japan, 
$266,772.62;  from  Spanish  America,  $238,684.48;  from  Belgium, 
$208,539.98 ;  from  Italy,  $168,881.59 ;  from  Spain,  $162,574.09.  The 
total  foreign  trade  in  that  year  was  $16,780,027.59  (imports  valued 
at  $11,397,000.05  and  exports  $5,383,027.54).  In  1914  the  total 
imports  were  valued  at  $9,885,475  and  the  exports  at  $5,163,000. 
Of  the  total  imports  $6,396,275  came  from  the  United  States 
(exclusive  of  canal  materials),  $1,835,890  from  Great  Britain, 
$460,455  from  Germany,  $211,725  from  France,  $109,090  from 
Italy,  and  $300,835  from  Belgium. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  monetary  system  is  based  on  the  gold  standard,  its  unit 
being  the  balboa,  divided  into  100  centesimos  and  representing 
1.672  grammes  of  gold  .900-fine,  or  1.5046  grammes  of  pure  gold, 
equivalent  to  $1  currency  of  the  United  States.  In  actual  circula- 
tion are  silver  half  balboas,  locally  called  pesos,  and  fractional 
silver  and  nickel  coins,  together  with  currency  of  the  United  States 
on  a  par  basis. 

The  revenues  of  the  Republic  declined  30  per  cent  after  July 
1914,  the  causes  being  (as  stated  in  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan 
American  Financial  Conference,  Washington  1915)  the  diminution 
of  imports  due  to  the  European  War  and  the  establishment  (by  the 
Government  of  the  Canal  Zone)  of  commissaries  privileged  to 
import  merchandise  without  paym^ent  of  duties.  On  26  Oct.  1915 
an  extraordinary  session  of  the  National  Assembly  was  held  to 
consider  pressing  financial  problems.  The  budget  for  1915-16  was 
planned  to  balance  at  $5,124,400.  A  contract  with  New  York 
financiers  (1915)  provided  for  the  establishment  of  the  Bank  of 
Panama,  one-fourth  of  the  directors  to  be  named  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  Panama.  That  bank,  acting  as  fiscal  agent  and  depository 
of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  has  power  to  issue  legal  tender  notes 
up  to  the  value  of  its  capital. 


PANAMA  599 


TRANSPORTATION 

Steamships  from  the  United  States  and  Europe,  from  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  enter  the  port  of  Colon  on  the  north 
coast;  on  the  south  coast,  Balboa,  the  Canal  Zone's  Pacific  port, 
is  visited  regularly  by  steamers  from  both  north  and  south.  A 
railroad  three  miles  long  connects  Balboa  with  Panama  City,  from 
which  the  main  line  of  the  Panama  Railroad  extends  to  Colon,  48 
miles.  Other  railway  systems  are  those  of  the  Bocas  del  Toro 
region,  151  miles  of  narrow-gauge  track  designed  chiefly  for  the 
service  of  the  banana  industry,  and  of  the  Pedregal,  David  and 
Boquete  south-coast  districts.  The  latter,  when  completed,  will  be 
about  52  miles  in  length.  The  great  difficulty  experienced  in  con- 
structing and  maintaining  good  roads  on  land  through  the  tropical 
jungles  directs  attention  to  the  possibility  of  improving  and  utiliz- 
ing the  rivers  for  transportation.  At  present,  the  Tuyra  River  is 
navigable  for  many  miles  by  small  craft,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  a  number  of  other  streams ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  floods  during 
the  rainy  season  (see  Climate)  prohibit  continuous  use.  The 
government  is  planning  extensive  improvements  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  to  facilitate  communication  and  internal  develop- 
ment. Provision  is  made  in  the  1917  budget  for  the  construction 
of  new  roads  and  the  repair  of  old  ones,  for  the  building  of 
bridges,  wharves  and  warehouses,  etc.  An  appropriation  of 
$200,000  is  made  for  roads  from  Penonome  to  Puerto  Posada  and 
from  Ancton  to  Penonome,  another  from  the  latter  place  to 
Cahecera  and  to  Rio  Chico. 


POLICE,  POST  AND  TELEGRAPH  OFFICES 

No  army  is  maintained,  its  place  being  taken  by  a  national 
police  corps  of  1,000  officers  and  men.  There  are  96  post-offices, 
handling  about  2,500,000  pieces  of  mail-matter  annually;  37  tele- 
graph offices  and  two  wireless-telegraph  stations.  The  govern- 
ment in  December  1916  appropriated  $25,000  for  the  installation 
and  maintenance  of  a  telephone  line  in  the  Province  of  Colon, 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  starting  from  the  city  of  Colon  and  ter- 
minating in  Santa  Isabel.  Construction  was  begun  1  Mar.  1917. 
A  concession  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  electric 
plants  and  telephone  systems  throughout  the  republic  was  granted 
by  the  government  of  Panama  in  March  1917.     It  was  provided 


600 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


that  the  American  concessionaire,  when  employing  labor  in  accord- 
ance with  the  terms  of  that  concession,  must  give  preference  to 
natives  of  Panama  and  must  retain  them  in  the  proportion  of  at 
least  50  per  cent.  There  are  telegraph  cables  from  Panama 
to  North  American  and  South  American  ports,  and  from  Colon  to 
the  United  States  and  Europe. 

Bibliography 

Abbot,  W.  J.,  Panama  and  the  Canal  (New  York  1914) ;  Alfaro,  R.  J.,  Lhnites 
entre  Panama  y  Costa  Pica  (Panama  1913)  ;  Anderson,  C.  li.  G.,  Old  Panama  and 
Castilla  del  Oro  (Boston  1914)  ;  Bishop,  F.,  Panama,  Past  and  Present  (New  York 
1913) ;  Bullard,  A.,  or  Edwards,  A.,  Panama  (revised,  New  York  1914)  ;  Bunau- 
Varilla,   P.,  Panama   (London   1913);   Constitution  of  Panama    (Panama  1909). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Panama  is  divided  into  eight  Provinces  as  follows ; 


PROVINCES 


Capitals 


Population 
of  Capitals 


Bocas  del  Toro 

Cocl6 

Colon 

Chiriqui 

Helrera 

Los  Santos .... 

Panamd 

Veraguas 


Bocas  del  Toro 

Penonom6 

Colon 

David 

Chitrd 

Los  Santos  (Las  Tablas) 

Panamd 

Santiago '.  .  .  . 


9,000 

6,000 

30,000 

15,000 

6,000 

8,000 

50,000 

7,000 


Panama 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  is  situated  at  the  liead  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  on 
the  south  shore  of  the  isthmus.  Its  prosperity  is  due  to  the  large  amount  of  transit 
trade,  but  since  the  opening  of  the  Canal  its  trade  has  declined,  and  much  of  it 
now  goes  through  the  terminal  port  of  Balboa,  which  has  better  wharfage  and  other 
facilities. 


Colon 

At  the  other  terminus  of  the  canal  and  railway  stands  Colon,  which  dates  only 
from  1849.  Everything  in  Colon  is  subordinated  to  the  railway  and  the  steam- 
ships; largely  built  of  wood  and  sheet-iron,  the  town  is  periodically  ravaged  by 
extensive  conflagrations;  elevated  only  a  few  feet  above  seh-level,  adequate  sewerage 
is  impossible;  exposed  to  the  trade  winds,  however,  it  is  somewhat  cooler  than 
Panama.  In  a  disastrous  fire  that  swept  over  one-half  of  Colon  on  30  April 
1915  and  rendered  about  7,000  persons  homeless,  11  lives  were  lost  and  property 
value  at  more  than  $2,000,000  was  destroyed. 


IllillH 


PANAMA  CANAL 


By  Marrio.x  Wilcox 


THE  construction  of  this  work,  often  referred  to  as  the  great- 
est material  contribution  to  tJie  world's  commerce  that  has 
been  made  by  any  nation,  was  entrusted  to  commissions 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  under  authority 
granted  by  the  Congress.  The  first  commission,  appointed 
3  March  1904,  was  constituted  as  follows:  Rear-Adm.  John  G. 
Walker,  U.  S.  Navy;  Maj.-Gen.  (retired)  George  W.  Davis, 
U.  S.  Army;  AVilliam  Barclay  Parsons,  C.  E. ;  William  H.  Burr, 
C.  E.;  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  C.  E.;  Carl  E.  Grunsk^y,  C.  E.,  and 
Frank  J.  Hecker.  The  second  commission,  nominated  4  March 
1905,  included  Theodore  P.  Shonts,  chairman,  Charles  E.  Magoon, 
member   and   governor   of   the   Canal  Zone;    John   F.   Wallace, 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks   and   Brown   &   Dawson.    N.   Y. 
A    Ship    Entering    the    Gatun    Locks,    Panama    Canal,    Showing    the    Electric    Locomotives 

LOOIJ 


602 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


member  and  chief  engineer ;  Rear-Adm.  Mordecai  T.  Endicott,  U.  S. 
Navy;  Brig.-Gen.  Peter  C.  Hains,  U.  S.  Army  (retired), 
and  Col.  Oswald  H.  Ernst,  Corps  of  Engineers,  IT.  S.  Army. 
In  1907  the  commission,  as  reorganized,  had  the  following  mem- 
bership :  Maj.  George  W.  Goethals,  Corps  of  Engineers,  chairman 
and  chief  engineer;  Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  Medical  Department, 
U.  S.  Army;  Maj.  D.  D.  Gaillard,  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  Army;  Maj.  William  L.  Sibert,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S. 
Army;  H.  H.  Rousseau,  C.  E.,  U.  S.  Navy;  Sen.  J.  C.  S. 
Blackburn,  and  Jackson  Smith.  Mr.  Smith  resigned  in  1908,  and 
Maj.  H.  F.  Hodges  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy.  Senator 
Blackburn  resigned  in  1909,  and  Maurice  H.  Thatcher  was 
appointed,  12  April  1910,  in  his  place.  Mr.  Thatcher  resigned  in 
1913,  and  Richard  L.  Metcalf  served  in  his  place  until  1  April  1914, 


Copyiislit.    Hrown   &    Dawson,    .N.    Y. 

American  Troops  Guarding  the   Panama  Canal,  Showing   Gatun   Lake   in  the  Distance 

on  which  date  —  the  canal  being  then  essentially  finished  —  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  was  abolished,  and  attention  given  to 
the  organization  of  an  operating  force. 


Sanitation 

The  first  Panama  Commission  faced  with  wise  deliberation 
and  with  courage  the  most  difficult  problems  of  sanitation,  the 
solution  of  which  was  a  condition  precedent  to  the  success  of  the 
work  as  a  whole.  General  Gorgas 's  interesting  book.  Sanitation 
in  Panama  (see  Bibliography)  contains  the  best  account  of  the 
admirable  achievements  in  this  department. 

We  have  no  means  of  telling  (General  Gorgas  says,  in  effect) 
what  was  the  sick  rate  with  the  French  during  the  period  of  con- 
struction under  the  old  French  company,  from  1881  to  1889,  but 
we  know  that  it  was  very  large.     We  can  safely  calculate  that 


PANAMA  CANAL  603 

their  constant  sick  rate  was  at  least  333  per  1,000,  or  one-third 
their  force.  Now  our  force  during  the  10  years  of  construction 
averaged  39,000  men.  If  we  had  had  a  similar  constant  sick  rate, 
we  should  have  had  13,000  sick  employees  in  our  hospitals  every 
day  during  the  10  years  of  construction.  As  it  was,  we  had  only 
23  per  1,000  sick  each  day,  a  total  of  900  for  the  whole  force ;  that 
is,  we  had  about  12,000  fewer  men  sick  every  day  than  had  the 
French.  This  12,000  men  per  day  saved  from  sickness  must  be 
credited  to  the  sanitary  work  done  on  the  Isthmus. 

Now  let  us  consider  the  totals;  We  had  an  average  of  900 
men  sick  every  day.  For  the  year,  this  would  give  us  328,500  days 
of  sickness,  and  for  the  10  years,  3,285,000  days  of  sickness.  If 
our  rate  had  been  300  per  1,000,  a  very  moderate  figure  compared 
with  what  it  was  under  the  French,  we  should  have  had  11,700  sick 
every  day.  For  the  year  this  w^ould  have  given  us  4,270,500  days 
of  sickness,  and  for  the  10  years  42,705,000,  a  saving  of  39,420,000 
days  of  sickness  during  this  period.  This  saving  must  be  credited 
to  sanitation.  Again,  it  cost  us  about  $1  a  day  to  care  for  a 
sic^k  man  on  the  Isthmus.  The  Commission  cared  for  the  sick  free 
of  charge.  Therefore  every  day  of  sickness  prevented  lessened 
the  expense  that  the  Commission  had  to  bear  by  $1.  It  follows 
that  the  Commission  saved  by  the  work  of  its  sanitary  department, 
if  we  consider  the  whole  10  years  of  construction,  $39,420,000. 

This  represents  only  one  phase  of  the  saving  due  to  sanita- 
tion. We  must  further  consider  that,  if  300  men  out  of  every  1,000 
had  been  sick  every  day,  the  efficiency  of  the  other  700  would  have 
been  correspondingly  decreased.  The  other  700  would  have  been 
more  or  less  debilitated  and  more  or  less  depressed,  and  the 
amount  of  work  turned  out  daily  by  each  man  would  have  been 
considerably  less  than  it  actually  was  for  the  employees  enjoying 
good  health  and  cheerful  surroundings.  The  Commission  would 
have  had  to  pay  considerably  higher  wages  if  the  Isthmus  had 
continued  to  bear  the  reputation  it  had  always  borne  during  the 
years  preceding  1904;  if,  for  instance,  it  had  been  known  that 
three  out  of  every  10  men  going  to  work  on  the  canal  would  be 
sick  all  the  time,  and  that  two  out  of  every  10  would  die  each  year, 
and  that  the  whole  10  would  be  dead  at  the  end  of  5  years.  Great 
loss  was  caused  in  the  first  years  of  the  American  assumption  of 
the  task  by  the  demoralization  among  the  working  force,  and 
almost  stoppage  of  work,  which  took  place  during  periods  of 
exacerbation  in  the  yellow  fever  period,  or  when  prominent 
employees  died  of  that  disease.  Great  loss  also  occurred  to  the 
French  on  this  account.    Those  most  familiar  with  the  conditions 


604  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

state  that  a  larger  sum  in  dollars  and  cents  was  saved  to  the  Com- 
mission in  these  ways  than  was  saved  by  the  direct  decrease  in  the 
number  of  sick. 

Considering  all  these  factors  an  estimate  was  made  that  the 
sum  of  $80,000,000  was  saved  to  the  United  States  by  the  sanitary 
w^ork  done  on  the  Isthmus  during  the  10  years  of  construction. 

This  is  the  pureh^  commercial  side  of  the  question.  Of  much 
greater  importance  is  the  moral  argument  that  can  be  adduced 
from  the  saving  of  life  and  suffering  that  results  from  such 
measures.  During  the  10  years  of  construction,  the  Commission 
lost  by  death  only  17  out 'of  every  1,000  of  the  employees.  That 
is,  from  the  whole  force  of  39,000  men,  663  died  each  year,  and  for 
the  whole  construction  period  the  loss  was  6,630  men.  If  the  sani- 
tary conditions  had  remained  as  they  had  been  up  to  1904,  and 
the  Commission  had  lost,  as  did  the  French,  200  employees  out  of 
each  1,000  on  the  work,  that  would  have  made  the  loss  7,800  men 
each  year,  and  78,000  during  the  whole  construction  period.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  71,370  human  lives  were  saved  by  the  work 
of  the  Sanitary  Department  during  the  building  of  the  canal. 

The  distinguished  author  refers  to  the  sanitary  work  done  in 
the  Canal  Zone  as  the  first  great  demonstration  that  the  white  man 
can  (or  could,  if  such  measures  were  generally  adopted 
and  applied)  live  as  well  in  the  tropics  as  in  the  temperate  zones. 

The  Canal  in  its  Relation  to  International  Commerce 

An  interesting  and  valuable  study  of  the  effect  of  the  canal 
upon  international  trade  competition,  by  Mr.  Hutchinson  (see 
Bibliography),  contains  the  following  reference  to  new  oppor- 
tunities created  by  the  cutting  of  this  canal:  "A  vast  region  bor- 
dering the  Pacific,  with  huge  population  and  enormous  resources, 
crying  out  for  economic  development,  is  being  brought  into  a  new 
relationship  with  the  older  economic  sections  of  the  world  best 
able  to  aid  them  in  the  fulfillment  of  their  desires."  The  author 
says  truly  that  many  Pacific  countries  need  European  and  Ameri- 
can capital,  need  immigrant  population,  need  the  stimulus  and 
direction  of  American  or  European  enterprise.  Their  latent 
resources  can  not  be  developed  fully  in  the  absence  of  trans- 
portation facilities,  railways,  roads,  harbor  and  street  improve- 
ments, modern  sanitation,  public  works  of  all  sorts.  Their 
industries  need  the  introduction  of  modern  equipment  and 
methods.    In  brief,  the  Atlantic  must  supply  the  Pacific. 

With  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  a  new  facility  of 
intercourse  has  been  created.    Goods,  tourists,  agents,  mails,  emi- 


PANAMA  CANAL 


605 


grants,  can  now  reach  many  of  the  Pacific  countries  more  quickly 
and  conveniently.  New  growth  of  economic,  commercial,  social, 
and  intellectual  intercourse  inevitably  follows.  The  geographical 
position  of  the  canal  and  the  trend  of  development  in  the  Pacific 
countries,  as  the  writer  points  out,  are  such  that  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  the  United  States  are  most  favorably  situated  to  play  a 
part  in  this  new  growth.  With  reference  to  many  Pacific  regions 
the  industrial  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  has  hitherto  been 
at  a  disadvantage  compared  with  Europe;  but  the  handicap  is 
either  converted  into  an  advantage  by  the  canal,  or  greatly 
reduced.  In  those  regions  where  the  United  States  has  already 
held  some  advantage,  her  position  is  greatly  strengthened  by  the 
facilities  offered  bv  the  new  route. 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks  and  Brown   &  Dawson,    N.   Y. 
An   Oil   Tanker  Passing  Through  the    Gaillard    ("Culebra")   Cut,  Panama  Canal 


Some  Interesting  Facts  about  the  Canal 

The  length  of  the  canal  from  deep  water  to  deep  water  is  50 
miles ;  length  from  shore  line  to  shore  line,  40  miles ;  bottom  width 
of  channel,  maximum,  1,000  feet ;  bottom  width  of  channel,  mini- 
mum, in  Gaillard  Cut  (otherwise  known  as  Culebra  Cut),  300  feet; 
locks  in  pairs,  12;  locks,  usable  length,  1,000  feet;  locks,  usable 
width,  110  feet;  Gatun  Lake,  area,  164  square  miles;  Gatun  Lake, 
channel  depth,  45  to  85  feet;  Gaillard  Cut  (Culebra  Cut),  channel 
depth,  45  feet;  excavation  by  the  French,  78,146,960  cubic  yards; 
excavation  by  the  French,  useful  to  present  canal,  29,908,000 ;  esti- 
mated value  to  canal  of  excavation  by  the  French,  $25,389,240; 


606  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

value  of  all  French  property  there,  $42,799,826;  work  begun  by 
the  Americans,  4  May  1904 ;  excavation  accomplished  to  31  March 
1915  (when  only  about  6,000,000  or  7,000,000  cubic  yards  remained 
to  be  excavated  in  canal  proper),  232,440,945  cubic  yards;  con- 
crete, total  for  canal,  excluding  terminals,  4,844,566  cubic  yards; 
time  of  transit  through  completed  canal,  10  to  12  hours;  time  of 
passage  through  locks,  three  hours;  relocated  Panama  Railroad, 
length,  47.11  miles;  Canal  Zone,  area,  436  square  miles;  canal  and 
Panama  Railroad  forces  actually  at  work  in  September  1913, 
about  37,000  (including  about  5,000  Americans) ;  payment  to  New 
Ft  ama  Canal  Company  (for  the  French  property),  $40,000,000; 
payment  to  the  Republic  of  Panama,  $10,000,000;  estimated  total 
cost  of  the  canal,  $375,000,000  (estimate  given  by  General 
Goethals).  The  total  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  canal  in  the  fiscal 
year  1916  was  $6,999,750;  tolls  collected,  $2,399,830;  deficit, 
$4,599,920,  In  the  preceding  year,  however,  the  tolls  collected  had 
exceeded  costs  of  maintenance  and  operation  by  $220,256. 

Panama  Canal  toll  rates  are  the  following:  1.  On  merchant 
vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo,  $1.20  per  net  vessel  ton 
(each  100  cubic  feet)  of  actual  earning  capacity.  2.  On  vessels  in 
ballast  without  passengers  or  cargo,  40  per  cent  less  than  for  those 
of  class  1.  3.  On  naval  vessels,  other  than  transports,  colliers, 
hospital  ships  and  supply  ships,  50  cents  per  displacement  ton. 
4.  On  Army  and  Navy  transports,  colliers,  hospital  ships  and 
supply  ships,  $1.20  per  net  ton,  the  vessels  to  be  measured  by  the 
rules  that  are  also  employed  in  determining  the  net  tonnage  of 
merchant  vessels.  In  time  of  war,  as  at  other  times,  the  canal  may 
be  used  by  all  navies,  according  to  treaties  now  in  force  which 
provide  that  it ' '  shall  be  free  and  open  to  the  vessels  of  commerce 
and  war  of  all  nations  and  shall  never  be  blockaded,  nor  shall  any 
right  of  war  be  exercised  nor  any  act  of  hostility  be  committed 
within  it." 

Bibliography 

Bakenhus,  R.  E.,  Knapp,  H.  S.,  and  Johnson,  E.  R.,  The  Panama  Canal 
(New  York  1915) ;  Goethals,  G.  W.,  and  others,  The  Panama  Canal  —  an  Engineer- 
ing Treatise  (New  York  and  London  1916) ;  Gorgas,  W.  C.,  Sanitation  in  Panama 
(New  York  and  London  1915) ;  Hutchinson,  L.,  The  Panama  Canal  and  Inter- 
national Trade  Competition  (New  York  1915)  ;  Sibert,  W.  L.,  and  Stevens,  J.  F., 
The  Construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  (New  York  and  London  1915). 


SALVADOR 


.illfrs 


By  Marriov  Wilcox 


NATURAL  BOUNDARIES,  GEOGRAPHY,  ETC. 

SALVADOR  (ill  official  documents,  El  Salvador),  the  smallest 
and  most  densely  populated  of  the  Central  American  Repub- 
lics, is  bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  Honduras, 
on  the  southeast  by  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  on  the  south  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  Guatemala.  Its  area  is  usually 
given  as  7,225  to  7,325  square  miles.  The  capital,  San  Salvador, 
is  situated  in  the  valley  of  Las  Hamacas,  on  the  Acelhuate  River, 
2,115  feet  above  sea  level.  Frequent  disasters  have  taught  the 
inhabitants  the  art  of  building  earthquake-proof  structures,  with 
utilitarian  rather  than  aesthetic  motives;  nevertheless  the  desire 
to  secure  good  architectural  efTects  reasserts  itself  (notably  in 
the  design  of  the  National  Palace) ;  there  are  pleasant  parks,  and 
efforts  are  being  made  to  complete  the  paving  and  the  drainage 
system.  (For  political  divisions  see  Political,  Divisions  and 
Cities,  p.  614.) 

On  the  northern  frontier  rises  the  great  mountain  chain,  the 
Sierra  Madre  or  Cordillera,  with  peaks  7,000  to  8,000  feet  high, 
in  which  primitive  rocks  predominate.  About  15  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  running  parallel  with  it  is  a  range  composed  of  plutonic 
material.  Both  systems  include  transverse  ridges ;  the  latter,  the 
Coast  Range,  is  intersected  by  the  valleys  of  the  Lempa  and 
Grande  rivers,  and  in  or  near  it  are  situated  the  volcanoes  San 
Vicente  (7,683  feet),  San  Salvador,  Santa  Ana,  San  Miguel, 
Usulutan,  Apaneca,  Izalco,  Sociedad,  and  Chinameca  (4,200  feet). 
Izalco  is  almost  continuously  active.    Earthquakes  are  of  frequent 

[607] 


608  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

occurrence:  the  capital  has  been  wrecked  by  them  11  times  since 
1539,  and  is,  in  fact,  ''  so  subject  to  rockings  and  tremblings  of 
the  earth  as  to  have  acquired  the  name  of  the  swinging  ham- 
mock." The  best  natural  harbor  is  that  of  La  Union,  but  it  is  not 
yet  connected  with  the  capital  by  rail.  Acajutla,  El  Triunfo, 
La  Concordia  and  La  Libertad  are  the  other  ports.  The  largest 
lakes  are  Giiijar  (15  miles  long  by  five  wide),  and  Ilopango  (nine 
miles  by  three) ;  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Lempa,  the  Paz  and  the 
San  Miguel. 

Fauna  and  Flora 

Among  the  native  animals  are  the  deer  {Ccrvus  niexicanus), 
armadillo,  the  jaguar  and  its  little  brother  called  ocelote  on  the 
coast,  the  pecari  {Sus  americanus),  puma  or  American  lion  {Fells 
concolor),  tapir,  coyote,  (Canis  aureus  mexicanus),  etc.  We  men- 
tion, among  the  avifauna,  the  quetzal  {Trogon  splendens)  and 
among  reptiles  the  lagarto  or  caiman  {CrocodUns  americanus), 
the  igiiana  and  the  boa  constrictor.  Dr.  Guzman  (see  Bihliography) 
calls  attention  to  the  '^  surprising  vitality  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom "  and  gives  an  interesting  list  of  medicinal  and  dye-plants, 
together  with  those  he  classes  as  textile,  oleaginous,  and  alimen- 
tary. The  balsam,  which  the  Indians  call  Hoitziloxitl  and  which 
is  commonly  known  as  ''  balsam  of  Peru  "  although  it  is  pro- 
duced only  in  this  part  of  Central  America;  the  indigo  and 
maguey  {Agave  americana)  may  well  head  such  a  list. 

Mineral  Resources,  Soil  and  Climate 

In  a  report  devoted  to  mining  operations,  the  consul-general 
of  the  United  States  writes  from  San  Salvador :  * '  For  this  repub- 
lic a  report  can  only  be  made  on  the  production  of  gold  and  silver. 
While  a  number  of  promising  copper  fields  are  known,  almost 
nothing  has  been  done  as  yet  in  their  development."  In  1916  the 
authoritative  statement  was  made  that  the  output  of  gold  and 
silver  "  amounts  to  about  $1,500,000  annually."  The  soils  on  the 
slopes  of  mountains,  table-lands,  and  in  the  valleys,  formed  by  the 
detritus  of  the  rocks  and  decomposed  vegetable  matter,  are 
remarkably  fertile.  The  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons  —  the 
rainy  months  being  those  from  May  to  October,  the  dry  from 
November  to  April.  Low  coast  lands  are  hot  and  unhealthful;  a 
comparatively  cool  and  agreeable  climate  is  found  in  the  highlands 
of  the  interior. 


SALVADOR 


609 


HISTORY 

In  the  summer  of  1524  Pedro  de  Alvarado  invaded  the  terri- 
tory now  called  Salvador,  coming  from  Mexico  by  way  of  Guate- 
mala. The*  Indian  capital,  Cuscatlan,  was  captured  the  following 
year.  On  4  April  1528  the  city  of  San  Salvador  was  founded,  but 
it  became  necessary  to  abandon  the  site  originally  chosen  in  favor 
of  the  present  one,  and  the  transfer  was  made  in  1539.  As  a  sub- 
ordinate part  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Guatemala,  Salvador  continued 
to  be  a  Spanish  possession  until  1821.  Between  15  Sept.  1821, 
when  Guatemala  severed  her  connection  with  Spain,  and  1824, 


Copyright,    Keystone   View   Co. 


The    Plaza    at    Santa    Ana,    Salvador 


when  the  Central  American  confederation  was  formed  (see  Centrat^ 
America),  Salvador  was  compelled  to  assent  to  the  annexation 
of  her  territory  by  Mexico.  After  the  federation  had  dissolved 
(1839),  Morazan  tried  to  reunite  the  five  small  states  of  which 
it  had  been  composed:  in  September.  1842  he  was  made  pris- 
oner and  shot  at  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica.  In  1885  the  president  of 
Guatemala,  Gen.  Justo  Rufino  Barrios,  made  an  effort  to  restore 
the  old  relations  between  the  states  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Central  America.  He  also  failed.  On  13  Aug.  1886  Salvador  pro- 
mulgated the  constitution  which  is  now  in  force,  displachig  (it  is 
40 


610  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

expressly  stated  in  the  final  clause)  the  constitution  of  1883.  The 
most  important  single  fact  in  the  history  of  the  little  republic,  as  in 
/  that  of  Guatemala  (q.v.),  is  the  survival  of  the  Indian  element  in 
j  undiminished  force.  Educated  Salvadorians  of  the  present  day, 
when  writing  of  the  sufferings  of  the  natives  during  the  period  of 
Spanish  supremacy,  unconsciously  refer  to  the  wrongs  sustained, 
not  inflicted,  by  their  own  ancestors.  (It  is  desirable  to  add,  in 
view  of  the  diversity  of  usage,  that  the  forms  "  Salvadorian  " 
and  "  Ecuadorian  "  seem  to  be  preferable  to  "  Salvadoran  '■ 
and  ''  Ecuadoran.")  In  February  1913  President  Araujo  was 
assassinated.  On  the  conclusion,  in  1915,  of  the  term  for  which 
Dr.  Araujo  had  been  elected,  the  distinguished  Carlos  Melendez 
took  office  for  the  term  1915-19.  (For  Salvador's  interest  in  the 
canal  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua  (Treaty 
Series,  No.  624,  Washington  1916)  see  Nicaragua  and  Nicaragua 
Canal).  The  most  important  subjects  inviting  the  attention  of  the 
Melendez  administration  were  educational  and  financial. 


GOVERNMENT 


By  the  constitution,  '*  legislative  powder  is  vested  in  a  body 
called  the  National  Assembly  of  Deputies,"  which  meets  in  Feb- 
ruary, each  year.  Deputies,  three  from  each  department,  are 
elected  by  the  people.  "  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  citizen 
who  shall  have  the  title  of  President  of  the  Republic  ";  his  term  is 
four  years ;  he  cannot  be  re-elected  until  after  the  expiration  of  a 
second  period  of  equal  duration.  The  vice-president  is  also  chosen 
for  four  years.  Secretaries  or  ministers  are  appointed  by  the 
president,  the  portfolios  being:  Foreign  Affairs,  Public  Instruc- 
tion and  Justice;  Interior,  Promotion  and  Charities;  Finance, 
Public  Credit  and  Agriculture;  War  and  Marine.  "  Judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  in  Chambers  of 
third  and  second  instance,"  etc.  Each  of  the  14  departments  has 
its  governor  and  deputy  governor  (Constitution  of  the  Republic 
of  El  Salvador,  13  Aug.  1886,  IX,  Art.  3),  whom  the  Executive 
appoints.  Municipalities  are  governed  by  officers  chosen  by  the 
people. 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Service 

The  United  States  has  at  the  capital,  San  Salvador,  a  minis- 
ter, a  consul-general,  a  vice-  and  deputy-consul;  Great  Britain 
sends  a  minister  and  consul-general,  a  consul,  and  (at  San  Sal- 


SALVADOR  611 

vador  and  La  Union)  a  vice-consul.  El  Salvador  maintains 
a  minister  in  AVashington  and  has  a  consul-general  at  San  Fran- 
cisco and  consuls  in  New  York  and  New  Orleans.  In  Great 
Britain  El  Salvador  has  a  charge  d'affaires  and  consul-general, 
with  consular  agents  at  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Southamp- 
ton, Newport,  Brighton  and  Birmingham. 


POPULATION,  EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

The  census  of  1  March  1901  showed,  as  the  total  number  of 
inhabitants,  1,006,848,  of  whom  772,200  were  mestizos,  ladinos,  and 
whites,  and  234,648  Indians  of  pure  blood.  In  1917  population  was 
given  as  about  1,700,000.  Under  the  constitution  (Art.  33), ''  teach- 
ing is  free.  Primary  instruction  is  compulsory.  The  instruction 
given  in  the  establishments  supported  by  the  state  shall  be  laical 
and  gratuitous. ' '  Besides  the  ordinary  six-year  elementary  schools, 
rural  schools  have  been  established  which  give  a  brief  course  of 
instruction  covering  three  years  and  provide  not  only  for  the 
children  of  the  white  people  but  also  for  native  Indians.  About 
31,000  students  and  pupils  are  enrolled  at  the  institutions  of  learn- 
ing of  various  grades :  the  university,  the  normal  and  high  schools, 
and  the  700  primary  schools.  Article  12  of  the  constitution  pro- 
vides :  ' '  The  free  exercise  of  all  religions  is  guaranteed,  the  only 
limit  being  that  which  considerations  of  morality  and  the  public 
order  prescribe.'* 


AGRICULTURE  AND  COMMERCE 

Nearly  all  of  the  high  valleys  and  table-lands  of  the  republic 
are  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  which  is,  therefore,  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  Products  are :  coffee,  indigo, 
rubber,  cacao,  balsam,  tobacco,  and  a  variety  of  grains,  seeds,  and 
fruits.  In  regard  to  coffee,  the  following  statistics  were  prepared 
by  the  government:  Area  planted  in  coffee  trees  50,000  hectares 
(hectare  =  2.471  acres) ;  virgin  lands  suitable  for  growing  this 
crop,  about  20,000  hectares ;  average  bearing  life  of  a  coffee  tree 
in  Salvador,  30  years,  and  average  production  350  grams.  The 
shipments  of  coffee  from  the  republic  to  foreign  countries  in  1915 
and  1916  amounted  to  80  per  cent  in  the  value  of  the  total  exports ; 
in  1914  their  aggregate  was  34,666  tons  —  other  exports  being 
sugar    (1,008   tons),   indigo    (134   tons),   hides    (178  tons),   leaf 


612  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

tobacco  (33  tons),  balsam  (71  tons),  and  gold  and  silver  ($1,481,- 
772).  The  distribution  of  foreign  trade  among  the  four  countries 
leading  in  trade  with  El  Salvador  in  the  year  last  mentioned  was : 
Imports  from  United  States  valued  at  $2,027,732,  from  Great 
Britain  $1,283,636,  from  Germany  $484,796,  from  France  $298,285 ; 
exports  to  United  States  valued  at  $2,662,168,  to  Great  Britain 
$595,528,  to  Germany  $2,614,350  and  to  France  $1,559,639. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  government's  estimate  of  public  revenues  in  the  budget  for 
1915-16  was  10,800,000  pesos.  Memorandum  No.  2,  by  the  delega- 
tion of  El  Salvador  {Proceedwgs  of  the  First  Pan  American  Finan- 
cial Conference,  Washington  1915,  pp.  629-34)  gives  the  import 
revenues  of  1913  as  7,263,042.98  silver  dollars  or  pesos  and  of  1914 
as  only  6,076,770.61,  showing  a  loss  of  1,186,272.37  pesos  in  the  first 
year  of  the  war.  The  delegates  add:  *'  Before  the  world  crisis, 
the  monetary  situation  of  Salvador  was  good  [because  the  banks 
had  been  obliged,  under  governmental  decree,  to  bring  up  their 
silver  reserves  at  the  time  of  the  failure  of  the  so-called  Banco 
Nacional,  which  had  no  connection  whatever  with  the  government  J . 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  capital  of  the  three  banks  now  doing  busi- 
ness is  6,000,000  pesos.  They  may  issue  double  their  capital  in 
notes,  on  condition  of  having  on  hand  40  per  cent  (Banco  Occi- 
dental and  Agricola  Comercial)  or  50  per  cent  (Banco  Sal- 
vadoreno).  In  our  national  budget  there  is  always  an  item  called 
'  public  credit, '  which  has  varied  in  the  last  few  years  from 
3,000,000  to  4,000,000  silver  dollars  or  pesos,  for  the  amortization 
of  the  English  loan  and  of  the  domestic  loan  and  for  the  payment 
of  the  respective  interests  involved." 

.  The  message  of  the  President  of  Salvador  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  the  Diario  Oficial  of  20  Feb.  1917  contained  a  state- 
ment of  the  revenues  and  expenditures  of  the  country  during 
the  year  1916,  which  showed  a  more  favorable  condition  of 
affairs  than  at  any  time  since  1913.  The  revenues  of  Salvador 
for  the  last  four  years,  in  silver  pesos  (peso  =  39.78,  fluctuating), 
were  as  follows:  1913,  13,734,133  pesos;  1914,  12,423,752  pesos; 
1915,  10,625,174  pesos ;  1916,  12,779,084  pesos,  showing  that  in  the 
last  year  the  downward  tendency  was  checked,  and  an  increase  of 
2,153,910  pesos  over  the  previous  year  w^as  reached. 

The  revenues  and  expenditures  in  the  past  year  are  shown,  as 
follows : 


SALVADOR 


613 


REVENUES 

Pesos 

EXPENDITURES 

Pesos 

Import  duties 

5,856,185 
1,963,317 
2,653,966 
501,680 
816,404 
269,365   1 
718,165 

120  405 

84,309 
2  603  929 

Tax  on  liquors 

Stamps  and  sealed  paper 

Promotion  (fomento) .... 

1  292  715 

Miscellaneous  revenues 

Agriculture 

63  105 

Direct  (income)  taxes 

205  932 

823  968 

1,174  386 

Philanthropy 

630  760 

Treasury .  .    . 

833  956 

1,597  579 

3,037  038 

Total : 

Total 

12,779,082 

12,468,082 

The  President  called  attention  to  the  revenue  of  137,794  pesos 
derived  from  the  income  tax  established  last  year,  to  be  increased 
by  74,670  pesos  in  late  collections.  Payments  on  the  national  debt 
during  1916  amounted  to  2,168,572  pesos  silver.  The  President 
pointed  out  the  need  of  an  established  monetary  system  to  prevent 
fluctuations  in  the  foreign  exchange,  and  recommended  measures 
for  new  coinage.  The  monetary  system  is  based  on  a  silver 
standard;  the  peso,  divided  into  100  centavos,  containing  25 
granmies  of  silver  .900  fine.  The  par  value  of  the  peso  in  cur- 
rency of  the  United  States  is  normally  $0.3978,  and  the  value  of 
$1.00  is  2.51345  pesos. 


RAILWAYS,  ROADS,  SHIPPING,  ETC. 

A  narrow-gauge  railway  line  connects  the  port  of  Acajutla  with 
the  capital,  San  Salvador,  65  miles ;  a  branch  line  extends  25  miles 
to  Santa  Ana ;  and  other  branch  lines  connect  Santa  Tecla  with  the 
capital  and  Santa  Ana  with  Ateos.  According  to  the  Pan  Ameri- 
can Union's  Latin  America,  page  42,  "■  the  system  of  the  Inter- 
national Railways  of  Central  America  which  is  intended  to  con- 
nect the  Salvadorian  port  of  La  Union  with  ports  in  Guatemala  is 
[1916]  under  construction."  Great  improvement  has  been  made 
during  the  last  10  or  12  years  in  the  methods  of  constructing 
highways  and  other  roads  which  facilitate  travel  in  the  interior. 
Between  300  and  400  steamers  enter  the  ports  of  the  republic 
annually ;  regular  steamship  connection  is  maintained  with  Salina 
Cruz  on  the  north,  Corinto  on  the  south  and  intermediate  ports; 
through  steamers  between  San  Francisco  and  Panama  call  at  the 
ports  of  Acajutla,  La  libertad  and  La  Union  when  traffic  warrants ; 
and,  in  order  to  stimulate  maritime  commerce,  subventions  have 


614 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


been  given  at  different  times  to  several  important  steamship  com- 
panies. There  are  117  post  offices,  203  telegraph  offices,  with  2,521 
miles  of  wire,  and  176  telephone  stations,  with  2,074  miles  of  wire. 

Bibliography 

Album  Patriotico  (San  Salvador  1915);  Alvarado,  H.,  and  Suarez,  B.  U., 
Codificacion  de  las  Leyes  PoUticas  y  Administrativas  Vigentes,  including  text  of 
Constitution  of  13  Aug.  1886  (in  Biblioteca  de  la  Revista  de  DerecJw  y  Juris- 
prudencia,  San  Salvador  n.d.) ;  Belot,  G.  de,  La  Eepublique  du  Salvador  (Paris 
1865) ;  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics — now  Pan  American  Union — Hand  Book 
of  Salvador  (Washington  1892,  revised  to  1894) ;  Bustelli-Foscolo,  La  Fusion 
Republicaine  du  Honduras  et  du  Salvador  (Paris  1871) ;  Guzman,  D.  J.,  Apunta- 
mientos  sobre  la  Topografia  Fisica  de  la  Republica  del  Salvador  (San  Salvador 
1883);  Martin,  P.  F.,  Salvador  of  the  XXth  Century  (London  1911). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Salvador  is  divided  into  14  Departments,  subdivided  into 
districts,  and  these  into  towns  and  municipalities.  The  political  subdivisions 
of  the  Republic,  with  their  capitals  and  populations,  are  as  follows:     • 


DEPARTMENTS 

Capitals 

Populations 

of  capitals 

(approximate) 

75,000 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 

40,000 

10,000 

10,000 

Cabaflas 

12,000 

12,000 

La  Paz 

7,500 

Usulutdn 

7,500 

25,000 

Morazdn 

5.000 

5,000 

San  Salvador 

The  capital  of  the  Republic  lies  in  a  pleasant  valley  at  an  altitude  of 
2,102  feet,  the  cone  of  the  volcano  of  Salvador  rising  distinctly  above  it.  It  is 
situated  a  little  west  of  the  centre  of  the  country,  25  miles  from  the  port  of 
La  Libertad  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway. 
The  city  is  well  laid  out,  having  many  pleasant  parks  and  suburban  resorts. 
It  is  subject  to  earthquakes  and  this  fact  has  modified  the  methods  of  house 
construction,  all  the  houses  being  low  and  surrounded  by  open  areas.  The  city 
is  an  important  industrial  centre,  sugar  refining  and  distilling  leading;  it  is 
also  a  thriving  commercial  centre,  doing  a  large  trade  is  agricultural  products, 
especially  indigo  and  tobacco.  It  is  the  official  residence  of  the  United  States 
minister  to  Salvador,  and  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul-general.  Other 
important  cities  are  Santa  Ana,  San  Miguel,  and  Sonsonate,  San  Vicente,  and 
Nleva  .San  Salvador. 


WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS 
OR  WEST  INDIES 


Bv  Maumo.v  Wilcox 


THE  archipelago  that  includes  the  Great  and  Lesser  Antilles 
and  the  Bahamas  has  a  total  land  area  of  about  92,000 
square  miles  —  more  than  twice  the  size  of  Pennsylvania; 
the  islands  are,  however,  dispersed  far  and  wide  over  a  region  con- 
tinental in  size,  which  extends  from  lat.  10"  N.  to  28°  N.  and  from 
Ion.  58°  W.  beyond  85°  W.  For  the  geologic  relations  of  some  of 
them  to  the  mainland  portions  of  the  Antillean  continent,  see  Cen- 
tral America,  and  for  the  characteristic  features  of  the  Great 
Antilles  see  the  separate  articles  Cuba,  etc.  Only  a  limited  num- 
ber of  the  islands  can  be  called  properly  "  Latin  American  "  (see 
Latin  America  —  Definition  ) ;  for  convenience,  however,  we 
include  in  this  volume  articles  on  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico  and  a 
statistical  note  dealing  with  the  islands  formerly  called  Danish 
West  Indies. 

To  pass  from  a  w  estern  to  an  eastern  point  in  this  archipelago, 
one  may  be  obliged  to  sail  about  2,000  miles ;  and  to  pass  from  its 
northernmost  to  its  southernmost  island  one  must  sail  more  than 
1,500  miles.  This  wide  dispersion  is  the  fact  which  should  be  first 
noted.  The  next  step  is  to  realize  fully  the  disjunctive  political  con- 
ditions, the  results  of  the  distribution  of  the  islands  among  a  num- 
ber of  competing  nations.  Let  us  now  consider  the  political  subdi- 
visions. The  British  possessions  are:  The  Bahamas,  including  20 
inhabited  and  many  desert  islands;  Jamaica,  with  Turks  and  Cai- 
cos  Islands,  etc.;  Windward  Islands,  including  Grenada  (the  gov- 
ernor's residence),  Saint  Lucia,  Saint  Vincent  and  the  Grenadines; 
Barbados,  east  of  the  Windward  Islands;  Trinidad  and  Tobago, 

[615] 


616 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Ait.mj^.^..   .mhIjJm 

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1 

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Copyright,    brown   &   Dawson,    N.    Y. 

The   Harbor,   San   Juan,    Porto   Rico 

near  the  South  American  coast;  and  the  Leeward  Islands,  com- 
prising Antigua  (with  Barbuda  and  Redonda),  the  Virgin  Islands, 
Saint  Kitts  (Saint  Christopher),  Nevis,  Anguilla,  Dominica  and 
Montserrat.  The  total  area  of  the  British  West  India  islands  is 
12,631  square  miles  (4,431  in  Jamaica  and  its  dependent  smaller 
islands).  The  exchange  of  ratifications  of  a  treaty  between  Den- 
mark and  the  United  States  on  17  Jan.  1917  had  the  effect  of 
transferring  to  the  latter  the  small  islands  of  Saint  Thomas,  Saint 
Croix  or  Santa  Cruz  and  Saint  John,  with  a  total  area  of  139 
square  miles  and  a  total  population  of  about  27,000.  The  amount 
paid  by  the  United  States  for  these  Danish  islands  (the  possession 
of  which  insures  substantial  control  of  the  Virgin  Passage  through 
the  Lesser  Antilles)  was  $25,000,000.  French  possessions  are: 
Guadeloupe  and  its  dependencies,  and  Martinique,  their  total  area 
being  about  1,073  square  miles  and  total  population  about  406,430, 
combined  exports  about  $9,400,000  and  imports  about  $8,300,000. 
A  French  and  Dutch  possession  is  the  island  of  Saint  Martin,  38 
square  miles  in  area,  of  which  it  has  been  well  said :  * '  The  political 
complexion  of  Saint  Martin  is  peculiar.  Seventeen,  square  miles 
of  the  northern  section  belong  to  France,  and  the  rest  to  Holland, 
while  the  settlers,  largely  blacks,  are  principally  British,  who  out- 
number both  the  Dutch  and  French.  About  3,000  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  in  the  French  portion  of  the  island,  and  5,000  in  the 
Dutch  "  {ILiWs  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  etc.) ;  furthermore,  "  each 
maintains  an  administrative  force  as  large  as  that  of  the  State  of 
Texas."  The  Dutch  possessions  —  fragments  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea  —  are  the  islands  of  Curac^ao,  Aruba,  Bonaire 
or  Buen  Ayre,  Saint  Eustache,  Saba  and  part  of  Saint  Martin,  as 


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WEST   INDIES 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


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WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS 


617 


Just  stated.  Venezuelan  possessions  are  some  of  the  islands,  not 
appropriated  by  the  English  or  Dutch,  in  the  east-and-west  line 
between  Trinidad  and  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo.  The  list  is  com- 
pleted by  adding  Cuba  (with  the  Isle  of  Pines,  etc.),  a  republic; 
Porto  Rico,  w^ith  the  small  neighboring  islands,  a  possession  of  the 
United  States ;  and  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo,  or  Haiti,  with  the 
adjacent  small  islands,  Mr.  Hill's  observation  was  that,  "As  we 
sail  down  the  eastern  islands,  we  find  a  dozen  distinct  colonial  gov- 
ernments with  no  shadow  of  federation  between  them,  or  even 
co-operation  of  any  kind."  For  example,  Dominica,  though  lying 
between  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique,  and  within  sight  of  both, 
might  be  called  commercially  farther  from  them  than  from  Eng- 
land, because  cut  off  from  the  French  neighbors  by  tariff  and 
quarantine  laws. 

Edwards,  in  his  history  of  the  British  West  Indies,  says  that 
the  "  state  of  the  population  "  in  the  islands  which  he  described  in 
1791  was  as  follows:  Whites,  65,305,  and  blacks,  455,684.  The 
proportion  of  Caucasians  has  decreased  owing  to  causes  men- 
tioned in  the  article  Jamaica.  We  find  at  present  that  the  West 
Indian  people,  representing  many  original  stocks  which  have  devel- 
oped variations  of  habits  and  customs  in  their  New  World  environ- 
ment, are  practically  divisible  into  three  great  races,  the  white, 
colored   and   black,   modified   by    Spanisli,    English   and   French 


A    Typical    West    Indian    View 


618  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

civilizations ;  though  the  influence  of  the  aboriginal  stock  should  by 
no  means  be  overlooked.  The  total  number  of  inhabitants  is 
approximately  6,000,000, 

Differences  in  topography,  soils,  flora  and  climate,  which  are 
not  less  striking  than  diversities  in  population,  have  been  sum- 
marized most  intelligently  by  Mr.  Hill,  who  writes :  ' '  These 
islands,  far  from  being  alike  in  natural  features  and  economic  pos- 
sibilities, present  great  extremes.  Some  are  low,  flat  rocks  barely 
peeping  above  the  sea ;  others  gigantic  peaks  rising  straight  to  the 
clouds,  which  perpetually  envelop  their  summits;  others  are  com- 
binations of  flat  and  rugose  types.  Some  present  every  feature  of 
relief  configuration  that  can  be  found  within  a  continental  area  — 
mountains,  plains,  valleys,  lakes;  some  are  made  up  entirely  of 
glaring  white  coral  sand  or  reef  rock;  others  are  entirely  composed 
of  black  volcanic  rock,  and  still  others  are  a  combination  of  many 
kinds  of  rock.  Many  are  as  arid  as  a  western  desert  and  void  of 
running  streams,  and  others  have  a  most  fertile  soil,  cut  by  a  hun- 
dred picturesque  streams  of  living  water,  and  bathed  in  perpetual 
mist  and  daily  rainfall.  Some  are  bordered  only  w4th  the  fringing 
salt-water  plants  or  covered  with  thorny  coriaceous  vegetation; 
others  are  a  tangled  mass  of  palms,  ferns  and  thousands  of  delicate, 
moisture-loving  plants  which  overwhelm  the  beholder  with  their 
luxuriance  and  color. 

Volcanic  eruptions  are  fortunately  confined  to  Martinique  and 
St.  Vincent,  although  we  see  nearly  everywhere  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles  evidences  of  the  activity  of  mighty  volcanic  forces  in 
times  not  vastly  remote,  geologically  speaking' — for  the  sub- 
merged Antillean  continent  is  fairly  bordered  with  these  much 
later  cones  that  form  the  eastern  volcanic  chain. 

The  climate  is  not  only  very  agreeable  in  the  winter  months 
but  also  decidedly  healthful,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  Archipelago, 
especially  toward  the  northern  part,  it  deserves  such  commenda- 
tion at  all  seasons.  The  rainy  half-year  begins,  as  a  rule,  in  June 
and  (with  an  interval  of  clearing  weather  about  August  or  Sep- 
tember) extends  to  the  end  of  December.  From  January  to  June, 
then,  almost  ideal  conditions  of  sunshine  and  cool  breezes  prevail 
in  the  southern  and  central  islands  as  well  as  the  northern.  The 
northeast  trade-winds  are  most  constant  in  their  ministrations  to 
comfort  and  health  during  January,  February,  and  March;,  in 
August,  September,  and  October,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
occasional  hurricanes  —  sometimes  of  great  violence. 

The  history  of  the  West  Indies  opens  12  Oct.  1492.  Tlie  royal 
standard  of  Spain  was  then  unfurled  on  an  island  known  to  the 


LIT.ABACO    I, 


SPONGES 


1-^ ..  CAT  l\^ 

"^  ,        I        -C--^  '^f-iSAN  SALVADOR 

'^Jv     doNCEPTiON  ,.  "^^OR  WATLING  i 


ONCEPTION,  I.   •<^°'' 


CROOKED  l.^^'^l^'S   ^  .^ 
FORTUNE  I.  •  r^  °"   "O^JfV 

',•  #  '      NORT  i! 

CAICOi  . 

PROVIDENCE    ;• 

LITTLE  INAOU*  l.i;;^      "^ 
W^REAT 

^  INAfillA 


Longitude 


« 


WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS  619 

natives  as  Guanahani,  but  named  by  Columbus,  very  gratefully, 
San  Salvador.  Sir  Henry  Blake  and  others  have  succeeded  in 
identifying  the  scene  of  this  first  landfall  as  Watling's,  the  only 
West  Indian  island  which  in  every  ''  minute  particular  "  answers 
the  description  (by  the  discoverer  hmiself)  of  San  Salvador  or 
Guanahani.  Greatest  periods  and  events  in  West  Indian  history 
are  these  and  such  as  these :  The  period  of  Elizabethan  adventur- 
ous seamen  whose  achievements  in  these  waters  helped  to 
immortalize  the  names  of  Francis  Drake  and  Walter  Raleigh  and 
John  Hawkins;  the  period  of  the  buccaneers  and  of  Henry  Mor- 
gan ;  that  most  important,  decisive  triumph  for  British  naval  and 
colonial  enterprise,  Rodney's  brilliant  success  in  the  engagement 
with  the  French  fleet  under  de  Grasse  in  1782;  the  period  or 
episode,  of  Nelson,  * '  who  chose  his  bride  in  Nevis, ' '  writes  Aspin- 
all,  "  and,  in  the  Victory,  the  very  ship  that  now  lies  peacefully  in 
Portsmouth  harbor,  pursued  Villeneuve  to  the  West  Indies  and 
back,  a  fitting  prelude  to  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  ";  the  period  of 
the  manumission  of  the  slaves,  which  was  followed,  in  the  British 
West  Indies,  by  long  years  of  financial  distress  bravely  met  (about 
1834-38  to  the  end  of  the  century) ;  and  finally  the  period  char- 
acterized by  that  radical  improvement  in  the  conditions  of  agri- 
cultural industries  and  foreign  trade  which  we  observe  with 
satisfaction  to-day. 

The  author  of  '*  Caribbean  Interests  of  the  United  States  " 
(see  Bibliography)  says:  ''  With  European  colonies  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  development  of  our  trade  relations  is  hampered  by  a 
number  of  causes.  .  .  .  Lack  of  transportation  lines  hinders 
exchange  with  some  of  the  colonies.  The  subsidized  steamship  line 
between  the  British  West  Indian  ports  and  Canada  drains  off 
some  of  their  trade  in  that  direction.  The  preferential  tariff  in 
force  since  1913  affects  our  trade  adversely.  The  policy  of  France, 
also,  is  to  shape  her  tariffs  in  the  West  Indies  to  shut  out  the  send- 
ing of  colonial  goods  to  foreign  countries  and  to  insure  the  home 
market  a  monopoly  of  imports  where  possible.  Banking  houses, 
especially  when  they  have  government  connections,  may  be  used 
to  make  the  trade  run  on  national  lines.  The  banks  in  the  French 
West  Indies,  it  is  reported,  charge  three  per  cent  in  addition  to  the 
regular  rate  of  exchange  on  all  payments  made  through  New  York. 
In  some  of  the  colonies  branches  of  commercial  houses  in  the  home 
country  are  established.  They  buy  only  for  their  principals. 
Furthermore  there  is  a  French  reciprocity  treaty  with  Haiti  which 
operates  to  their  advantage.  Beside  these  efforts  on  the  part  of 
other  governments   or  their  nationals  to  promote  their  foreign 


620  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

commerce,  our  foreign  trade  is,  of  course,  affected  by  our  tarifl\" 
In  causes  such  as  these  must  be  sought  the  explanation  of  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  expands  less 
readily  in  the  European  dependencies  than  in  the  Latin  American 
republics  of  the  West  Indies.  The  increase  noted  in  exports  from 
the  United  States  to  the  British  West  Indies  during  the  period 
1902-14  was  36  per  cent;  to  the  Dutch  West  Indies  43  per  cent; 
to  the  French  West  Indies  23  per  cent.  The  increases  in  the 
imports  into  the  United  States  during  the  same  period  were: 
From  the  British  West  Indies  27  per  cent;  from  the  Dutch  West 
Indies  147  per  cent ;  from  the  French  West  Indies  175  per  cent.  A 
fact  not  to  be  overlooked  in  this  connection  is  that  the  British 
West  Indies  are  as  a  reward  of  perseverance,  with  courage  and 
enterprise,  in  the  face  of  adverse  circumstances,  recovering  from 
the  long  period  of  depression  to  which  we  have  referred.  Sir 
Charles  Lucas,  head  of  the  West  Indian  Department  of  the 
British  Colonial  Office,  has  said  that  while  the  19th  century  had 
witnessed  their  distress  the  20th  would  be  the  century  of  their 
]*egeneration;  and  Mr.  Asquith  has  given  high  authority  to  the 
statement  that  they  have  grown  to  be  independent  of  financial 
assistance  from  Imperial  funds.  The  financial  situation,  the  nat- 
ural resources,  foreign  commerce,  etc.,  of  the  Greater  Antilles  are 
subjects  of  special  studies  in  the  articles  Cuba,  Dominicaist  Eepub- 
ijc,  Haiti,  Jamak;a,  and  Porto  Eico. 

Bibliography 

Aspinall,  A.  E.,  The  Pocket  Guide  to  the  West  Indies  (Chicago  and  New 
York  1914) ;  Brigges,  W.,  A  Summaria  and  True  Discourse  of  Sir  Francis  Drake's 
West  Indian  Voyage  (London  1589) ;  Casas,  B.  de  las,  A  Brief e  Narration  of  the 
Destruction  of  the  Indies  by  the  Spaidards  (Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,  Vol.  iv,  book  8, 
London  1625) ;  Champlain,  S.  de,  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  West  Indies  and 
Mexico  in  1599-1602  (London  1859) ;  Cundall,  F,,  Bibliography  of  the  West  Indies, 
excluding  Jamaica  (Kingston  1909)  ;  Henderson,  J.,  The  West  Indies;  Painted  by 
A.  S.  Forrest,  Described  by  John.  Henderson  (London  1905) ;  Hill,  R.  T.,  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  with  the  Other  Islands  of  the  West  Indies  (New  York  1898)  ; 
Jones,  C.  L.,  Caribbean  Interests  of  the  United  States  (New  York  1916) ;  Lowe, 
P.  B.,  A  Naturalist  on  Desert  Islands  (London  and  New  York  1911) ;  Ober,  F.  A., 
Our  West  Indian  Neighbors  (New  York  1904);  Taylor,  C.  E.,  Leaflets  from  the 
Danish  West  Indies  (London  1888)  and  An  Island,  of  the  Sea:  Desc?'iption  of  the 
Past  and  Present  of  St.  Thomas  (St.  Thomas,  no  date);  Treves,  F.,  The  Cradle 
of  the  Deep  (London  1908) ;  Trollope,  A.,  The  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main 
(New  York,  1860);  "  Vaquero,"  Life  and  Adventure  in  the  West  Indies  (London 
1914) ;  Wright,  I.  A.,  The  Early  History  of  Cuba  (New  York  1916). 


I 


By  Makeion  Wilcox 

SITUATION  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

CUBA,  an  island  in  the  West  Indies,  is  separated  from  the 
United  States  by  the  Strait  of  Florida,  and  from  Mexico 
by  the  Yucatan  Channel,  and  commands  the  only 
entrances  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Extending  east  and  west  from 
the  74th  to  the  85th  meridian,  it  constitutes  the  most  important 
part  of  the  northern  barrier  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  guards  the 
Windward  Passage,  the  natural  route  for  commerce  between  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  "American  Mediterranean,"  which  is 
equivalent  to  saying,  if  we  take  the  larger  vieAv,  that  it  guards  the 
route  of  commerce  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  via 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Its  eastern  point,  Cape  Maisi,  lies 
directly  south  of  New  York  city;  its  western  point.  Cape  St. 
Antonio,  nearly  south  of  Cincinnati.  But  the  total  length  of  the 
island,  730  miles,  is  somewhat  greater  than  that  statement  would 
indicate,  for  Cuba  curves  '^  like  a  bird's  tongue,"  as  the  Span- 
iards used  to  say,  from  lat.  19°  40'  N.  in  the  province  of  Oriente 
up  to  lat.  23°  13'  N.,  the  most  northerly  provinces  being  those  of 
Matanzas  and  Havana.  In  its  upward  curve  the  coast-line  attains 
a  point  that  is  only  961/2  miles  distant  from  Key  West;  thence  it 
falls  away  again  until  but  130  miles  separate  it  from  the  mainland 
of  Mexico.  Its  width  decreases  gradually  from  100  miles  in  the 
east  to  less  than  25  near  the  line  between  the  two  western  prov- 
inces, Pinar  del  Rio  and  Havana.  Its  total  area,  including  the 
Isle  of  Pines  and  the  cayos  or  keys  (more  than  1,000  islets  that 
form  an  irregular  border  along  both  the  northern  and  southern 

[621] 


622  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

coasts)  is  estimated  at  44,164  square  miles.  Thus  it  is  larger  than 
Virginia;  smaller  than  Pennsylvania.  Nature  has  provided 
unusual  facilities  for  making  the  most  of  Cuba's  favorable  situa- 
tion upon  a  great  and  permanent  marine  highway.  The  coast-line 
is  2,000  miles  long,  or  much  more  than  that  if  we  take  into  account 
all  its  indentations.  Capacious  harbors,  quite  evenly  distributed 
along  the  north  coast,  are  those  of  Baracoa,  Nipe,  Gibara,  Nue- 
vitas,  Sagua  la  Grande,  Matanzas,  Havana,  Cabanas,  and  Bahia 
Honda;  and,  on  the  south  coast,  Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  Manza- 
nillo,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  Guantanamo.  Besides  these  there  are 
scores  of  fairly  safe  roadsteads  and  harbors  of  moderate  size. 
Therefore  no  plantation  on  the  narrow  island  can  be  very  far  away 
from  some  port  at  which  supplies  may  be  received  and  from  which 
produce  may  be  shipped. 

The  mountains  of  Cuba  occur  iiithxeedistinct  groups.  Begin- 
ning in  the  westernmost  province,  Pinar  del  Rio,  we  find  the 
Guaniguanico  range  (Sierra  de  los  Orgaiios;  greatest  altitude, 
2,532  feet),  extending  from  Cape  San  Antonio  to  the  boundary-line 
of  Havana  province,  and  thence  continued  in  lower  disconnected 
hills  which  give  a  bold  outline  to  the  northern  coast  of  the  four 
central  provinces,  and  become  the  chief  feature  of  the  impressive 
landscapes  around  Sagua  de  Tanamo  and  Baracoa,  far  away  in  the 
east.  The  Guaniuhaya^^group  occupies  but  a  limited  area  in  the 
southern  part  of  Santa  Clara  province,  between  the  cities  of  Cien- 
fuegos and  Trinidad.  Its  highest  summit,  El  Poterillo,  is  2,900 
feet.  While  the  foregoing  are  of  no  great  height,  but  owe  their 
attractiveness  rather  to  beauty  or  oddity  of  outline,  the  luxuriance 
of  the  foliage  on  their  slopes,  and  the  exquisite  charm  of  the  val- 
leys they  enclose,  we  find  on  the  southern  coast  of  Oriente  prov- 
ince a  range  that,  in  sheer  majesty,  certainly  rivals  and  probably 
surpasses  any  mountains  of  the  North  American  continent,  east  of 
the  Mississippi  —  the  Sierra  Maestra,  including  the  Sierra  del 
Cobre  and  the  Macaca  group.  Rising  precipitously  above  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  this  cyclopean  wall  extends  through  two  degrees 
of  longitude,  from  Cape  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Santiago,  in  a  nearly 
straight  east  and  west  line.  The  altitudes  of  three  widely  sepa- 
rated peaks  are  given  as  follows :  The  Cerro  del  Oro,  3,300  feet ; 
La  Gran  Piedra,  5,200  feet;  and  Pico  Tarquino,  8,600  feet.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  island,  and  the 
southern  coast  as  far  west  as  Cape  Cruz,  are  either  mountainous 
or  at  least  well  above  sea-level.  But  a  long  stretch  of  coast  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  especially  the  southern  portion  of  Santa  Clara 
and  Matanzas  provinces,  is, comparatively  low-lying  and  swampy. 


CUBA  623 

The  great  Zapata  swamp  is  formed  where  the  gradual  southern 
slope  reaches  the  Caribbean  level.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Zapata  is  an  archipelago  of  islets,  the  so-called  "  Gardens  "  or 
'^  Little  Gardens  "  (Jardinillos),  crowding  the  shallow  waters 
between  Cuba  and  the  Isle  of  Pines. 

As  we  study  the  geology  of  these  mountain  groups  we  come 
upon  the  secret  of  Cuba's  agricultural  wealth  —  the  fertility  and 
depth  of  the  soil  that  covers  the  pre-Tevtiary  sedimentary  rocks 
forming  the  base  of  the  island's  structure.  Above  the  diorites, 
basalts,  and  serpentines,  the  granitoid  rocks,  the  primary  and 
secondary  sandstones,  limestones,  and  conglomerates,  is  a  great 
sheet  of  late  Tertiary  limestone.  This  white  sheet  or  crust,  of 
remarkable  thickness,  was  formed  as  a  deposit  of  "  organically 
derived  oceanic  material,"  says  Dr.  Eobert  T.  Hill;  and  in  his 
valuable  book  (see  Bihliography)  he  adds:  "  The  island  was 
reclaimed  from  the  sea  by  a  great  mountain-making  movement  in 
late  Tertiary  time,  succeeding  the  deposition  of  these  limestones. 
In  later  epochs,  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene,  the  island  underwent  a 
series  of  epeirogenic  subsidences  and  elevations  which  affected 
the  coastal  borders,  producing  the  wave-cut  cliffs  and  a  margin  of 
elevated  reef  rock  which  borders  the  coast  in  many  places. ' '  About 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  area  of  Cuba  is  covered  with  soils  derived 
from  this  organic  limestone  —  soils  w^hose  colors,  red  and  black, 
are  not  at  all  suggestive  of  their  origin.  In  quality,  in  depth,  and 
in  the  proportion  they  sustain  to  less  productive  districts  of  the 
island,  these  calcareous  soils  are  probably  unrivaled  in  the  world. 
It  is  quite  certain  that  they  have  no  rival  in  any  land  whose  situa- 
tion is  equally  favorable  for  easy  and  cheap  transportation  of  the 
produce  to  foreign  markets.  A  different  type  of  soil,  also  valuable 
in  agriculture,  is  the  clay  and  gravel  resulting  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  Tertiary  igneous  rocks.  This  occurs  in  parts  of  the 
provinces  of  Oriente  Santa  Clara,  and  Matanzas.  Approximately 
one-half  of  the  island  has  been  cleared,  but  between  13,000,000 
and  15,000,000  acres  are  still  covered  with  forests.  The 
climate  also  favors  vegetation,  for  the  air  is  moist  and  injurious 
extremes  of  temperature  are  unknown.  At  Havana  the  thermom- 
eter averages  77°  F.  for  the  year,  or  82 '^  F.  in  the  months  of  July 
and  August,  and  72°  F.  in  December  and  January.  At  Santiago 
the  average  temperature  for  a  year  is  somewhat  higher  —  about 
80°  F. ;  on  the  other  hand,  towns  located  in  the  interior  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  200  or  300  feet  above  sea-level  have  an  agreeable  climate, 
the  temperature  averaging  not  more  than  74°  F.  Rain  falls 
most  abundantly  between  the  end  of  April  and  the  beginning  of 


624  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 


fevember.  The  largest  river  is  the  Cauto,  which  flows  westward 
through  Oriente  province  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Guacanay- 
abo.  Many  smaller  streams  make  their  way  from  the  mountains  to 
both  the  southern  and  northern  coasts ;  not  a  few  have  carved  out 
subterranean  passages  through  the  white  limestone,  and  thus,  in 
ages  long  past,  caverns  of  remarkable  beauty  have  been  formed. 
Even  to-day  in  the  western  provinces,  a  number  of  streams  disap- 
pear from  view  in  some  underground  channel  long  before  the  sea 
is  reached. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 

In  the  mountainous  eastern  province  deposits  of  copper,  iron, 
manganese,  mercury,  zinc,  silver,  antimony,  lead,  etc.,  exist,  and 
some  of  the  mines  have  been  worked  on  an  extensive  scale.  The 
copper  mines  at  Cobre,  near  the  city  of  Santiago,  were  opened  in 
1524,  and  ranked  as  the  greatest  copper  mines  in  the  world  until 
the  deposits  of  this  metal  in  the  United  States  were  developed. 
Iron  ore  of  excellent  quality  outcrops  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Maestra  range.  Especially  worthy  of  mention,  in  the  Province  of 
Oriente,  are  the  hematite  and  magnetite  mines  at  Daiquiri  and 
other  points  farther  toward  the  east  and  north.  Large  deposits  of 
silver  have  been  found  in  the  provinces  of  Camagiiey,  Oriente,  and 
Santa  Clara,  and  every  province  contains  mines  of  asphaltum. 
Cedar,  mahogany,  pine,  lignum-vitae,  ebony,  rosewood,  logwood, 
and  other  dyewoods,  are  valuable  products  of  the  forests  for 
export;  for  the  use  of  the  Cubans  themselves  the  royal  palm 
stands  unrivaled.  Besides  these  well-known  varieties,  there 
are  many  less  familiar  trees  —  not  only  the  characteristic  flora  of 
the  other  West  Indian  islands,  of  Central  America,  and  Florida, 
but  plant-forms  that  developed  quite  distinctive  characteristics 
in  the  depths  of  these  forests  whose  borders  only  were  touched 
by  the  inexpert  native  lumberman.  More  than  3,350  native  plants 
were  catalogued  before  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject  could 
be  undertaken.  All  kinds  of  tropical  fruits  grow  luxuriantly, 
many  of  them  without  cultivation.  In  point  of  value  the  banana 
heads  the  list.  Cocoanuts,  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  and  pineapples 
are  grown  for  shipment  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities  to  corre- 
spond with  the  demand  in  foreign  markets,  the  supply  being 
piactically  unlimited  within  a  short  time  after  the  demand  becomes 
known.  The  anon,  mango,  rose-apple,  pomegranate,  sapote,  tama- 
rind, fig,  citron,  guava,  aguacate  (alligator  pear),  mamey,  guana- 


CUBA  625 

bana,  etc.,  are  abundant.  The  cultivation  of  grapes  was  forbidden 
by  the  Spaniards  in  the  interest  of  the  wine  merchants  of  the 
Peninsula.  Coffee  culture  was  at  one  time  a  flourishing  industry ; 
and  since  the  comparatively  small  amount  still  grown  in  the  eastern 
end  of  the  island  is  of  excellent  quality  we  may  expect  coffee- 
raising  to  prove  one  of  the  minor  sources  of  wealth  in  the  future. 
Cotton  grows  freely  in  Cuba.  Its  cultivation  on  a  commercial 
scale,  abandoned  after  the  liberation  of  the  slaves,  was  resumed 
experimentally  in  the  province  of  Oriente  in  1902-03.  In  all  parts 
of  the  island  grasses  grow  rankly,  and  forage  is  abundant  through- 
out the  year.  Other  conditions  favorable  to  cattle-raising  are  the 
mildness  of  the  winters,  the  streams  of  fresh  water,  and  the  ready 
access  to  important  markets  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Before  the 
insurrection  there  were  two  and  one-half  millions  of  cattle  in  Cuba ; 
at  its  conclusion  not  more  than  75,000.  The  promotion  of  this 
industry  was  encouraged  by  the  Palma  administration  in  1902-03, 
and  undertaken  largely  by  American  capitalists. 


HISTORY 


A  score  of  years  after  the  discovery,  the  town  of  Baracoa 
was  founded  by  Spaniards  under  the  leadership  of  Velasquez ;  next 
in  rapid  succession,  came  Trinidad,  Sancti  Spiritus,  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, and  Santiago,  dating  from  1514  to  1515.  In  the  year  last 
mentioned  Velasquez  founded  the  original  town  of  Havana  (San 
Cristobal  de  la  Habana)  on  the  south  coast ;  but  in  1519  the  present 
site  on  the  north  coast  was  chosen,  and  to  it  the  settlers  of  the 
older  town  were  transferred.  So  important  did  this  new  Havana 
appear  to  be  that  the  first  governor  of  Cuba  called  it  ' '  The  Key 
of  the  New  World."  Burnt  by  the  buccaneers  in  1528,  it  was 
rebuilt  and  surrounded  with  fortifications  by  De  Soto.  Again 
captured  and  sacked  by  pirates  in  1556,  it  was  again  fortified,  and 
more  strongly,  by  direction  of  the  Spanish  crown.  Morro  Castle 
was  begun  before  1600.  During  the  16tli  century  the  value  of 
Cuba  in  Spanish  eyes  was  precisely  what  the  words  "  Key  of  the 
iN^ew  World  "  expressed:  at  its  ports  expeditions  were  fitted  out 
for  conquest  and  exploration  of  the  mainland,  but  there  was  no 
thought  of  obtaining  revenues  from  the  island  itself  except  by  the 
discovery  of  the  precious  metals,  the  futile  search  for  which  was 
never  quite  abandoned.    When  the  first  plants  of  sugar  cane  were 

41 


626  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

imported  from  the  CaiiarN^  Islands  to  start  an  industry  more 
remunerative  than  mining,  it  became  necessary  to  import  slave- 
labor  from  Africa  also.  The  Indians  had  been  nearly  extermi- 
nated —  not  entirely  so,  as  is  commonly  asserted,  for  the  aboriginal 
strain  can  still  be  detected  in  the  physiognomy  of  some  Cubans. 
English,  French,  and  Dutch  pirates  continued  to  ravage  the  coasts 
during  the  next  century.  Cuban  cities  of  that  time,  with  their  old- 
fashioned  defensive  works,  were  like  the  walled  towns  of  mediaeval 
Europe.    An  attack  of  the  Dutch  fleet  upon  the  capital  was  repulsed 


Copyright,    Brown   &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
Central   Park  and  Opera   House,   Havana,  Cuba 

in  1628;  in  1762,  however,  a  force  of  Elnglish  and  American  colonial 
troops,  under  Lord  Albemarle,  took  Havana,  which  they  held  until, 
by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1763,  Spain  regained  posses- 
sion. A  period  of  moderate  prosperity  and  exceptionally  good 
government  followed.  Las  Casas,  who  came  out  as  captain-general 
in  1790,  worked  earnestly  and  wisely  to  promote  Cuba's  interests; 
the  Cubans,  for  their  part,  evinced  their  appreciation  of  such  con- 
siderate treatment  by  a  chivalrous  display  in  Spain's  time  of 
need.  Havana  learned  in  1808  that  the  Spanish  dynasty  had  been 
overthrown  by  Napoleon;  thereupon  her  citizens  declared  war 
against  Napoleon.  And  when  Spain  was  losing  one  after  another 
of  her  American  colonies,  Cuba  remained  loyal.  But  prosperity,— 
the  brilliant  achievements  in  agriculture  to  which  we  have  already 
referred,— brought  long  years  of  suffering  to  the  "  ever-faithful 
island"  and  the  mother  country  as  well.  The  result  was 
inevitable.  When  the  long-sought  treasures  of  Cuba  were  at  last 
brought  forth,  not  from  gold  mines  but  from  fertile  soil,  Spain 
sought  to  make  the  treasure  all  her  own,  as  she  had  monopolized 


CUBA  627 

the  precious  metals  three  centuries  before.  With  a  few  noble 
exceptions,  the  high  Spanish  officials  sent  to  Cuba  were  simply 
belated  conquistador es,  lacking  the  personal  valor,  but  possessing 
the  acquisitive  talent  of  the  adventurers  who  first  exploited  Mexico 
and  Peru.  The  decree  of  1825  placed  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  all 
Cubans  at  the  disposal  of  the  captains-general.  Conspiracies, 
insurrections,  filibustering  expeditions  from  the  United  States, 
called  forth  by  oppressive  measures,  and  in  turn  furnishing  a  poor 
justification  of  repressive  measures, —  are  the  main  incidents  of 
the  story  of  the  70  years  next  f  ollo'wing.  We  may  mention  only  the 
conspiracy  of  1829,  the  rising  of  the  blacks  in  1844,  the  Lopez 
expeditions  in  1849,  1850,  and  1851,  the  revolts  in  1855,  the  Ten 
Years'  War  (1868-78)  and  the  revolution  of  1895.  About  200 
Americans  took  part  in  the  ill-starred  expedition  of  1851,  and  of 
those  who  surrendered  after  Lopez's  defeat  many  were  shot. 
Captain-General  Taco  (1836)  set  native  Cubans  against  resident 
Spaniards  by  impolitic  discrimination,  intensifying  that  antag- 
onism between  the  two  elements  of  the  white  population  which 
to-day  makes  political  controversies  rancorous.  The  cause  of  the 
revolutionary  movements  between  1849  and  1855  was  the  cruelty 
of  a  military  commission  in  1848,  more  than  3,000  persons  being 
tortured,  imprisoned,  banished,  or  executed  at  that  time  for  real 
or  supposed  complicity  in  a  plot.  The  cry  of  outraged  patriotism, 
the  * '  Grito  de  Yara  ' ',  was  heard  10  Oct.  1868.  During  a  part,  at 
least,  of  the  Ten  Years'  War,  the  aim  of  the  Spaniards  was,  as 
Captain-General  Valamaseda  wrote,  to  convert  the  island  into  a 
desert.  Spain  sent  257,000  men  against  the  insurgents  and  lost 
208,000  of  them,  according  to  official  reports;  the  Cubans  lost 
40,000  persons,  men,  women,  and  children;  the  cost  of  the  war, 
excluding  the  value  of  property  destroyed,  w^as  $300,000,000.  Mid- 
way in  this  struggle  the  Virginius,  a  vessel  whose  American 
register  had  been  fraudulently  obtained,  was  captured  by  a  Spanish 
warship,  taken  into  the  harbor  of  Santiago,  and  about  50  of  her 
officers  and  men  were  shot  without  civil  trial.  The  Treaty  of 
Zanjon  (1878)  restored  the  old  oppressive  conditions;  moreover 
the  cost  of  the  war  was  made  a  new  burden  for  the  island  to  bear, 
while  vexatious  restrictions  hampered  its  commercial  relations 
with  other  countries.  ' '  Underground  Cuba  ' '  gathered  force  for  a 
final  effort;  in  February  1895,  a  little  flame  of  insurrection  was 
kindled;  in  the  course  of  three  years  the  whole  island  was  again 
laid  waste.  Throughout  the  last  century  the  government  of  the 
United  States  manifested  an  interest  in  Cuba's  fate.  In  1823, 
Mr.  Monroe  being  President,  a  despatch  was  sent  by  the  secretary 


628  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  state  to  the  American  minister  at  Madrid,  in  which  the  secretary 
(Mr.  Adams)  called  particular  attention  to  the  commanding  posi- 
tion which  Cuba  occupies  with  reference  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  there  was  no 
other  foreign  territory  which  could  compare  with  it  in  the  sum  of 
the  national  interests  of  the  United  States.  In  1825  and  1826 
Colombia,  being  then  at  war  with  Spain  and  designing  to  invade 
Cuba  and  Porto  Bico,  refrained  from  this  projected  attack  on  the 
strength  of  a  protest  from  the  United  States  —  a  protest  in  the 
interests  of  the  slave-power;  the  new  Spanish- American  states 
' '  always  marched  under  the  standard  of  universal  emancipation. ' ' 
Martin  Van  Buren  said  in  1829:  "It  is  the  interest  of  the 
southern  section  of  the  Union  that  no  attempt  should  be  made  in 
Cuba  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Spanish  dependence. ' '  Webster,  in 
1848,  declared  that  Cuban  emancipation  "  would  strike  a  death 
blow  at  the  existence  of  slavery  in  the  United  States. ' '  Thus  for 
20  years  the  southern  slave-owners  insisted  that  the  status  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  should  not  be  changed. 

The  annexation  idea  came  to  the  front  in  1848.  A  proposition 
for  the  purchase  of  the  island  was  made  by  President  Polk,  through 
his  secretary  of  state,  Mr.  Buchanan,  who  wrote  to  the  American 
minister  authorizing  the  latter  to  offer  $100,000,000  to  Spain  as 
compensation  for  the  surrender  of  a  colony  which  was,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  particularly  troublesome  possession  just  then.  The  stra- 
tegic value  of  Cuba  was  dwelt  upon  in  this  correspondence,  and  the 
fear  w^as  expressed  that  the  island  might  fall  into  Great  Britain's 
hands,  in  which  event  that  nation  would  exercise  supreme  control 
over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  offer  was  declined  by  Spain.  Both 
England  and  France  were  warned  in  ]  852  that  the  United  States 
would  not  admit  the  claim  of  any  other  power  to  intervene  in  a 
dispute  of  which  Cuba  was  the  subject.  In  February  1854  the 
cargo  of  an  American  steamer,  the  Blade  Warrior,  was  seized 
unjustifiably  in  Havana.  It  seemed  for  a  time  that  war,  and  the 
acquisition  of  Cuba  by  force,  might  ensue;  but  reparation  was 
offered  by  Spain,  and  was  accepted.  President  Grant  intimated  in 
1875  that ' '  mediation  and  intervention  ' '  might  become  necessary 
to  put  an  end  to  the  long  struggle  then  in  progress. 

The  revolution  of  1895  falls  naturally  into  three  periods: 
First,  that  of  Capt.-Gen.  Martinez  Campos,  Avhose  fair  fight- 
ing utterly  failed  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment from  the  eastern  to  the  w^estern  provinces;  second,  that  of 
Captain-General  Weyler,  who  inaugurated  the  shameless  policy  of 
reconcentration ;  third,  that  of  Captain-General  Blanco  —  includ- 


CUBA  629 

iiig  the  events  from  Weyler's  recall  to  the  destruction  of  the  Maine. 
Fighting  fairly  and  like  a  gentleman,  Campos  was  fairly  beaten 
by  men  who  developed  positive  genius  in  guerrilla  warfare  —  Gomez 
and  Antonio  Maceo,  who  knew  how  to  win  by  skilful  evasion,  by 
opportune  attack,  and,  above  all,  by  making  an  ally  of  every 
peasant  and  living  on  the  country.  Maceo  crossed  both  trochas, 
and  reached  Pinar  del  Rio  province,  thus  carrying  revolt  from  one 
end  of  the  island  to  the  other.  Among  the  hills  of  the  Sierra 
de  los  Organos  he  maintained  his  band  of  followers  and  defied  all 
efforts  to  dislodge  him  up  to  the  close  of  the  year  1896.  Then  he 
risked  his  life  once  too  often,  and  was  killed.  Campos  failing  to 
check  the  insurrection,  Weyler  was  sent  to  crush  it.  The  reasoning 
of  the  latter  was  strictly  logical.  He  learned  that  Cuban  peasants 
supplied  the  rebels  with  food,  with  infonnation  in  regard  to  the 
movements  of  Spanish  columns,  and  with  ammunition  —  bought, 
stolen,  or  brought  to  the  coast  by  filibusters;  he  did  not  shrink, 
then,  from  the  extreme  cruelty  involved  in  the  removal  of  the  coun- 
try folk  from  their  homes  to  garrisoned  cities,  where,  as  '^  recon- 
centrados,"  they  should  become  quite  harmless.  On  21  Oct.  1896, 
his  infamous  proclamation  was  issued.  Thousands  of  Cuban  fami- 
lies were  pent  in  towns  or  zones  under  surveillance  of  a  Spanish 
garrison ;  and  as  time  went  on  they  died  of  starvation  and  fever. 

When  Spain's  prime  minister,  Senor  Canovas  del  Castillo,  was 
assassinated,  8  Aug.  1897,  the  prop  of  Weyler 's  Cuban  policy  was 
withdrawn.  His  successor.  General  Blanco,  took  to  Cuba  a  policy 
of  compromise.  Autonomy  was  offered ;  and,  for  the  rescue  of  the 
reconcentrados,  the  suggestion  was  made  that  charitable  people  in 
the  United  States  might  forward  supplies  to  be  distributed  by  the 
American  consuls  in  Cuba.  The  proposal  of  autonomy  was 
rejected  with  emphasis:  General  Blanco's  emissary  who  brought 
the  message  was  shot  by  an  insurgent  commander.  And  when  it 
became  known  that  an  appeal  for  contributions  to  feed  starving 
Cuba  had  been  made  in  the  United  States,  formidable  riots  in 
Havana  expressed  resentment  of  the  proffered  relief,  which  was 
regarded  as  the  entering  wedge  of  the  dreaded  intervention.  For 
the  protection  of  American  interests  the  Atlantic  squadron  was 
ordered  to  make  its  headquarters  at  the  Dry  Tortugas,  within  six 
hours '  sail  from  the  Cuban  capital ;  and  on  25  January  the  battle- 
ship Maine  was  sent  to  Havana  harbor.  The  Spanish  government 
sent  the  cruiser  Vizcaya  to  New  York  harbor  soon  afterward. 
On  9  Feb.  1898,  a  letter  addressed  to  Senor  Canelejas  by 
Senor  Dupuy  de  Lome,  Spanish  minister  to  the  United  States, 
was   published   in    the    newspapers    of   the   latter   country.    Its 


630  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

cynical  tone  and  insulting  characterization  of  President  McKinley 
were  resented,  and  Seiior  de  Lome  resigned  his  office.  One  week 
later  the  Maine  was  destroyed  "  by  the  explosion  of  a  sub- 
marine mine, ' ' —  to  quote  from  the  report  of  the  court  of  inquiry, — 
"  which  caused  the  partial  explosion  of  two  or  more  of  her  forward 
magazines."  The  court  was  unable  to  obtain  evidence  fixing  the 
responsibility  upon  any  person  or  persons ;  before  the  official  inves- 
tigation was  made,  however,  public  opinion  in  the  United  States 
had  rightly  or  wrongly  assigned  the  responsibility,  and  war  with 
Spain  seemed  inevitable.  On  8  March,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives passed  a  bill  appropriating  $50,000,000  for  national  defense. 
Senator  Redfield  Proctor's  statement  of  his  personal  observations 
in  Cuba,  read  to  the  Senate  17  March,  did  not  make  for  peace:  it 
confirmed  previous  reports  which  had  excited  pity  and  indignation. 
Diplomatic  representatives  of  the  six  great  European  powers  called 
at  the  White  House  7  April  to  present  a  joint  note,  a  "  pressing- 
appeal  "  for  "  the  maintenance  of  peace."  President  McKinley 's 
reply  was  conciliatory,  but  the  resolve  he  had  formed  was  expressed 
in  his  message  of  11  April:  '*  In  the  name  of  humanity,  in  the 
name  of  civilization,  in  behalf  of  endangered  American  interests, 
which  give  us  the  right  and  the  duty  to  speak  and  act,  the  war  in 
Cuba  must  stop."  The  war  in  Cuba  had,  indeed,  stopped  or 
halted.  The  queen  regent  of  Spain  had  directed  General  Blanco  to 
proclaim  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  in  order  to  prepare  and  facili- 
tate the  restoration  of  peace;  and  the  President's  message  con- 
cluded with  the  statement  that  he  had  received  official  information 
of  this  circumstance.  The  text  of  General  Blanco's  proclamation 
had  been  published,  and  the  orders  of  General  Weyler  revoked.  It 
was  asserted  that  the  reconcentrados  were  to  be  permitted  to 
return  to  their  homes,  that  the  sum  of  $600,000  had  been  voted  for 
their  relief,  and  tha,t  public  works  had  been  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  employment  to  the  poor.  Spain  had  offered  to 
submit  to  arbitration  the  disputes  which  might  arise  in  the  matter 
of  the  Maine.  President  McKinley  called  attention  to  all  these 
things,  and  requested  that  they  should  be  given  full  weight  in  the 
deliberations  of  Congress.  But  the  ''  full  weight  "  of  such  pro- 
grammes had  been  ascertained.  The  reports  of  American  consuls 
in  Cuba  accompanying  the  message  described  conditions  which  it 
seemed  impossible  to  reform  without  forcible  intervention.  The 
famous  joint  resolutions  of  19  April,  recognizing  ''  the  independ- 
ence of  the  people  of  Cuba,  demanding  that  the  government  of 
Spain  relinquish  its  authority  and  government  in  the  island  of 
Cuba,  and  withdraw  its  land  and  naval  forces  from  Cuba  and 


CUBA  631 

Cuban  waters,  and.  directing  the  President  of  the  United  States  to 
use  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  to  carry  these 
resolutions  into  effect,"  concluded  with  the  words:  "  The  United 
States  hereby  disclaims  any  disposition  or  intention  to  exercise 
sovereignty,  jurisdiction,  or  control  over  said  island,  except  for  the 
pacification  thereof,  and  asserts  its  determination  when  that  is 
accomplished  to  leave  the  government  and  control  of  the  island  to 
its  people." 

The  Spanish- American  War  began  on  21  April  1898 ;  Admiral 
Cervera's  fleet  was  destroyed  off  Santiago  3  July;  the  formal  sur- 
render of  Santiago  took  place  on  17  July.  In  the  protocol  suspend- 
ing hostilities  which  was  signed  on  12  Aug,  1898,  it  was  provided 
that  Spain  should  relinquish  all  claim  of  sovereignty  over  and 
title  to  Cuba,  and  that  Cuba  should  be  immediately  evacuated. 
The  evacuation  proceeded  gradually;  the  last  of  the  Spanish 
troops  leaving  1  Jan.  1899.  The  participation  of  the  revolution- 
ary army  in  these  events  has  two  noteworthy  features :  A  force 
of  about  3,000  Cubans,  led  by  Gen.  Calixto  Garcia,  joined  the 
American  troops  at  Aserraderos  and  served  through  the  San- 
tiago campaign,  forming  a  part  of  the  line  about  the  city.  Later, 
the  retiring  Spanish  army  was  closely  followed,  outside  of  the 
chief  cities,  by  the  Cuban  army,  which  took  charge  of  the  towns 
and  country,  maintaining  order  and  performing  police  duty;  and, 
when  finally  disbanded,  dispersing  peacefully  among  the  people. 
The  treaty  of  Paris,  signed  10  Dec.  1898,  provided  for  the  tem- 
porary occupation  of  the  island  by  the  United  States.  By  an 
order  dated  at  Headquarters  of  the  Army,  Washington,  13  Dec. 
1898,  a  division  known  as  the  Division  of  Cuba  was  created, 
under  command  of  Maj.-Gen.  John  R.  Brooke.  The  authority  of 
military  governor  of  the  island  was  exercised  by  General  Brooke 
from  28  Dec.  1898,  until  20  Dec.  1899,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Maj.-Gen.  Leonard  Wood,  who  continued  in  office  until  20  May 
1902.  During  the  entire  period  of  American  occupation  (18  July 
1898  to  20  May  1902),  the  total  revenues  were  $57,197,140.80^; 
amount  in  hands  of  the  treasurer  at  the  close  of  business,  19  May 
1902,  $635,170.29.  The  latter  sum  was  paid  to  the  Republic  of 
Cuba;  the  former  was  expended  for  maintenance  of  the  govern- 
ment ($2,780,781.16),  justice  and  public  instruction  ($11,108,- 
187.46),  sanitation  ($9,706,258.20),  public  buildings,  works,  ports, 
and  harbors  ($5,833,607.90),  charities  and  hospitals  ($4,124,- 
986.60),  barracks  and  quarters  ($2,525,483.78),  etc.  A  compara- 
tively small  amount  was  used  for  the  pay  of  the  army;  very 
large  sums  devoted  to  works  of  public  utility,  in  the  interests 


632  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  Cuban  people.  Cuban  imports  during  this  period 
amounted  to  $225,437,135,  the  largest  items  being  foodstuffs, 
animals,  and  animal  products,  cotton,  silk,  vegetable  fibres,  wool, 
etc.,  and  metals  and  metal  manufactures.  From  the  United 
States  came  43  per  cent  of  imports,  while  the  rest  of  the  world 
supplied  57  per  cent.  Cuban  exports  amounted  to  $180,609,067, 
the  United  States  taking  75  per  cent.  The  articles  exported  to 
the  United  States  were  tobacco  and  its  manufactures,  $45,400,670; 
sugar  and  molasses,  $77,648,819;  wood,  unmanufactured, 
$1,752,451;  iron  and  manganese  ore,  $2,587,715;  fruits  and  nuts, 
$2,547,392;  all  other  articles,  $5,479,092.  Thorough  sanitary 
measures  were  adopted ;  the  death-rate  of  the  island  was  lowered ; 
the  causes  of  yellow  fever  were  discovered,  and  that  disease 
nearly  exterminated.  Especially  successful  were  the  efforts  to 
beautify  Havana  and  improve  its  sanitary  condition;  that  city 
became  one  of  the  most  attractive  in  Latin  America.  The  reforms 
extended  to  the  prisons,  hospitals,  and  asylums ;  a  general  system 
of  free  schools  was  established  throughout  the  island;  in  many 
practical  ways  Cuba  was  prepared  for  self-government. 

A  constitutional  convention,  the  members  of  which  were 
elected  15  Sept.  1900,  met  in  the  city  of  Havana  the  following 
November.  The  Constitution  of  Cuba  Avas  adopted  21  Feb.  1901, 
and  an  appendix  thereto  (the  "  Piatt  Amendment  ")  12  June 
1901.  A  form  of  government  was  thus  provided  which,  in  its 
main  features,  resembled  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
appendix,  however,  curtails  Cuban  independence.  Its  eight 
articles  follow: 

I.  The  Government  of  Cuba  shall  never  enter  into  any  treaty  or  other  compact 
with  any  foreign  power  or  powers  which  will  impair  or  tend  to  impair  the  inde- 
pendence of  Cuba,  nor  in  any  way  authorize  or  permit  any  foreign  power  or  powers 
to  obtain  by  colonization  or  for  naval  or  military  purposes,  or  otherwise,  lodgment 
or  control  over  any  portion  of  said  island. 

II.  That  said  Government  shall  not  assume  or  contract  any  public  debt  to 
pay  the  interest  upon  which,  and  to  make  reasonable  sinking-fund  provision  for  the 
ultimate  discharge  of  which  the  ordinary  revenues  of  the  Island  of  Cuba,  after 
defraying  the  current  expenses  of  the  Government,  shall  be  inadequate. 

III.  That  the  Government  of  Cuba  consents  that  the  United  States  may 
exercise  the  right  to  intervene  for  the  preservation  of  Cuban  independence,  the 
maintenance  of  a  government  adequate  for  the  protection  of  life,  property,  and 
individual  liberty,  and  for  discharging  the  obligations  with  respect  to  Cuba  imposed 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  on  the  United  States,  now  to  be  assumed  and  undertaken  by 
the  Government  of  Cuba. 

IV.  That  all  the  acts  of  the  United  States  in  Cuba  during  the  military  oceu- 
|)ancy  of  said  island  shall  be  ratified  and  held  as  valid,  and  all  rights  legally  acquired 
l)y  virtue  of  said  acts  shall  be  maintained  and  protected. 


CUBA  633 

V.  That  the  Grovernment  of  Cuba  will  execute,  and,  as  far  as  necessary, 
extend  the  plans  already  devised,  or  other  plans  to  be  mutually  agreed  upon,  for 
the  sanitation  of  the  cities  of  the  island,  to  the  end  that  a  recurrence  of  epidemic 
and  infectious  diseases  may  be  prevented,  thereby  assuring  protection  to  the  people 
and  commerce  of  Cuba,  as  well  as  to  the  commerce  of  the  Southern  ports  of  the 
United  States  and  the  people  residing  therein. 

VI.  The  Island  of  Pines  shall  be  omitted  from  the  boundaries  of  Cuba  specified 
in  the  Constitution,  the  title  of  ownership  thereof  being  left  to  future  adjustment 
by  treaty. 

VII.  To  enable  the  United  States  to  maintain  the  independence  of  Cuba,  and 
to  protect  the  people  thereof,  as  well  as  for  its  own  defense,  the  Cuban  Government 
will  sell  or  lease  to  the  United  States  the  lands  necessary  for  coaling  or  naval 
stations,  at  certain  specified  points,  to  be  agreed  upon  with  the  President  of  the 
United  States. 

VIIL  The  Government  of  Cuba  will  embody  the  foregoing  provisions  in  a 
permanent  treaty  with  the  United  States. 

The  convention  adopted  the  foregoing  articles  rehictantly, 
after  considerable  delay,  and  relying  upon  representations  made 
to  certain  delegates  by  President  McKinley,  Senator  Piatt,  and 
other  officials  at  Washington,  that  the  tariff  on  Cuban  products 
sent  to  the  United  States  would  be  reduced,  as  a  proper  concession 
in  view  of  the  surrender  by  Cuba  of  such  valuable  privileges.  The 
Congress  of  Cuba  (elected  31  Dec.  1901  and  24  Feb.  1902)  was 
convened  in  Havana  5  May  1902,  to  examine  into  the  credentials 
of  its  own  members,  and  to  count  and  ratify  the  electoral  vote. 

At  12  o'clock,  noon,  20  May  1902,  the  Republic  of  Cuba  was 
established;  Tomas  Estrada  Palma  being  president,  and  Luis 
Estevez  Romero  vice-president.  The  transfer  was  made  in  the 
reception  hall  of  the  palace  of  the  military  governor.  A  salute  of 
45  guns  was  fired  while  the  document  of  transfer  and  President 
Palma 's  reply  were  being  read;  the  troops  of  the  Seventh  United 
States  Cavalry,  formed  in  the  plaza  before  the  palace,  presented 
arms;  the  band  played  the  American  national  air,  and  the  Ameri- 
can flag  was  lowered.  Next,  the  Cuban  flag  was  hoisted  and 
greeted  with  the  national  salute  of  21  gims  by  the  U.  S.  S.  Brook- 
lyn; the  Cuban  national  air  was  played;  the  American  troops 
saluted  the  Cuban  flag,  and  then  immediately  embarked.  There 
remained  on  the  island,  at  Santiago,  Cienfuegos,  and  Havana, 
small  forces  of  artillery,  for  the  preservation  and  care  of  the  coast 
defenses,  and  to  avoid  leaving  the  island  entirely  defenseless 
against  external  attack,  pending  such  arrangements  for  naval  sta- 
tions as  were  contemplated.  Though  the  failure  to  secure  tariff 
concessions  from  the  United  State?,  as  promptly  as  was  expected 
increased  the  difficulty  of  their  financial  problems,  the  people  of 
Cuba  have  a  fair  record  for  the  first  year  of  their  independence. 


634  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

An  intelligent  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  most  important 
industries  moving  along  in  the  usual  way,  and  to  preserve  order 
throughout  the  island  —  the  single  conspicuous  exception  being 
the  strike  of  tobacco  workers  in  Havana  (November  1902).  From 
the  first  the  balance  in  the  treasury  showed  a  tendency  to  increase. 
The  completion  of  the  central  railway,  connecting  Santa  Clara 
with  Santiago,  and  the  western  with  the  eastern  provinces  for  the 
first  time  by  a  continuous  line  of  railway  transportation,  gave  a 
new  impetus  to  industrial  development  in  1903. 

Recent  History 

The  famous  treaty  of  reciprocity  between  the  United  States 
and  Cuba,  having  been  approved  by  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  17  Mar.  1903,  and  by  the  Cuban  Senate  28  Mar.  1903,  was 
submitted  to  and  accepted  by  the  House  of  Representatives  at 
Washington,  convened  in  extraordinary  session  9  Nov.  1903. 
Violent  disputes  between  the  Cuban  Liberals  and  Moderates,  cul- 
minating in  the  insurrection  of  1906  which  the  Palma  government 
was  unable  to  suppress,  led  to  the  second  American  intervention. 
A  census  of  the  island  was  taken  and  fresh  elections  were  held  in 
1907 ;  and  in  January  1909  the  American  troops  were  again  with- 
drawn. On  16  Mar.  1912  the  hull  of  the  battleship  Maine,  having 
been  raised  by  American  engineers,  was  towed  three  miles  outside 
of  Havana  harbor  and  sunk.  On  20  May  1913  Gen.  Mario  Garcia 
Menocal  (conservative)  was  inaugurated  as  President,  and  Dr. 
Enrique  Jose  Varona  as  Vice-President.  In  1915  the  Cuban  dele- 
gation to  the  Pan  American  Financial  Conference  reported  most 
favorably  in  respect  to  the  important  and  very  close  commercial 
and  financial  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Cuba,  so 
essential  to  the  latter 's  well-being  and  political  stability.  This 
favorable  condition  ''  obviously  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the 
beneficial  operation  of  the  reciprocity  treaty  entered  into  between 
the  two  countries  in  the  year  1903,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  statistics 
showing  the  increase  in  the  reciprocal  trade  relations  since  the 
treaty  was  put  into  effect."  (Memorandum  submitted  by  the 
Cuban  delegation,  page  384.)  Again,  in  the  group  conference 
report,  page  379:  '*  So  clearly  has  it  been  recognized  that  these 
special  relations  [which  were  established  by  the  reciprocity 
treaty]  existed  between  Cuba  and  the  United  States  that  many 
measures  are  already  in  force  for  promoting  intimate  commercial 
and  financial  relations  which  in  the  case  of  other  countries  are 
only  in  the  preliminary  stage.     From  the  beginning  the  national 


CUBA  635 

loans  of  Cuba  were  taken  by  American  bankers  and  are  still  held 
largely  in  the  United  States.  The  means  of  transportation  and 
other  public  utilities  have  also  been  to  a  large  extent  established 
and  are  now  operated  by  American  capital."  (For  the  expansion 
of  Cuba's  trade  with  the  United  States,  and  a  summary  dated 
1  May  1916  of  the  island's  w^hole  foreign  trade,  see  under 
Commerce.)  On  11  Feb.  1917  two  companies  of  soldiers  encamped 
just  outside  Havana,  mutinied,  and  on  12  February,  three  days 
before  the  date  set  for  the  new  presidential  election,  nearly  the 
entire  force  of  government  troops  in  Ciego  de  Avila,  Santiago  de 
Cuba  and  other  towns  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  revolted  and 
took  possession  forcibly  of  those  districts.  The  Cuban  govern- 
ment met  the  crisis  with  energj^  and  had  the  moral  support  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States ;  accordingly  the  revolt  was  sup- 
pressed in  less  than  two  months  (before  the  middle  of  April  1917). 


GOVERNMENT 


Executive  powers  are  conferred  upon  the  President,  who  is 
assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  nine  officers,  the  Secretaries  of  State,  of 
Justice,  of  Government,  of  the  Treasury,  of  Public  Works,  of 
Agriculture,  Commerce  and  Labor,  of  Public  Instruction  and  the 
Fine  Arts,  and  of  Health  and  Charities,  and  of  the  Executive 
Department.  Both  President  and  Vice-President  are  elected 
indirectly,  by  an  electoral  college,  for  the  term  of  four  years ;  and 
they  cannot  serve  more  than  two  consecutive  terms. 

The  legislature  or  National  Congress  is  composed  of  the  Senate 
(24  members)  and  the  House  of  Representatives  (83  members). 
Senators  are  elected  indirectly  for  eight-year  terms,  four  senators 
for  each  province,  and  the  Senate  is  renewed  by  halves  every  four 
years.  Representatives  are  elected  by  popular  vote  for  four-year 
terms,  at  the  rate  of  one  representative  for  every  25,000  inhab- 
itants. Every  male  citizen  21  years  of  age  or  over  has  the  right 
of  suffrage.  The  House  is  renewed  by  halves  every  two  years. 
Congress  meets  twice  each  year,  on  the  first  Monday  of  April  and 
November,  and  the  regular  sessions  last  40  days  or  more. 

The  Judiciary  consists  of  a  National  Supreme  Court,  six 
superior  courts,  courts  of  first  instance  and  minor  courts.  Jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court  are  appointed  by  the  President  with 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 


636  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

EDUCATION 

The  military  academy  was  established  in  1912.  Instruction  in 
literature,  in  science,  the  professions,  etc.,  is  given  at  the  University 
of  Habana.  The  elementary  and  secondary  schools  were  reorgan- 
ized after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Spain,  and  appropriations 
on  a  liberal  scale  have  been  made  by  the  government  for  their 
maintenance.  The  number  of  schools  is  given,  as  4,000,  with 
350,000  pupils.  That  department  of  the  national  government 
known  as  the  Secretaria  de  Instruccion  Publica  y  Bellas  Artes  is 
divided  into  two  sections,  the  first  having  under  its  control  all  the 
elementary  schools  and  the  second  having  in  its  care  the  normal 
and  high  schools,  the  School  of  Painting  and  Sculpture,  the  School 
of  Arts  and  Crafts,  the  National  Conservator}^  of  Music  and 
Declamation,  the  University  of  Cuba,  the  National  and  other 
public  libraries,  and  the  National  Astronomical  Observatory.  In 
1915  laws  were  passed  authorizing  the  establishment  of  normal 
schools  in  the  provinces. 


AGRICULTURE 


As  early  as  the  16th  century  the  sugar  industry  was  estab- 
lished under  the  special  protection  of  Spanish  sovereigns,  but 
after  more  than  300  years  have  passed  we  found,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  20th  century,  only  about  7  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  island 
devoted  to  the  sugar  crop  —  in  other  words,  about  2,000,000  acres 
out  of  the  total  28,000,000  acres.  During  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies the  annual  output  was  about  28,000  tons.  This  increased  to 
75,000  tons  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  to  200,000  tons 
in  1840,  and  to  nearly  300,000  tons  in  1850.  The  increase  is  sig- 
nificant, for  it  was  directly  occasioned  by  the  withdrawal  of  an 
annual  allowance  of  $1,000,000  that  Spain  made  to  the  Cuban 
administration  out  of  the  revenues  from  Mexico.  The  loss  of 
Mexico  to  the  Spanish  crown  closing  that  source  of  income,  Cuba 
was  thrown  upon  her  own  resources,  with  the  result  that  she 
turned  her  attention  more  earnestly  to  the  development  of  this 
profitable  form  of  agriculture.  The  period  1853-18G8,  in  which  the 
amounts  produced  increased  from  322,000  to  749,000  tons,  was  in  a 
restricted  sense  Cuba's  Golden  Age.  Not  until  1891  was  a  greater 
amount  obtained.    The  million  mark  was  passed  in  1894  and  1895. 

The  insurrection  beginning  in  1895  reduced  the  crop  of  the 
following  year  to  225,221  tons,  and  the  continuance  of  hostilities  in 


CUBA  637 

1897  and  1898  forced  the  output  of  those  years  down  to  212,051 
and  300,000  tons.  With  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1898,  a  new  era 
of  development  began;  and  though  four  years  passed  before  the 
injuries  to  mills  and  fields  could  be  fully  repaired,  the  conditions 
at  the  beginning  of  1903  justified  the  hope  that  the  prosperity  of 
the  best  years  before  1896  would  be  regained.  We  shall  show  it 
brilliantly  surpassed  by  the  prosperity  of  1915  and  1916.  (See 
under  Commerce). 

In  the  year  1840  the  output  of  beet^giigaj  for  the  world  was 
but  50,000  tons,  principally  grown  in  France.  From  that  date  the 
production  of  this  competing  industry  increased  so  rapidly  that  in 
1894  it  was  3,841,000  tons,  and  naturally  this  enormous  addition  to 
the  world's  supply  caused  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  cane-sugar 
which  seemed  ruinous,  and  indeed  proved  to  be  ruinous  to  the 
planters  of  many  sugar-growing  countries.  But  in  Cuba  the  prob- 
lem of  producing  sugar  at  a  profit,  despite  the  constant  tendency 
toward  lower  prices,  has  always  been  solved  with  brilliant  success. 
It  was  solved  in  the  great  crisis  of  1884,  and  in  more  recent  years 
whenever  it  has  been  presented.  In  1902-03  improvements  in  agri- 
cultural methods,  in  machinery,  and  in  management  effected  a 
reduction  of  the  cost  of  the  standard  grade  on  some  of  the  larger 
estates  to  much  less  than  two  cents  a  pound.  It  is  evident  that 
such  results  could  not  be  achieved  unless  the  soil  and  climate  were 
in  the  highest  degree  favorable  to  the  growth  of  sugar-cane;  and 
what  we  have  stated  above  is  sufficient  to  show  that  large  districts 
in  which  the  soil  is  equally  good  had  never  been  touched  by  the 
plow. 

Soil  and  climate  are  also  favorable  to  the  production  of  valu- 
able tobacco.  The  area  in  which  the  characteristic  Cuban  leaf  can 
be  grown  is,  however,  as  we  shall  see,  much  more  restricted.  The 
systematic  cultivation  of  tobacco  was  not  begun  in  Cuba  until  1580, 
though  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  the  indigenous  plant  by  the 
natives  of  this  island  dates  from  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus  in 
1492.  Early  in  the  last  century  the  leaf  grown  in  the  Vuelta  Abajo 
district  (an  area  of  about  90  miles  in  length  by  10  in  width, 
situated  in  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio)  won  recognition  the 
world  over  on  account  of  its  excellence ;  and  as  the  profits  of  this 
industry,  wherever  it  could  be  carried  on  advantageously,  were 
much  greater  than  those  of  sugar-making,  no  effort  was  spared  to 
extend  the  area  of  production  into  other  parts  of  the  island.  At 
least  10,000  tobacco  plantations  were  in  operation  before  the  year 
1880,  but  all  experiments  demonstrated  the  inferiority  of  the  soil 
for  this  use  outside  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo.    Before  the  revolution  of 


638  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

1895,  the  production  of  leaf-tobacco  in  all  the  island  was  about 
560,000  bales  (averaging  50  kilos  each)  in  a  year.  Of  this  amount 
about  260,000  bales  were  harvested  in  Pinar  del  Eio  province,  about 
70,000  bales  in  the  province  of  Havana,  130,000  bales  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Santa  Clara,  and  100,000  bales  in  the  province  of  Santiago 
(Oriente).  Only  the  260,000  bales  from  the  Vuelta  Abajo  were  of 
the  finest  quality,  the  other  components  of  the  annual  crop  being 
known  as  the  Partido  leaf,  the  Remedios  leaf,  and  the  Gibara  or 
Mayari  —  in  the  main  coarser  and  cheaper  grades.  The  amount 
of  soil  available  for  the  production  of  first-class  tobacco  being  thus 
limited,  the  conditions  under  which  it  had  to  be  grown  were  also 
not  at  all  favorable  to  either  great  or  clieap  production  before 
the  year  1903.  First-class  tobacco  lands  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo 
were  held  at  an  exceedingly  high  price,  and  large  rentals 
were  demanded.  Irrigation  and  constant  care  in  most  sections 
were  absolutely  necessary ;  efficient  labor  was  scarce,  and  untrained 
laborers  were  not  employed  lest  their  blundering  should  ruin  the 
product  of  the  best  fields.  The  average  cost  of  production  per 
caballeria  (33.17  acres)  painstaking  investigation  showed  to  be 
in  that  part  of  the  island  between  $8,000  and  $9,000;  and  the  con- 
clusion is  that  the  production  of  tobacco  in  Cuba  before  1903  was 
much  more  expensive  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  For 
this  reason,  and  in  view  of  the  failure  to  secure  good  results  out- 
side of  a  few  small  districts,  it  appeared  that  the  tobacco  industry 
was  destined,  as  compared  with  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  to  play 
a  secondary  role,  though  still  an  important  one,  in  the  commercial 
development  of  Cuba.  During  seasons  of  moderate  prosperity  it 
furnished  employment  for  about  80,000  persons.  The  value  of 
that  part  of  its  product  exported  to  the  United  States  annually, 
before  the  insurgents  laid  waste  the  Vuelta  Abajo  and  Partido 
districts,  was  between  $9,000,000  and  $13,000,000.  The  transfer  in 
1902-03  of  large  interests  to  American  capitalists  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  modern  labor-saving  devices  and  economical  methods. 
Formerly  growers  made  the  mistake  of  collecting  seeds  from 
inferior  third-growth  plants,  and  the  result  was  seen  in  a  gradual 
degeneration  of  the  plants  and  diminution  of  their  leaves.  To 
check  this  degeneration,  strong  fertilizers  had  occasionally  been 
used  in  such  large  quantities  that  the  leaves,  while  regaining  their 
lost  size,  lost  much  of  their  fine  quality.  This  was  done  even  after 
it  became  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the  crops  could  be 
improved  by  scientific  selection  of  seeds.  For  work  in  the  fields, 
antiquated  wooden  plows  were  still  used  in  1902;  and  the  tobacco 
land  was  cultivated  in  small  farms,  an  arrangement  that  seemed 


CUBA  639* 

necessary  to  those  who  employed  only  the  primitive  methods  of 
destroying  insects  and  ignored  the  spraying  machine.  So  long  as 
the  old  methods  prevailed,  a  native  family  could  not  take  care  of 
more  than  a  small  field ;  moreover,  the  labor  of  the  entire  family 
was  required,  for  w^ork  went  on  day  and  night.  Every  leaf  had 
to  be  examined  frequently  and  kept  free  from  tobacco  caterpillars. 
The  wife  and  children  aided  the  adult  male  laborer,  taking  turns 
throughout  the  24  hours.  In  such  details  as  these,  improvements 
were  made  by  the  new  management,  not  without  opposition.  The 
early  attempts  to  introduce  reforms  in  the  established  methods  of 
handling  the  leaf  in  the  manufactories  was  one  cause  of  the  strike 
of  operatives  and  the  riots  in  Havana  (November  1902). 


COMMERCE 


Examination  of  the  trade  movement  into  and  out  of  Cuba  in 
1914  and  1915  shows  that  the  value  of  Cuban  foreign  commerce  in 
the  former  year  was  $296,555,000,  and  in  the  latter  $409,739,996 ; 
one  explanation  of  these  large  figures  being  that  the  area  of  the 
land  devoted  to  sugar  crops  was  so  increased  that  the 'crop  grown 
in  1914  and  available  for  exportation  amounted  to  2,500,000  tons. 
The  crop  grown  in  1915  promised  to  make  between  2,560,000  and 
3,000,000  tons  —  much  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  the  largest 
crops  of  1894  and  1895  or  any  other  year  before  1903.  The  chief 
products  exported  by  Cuba  are  shown  to  be :  sugar  and  its  prod- 
ucts (73.4  per  cent  of  total  in  1914) ;  tobacco  —  leaf  and  manufac- 
tures (15.3  per  cent  of  total) ;  fruits,  coffee,  cocoa,  etc.  (2  per 
cent) ;  minerals  (1.9  per  cent) ;  other  articles  (7.4  per  cent).  The 
principal  articles  imported  by  Cuba  are :  foodstuffs  (39.3  per  cent 
of  total  in  1914) ;  textiles,  etc.  (13.5  per  cent  of  total) ;  instruments, 
machinery,  etc.  (9.9  per  cent) ;  drugs,  chemicals,  perfumes,  etc. 
{6.6  per  cent) ;  all  other  articles  (30.7  per  cent).  An  interesting 
fact  to  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  is  that  the  island,  export- 
ing practically  all  it  produces,  imports  nearly  everything  it  con- 
sumes. '^  The  conditions,"  as  stated  in  The  Americas  (see 
Bibliography),  '^  are  not  favorable  to  manufacturing,  and  except- 
ing cigars  but  little  is  done.  There  is  one  small  sugar  refinery, 
the  product  of  which  is  sold  in  the  home  market,  but  the  rest  of  the 
product  is  exported  raw."  The  Boletin  Oficial  de  la  Secretaria 
de  Hacienda  (Treasury),  dated  1  May  1916,  published  a  sum- 
mary of  imports  and  exports  of  the  Republic  during  the  year  1915. 
From  this  it  is  seen  that  Cuba's  imports  from  the  United  States  in 


640 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Loading    Vessels    at    Havana,    Cuba 

(Courtesy   of   the    Pan    American   Union) 

that  year  were  valued  at  $104,723,108;  from  the  other  American 
countries,  $8,022,586 :  from  Gennany,  $799,903 ;  from  Spain,  $10,- 
807,435;  from  France,  $5,197,110;  from  Great  Britain,  $15,287,998; 
from  other  European  countries,  $0,203,081 ;  from  all  other  coun- 
tries, $4,397,012.  In  the  same  year  Cuba  exported  to  the  United 
States  goods  valued  at  $206,164,414;  to  the  other  American  coun- 
tries, $3,356,875 ;  to  Germany,  $7 ;  to  Spain,  $8,021,230 ;  to  France, 
$1,135,404 ;  to  Great  Britain,  $33,033,016 ;  to  other  European  coun- 
tries, $1,864,769;  to  all  other  countries,  $716,048.  In  brief,  the 
value  of  Cuba's  imports  was  $155,448,233,  and  of  her  exports, 
$254,291,763,  making  the  total  for  foreign  commerce,  as  above 
stated,  $409,739,996.  Cuba's  trade  with  the  United  States  alone 
has  expanded  from  $66,000,000  in  the  closing  year  of  the  last 
century  to  $310,887,522  in  1915,  under  exceptional  conditions, 
created  by  the  European  War,  which  also  affect  banking  relations. 
Cuba's  total  foreign  trade  for  the  period  of  June  1915  to  July 
1916  amounted  to  $537,825,000.  Exports  aggregated  $336,801,000 
and  imports  $201,024,000,  the  balance  of  trade  in  Cuba's  favor 
being  $135,777,000. 


[BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

Some  of  the  principal  banks  of  Havana  are :  Banco  de  Cuba, 
Banco  Nacional  de  Cuba,  Bank  of  Nova  Scotia,  Fidelity  and 
Deposit  Co.  of  Maryland,  La  Nacional,  The  Royal  Bank  of  Can- 


CUBA  641 

ada,  The  Trust  Co.  of  Cuba,  and  the  Banco  de  la  Habana  (with 
which  The  National  City  Bank  of  New  York  made  certain 
arrangements  mentioned  in  The  Americas,  Vol.  I,  No.  3,  p.  15). 
Cuba  has  adopted  a  system  of  coinage  founded  on  a  parity  with 
the  American  gold  dollar,  and  the  new  monetary  law  declares 
money  of  the  United  States  to  be  legal  tender  in  Cuba.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  currency  of  the  United  States  has  long  been 
employed  in  commerce  as  a  supplement  to  the  gold  money  of  Spain 
and  France.  The  new  unit  created  in  1915  is  the  gold  peso,  worth 
exactly  one  dollar  (gold  of  the  United  States),  and  the  law  pro- 
vides for  pieces  of  $20,  $10,  $5,  $4,  $2,  and  $1,  together  with  silver 
pieces  of  one  peso,  two-fifths,  one-fifth,  and  tenths  (10  centavos), 
and  also  subsidiary  coins,  down  to  one  centavo  or  one  cent.  Cuba 
has  no  paper  money.  The  law  establishing  the  new  currency  pro- 
vides that  only  the  coins  of  the  Republic  of  Cuba  and  the  national 
currency  of  the  United  States  shall  be  legal  tender  in  future ;  but 
this,  of  course,  does  not  affect  the  validity  of  outstanding  con- 
tracts. As  intimated  above,  the  American-Cuban  trade,  which  had 
increased  somewhat  less  than  threefold  (or  to  $182,000,000) 
before  the  European  War,  made  its  further  advance  in  1915  under 
exceptional  conditions.  These  are  explained  as  follows:  In  the 
past  a  large  part  of  the  island's  banking  business  w^as  carried  on 
through  Cuban  banks  with  London,  Paris  and  Hamburg,  from 
which  blank  credits  were  obtained  and  used  in  Cuba  for  the  move- 
ment of  crops  and  advances  made  to  planters ;  but  the  European 
War  changed  this  state  of  affairs,  and  Cuba  applied  to  American 
banks  for  the  credits  that  Europe  could  no  longer  grant.  The 
banks  of  the  United  States  facilitated  the  granting  of  those  credits 
to  Cuba  by  means  of  loans  secured  by  warehouse  deposits  of  sugar, 
the  price  of  which  had  advanced  in  comparison  with  prices  of  the 
two  previous  years,  or  by  shipments  of  that  product  to  the  United 
States.  The  budget  of  1914-15  was,  by  executive  decree,  continued 
in  force  for  1915-16.  It  showed  estimated  receipts  $41,820,580  and 
expenses  $40,262,905.  The  exterior  debt  at  the  commencement  of 
1915  was  given  as  $57,420,000,  the  interior  debt  being  $10,408,000. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

The  aggregate  extent  of  the  railways  is  approximately  2,203 
miles.  The  four  systems  in  Cuba  are  The  United  Railways  of 
Habana,  The  Cuba  Railroad,  The  Cuban  Central  Railway,  and 

42 


642  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Western  Eailway  of  Habana.  Among  the  more  important 
steamship  lines  entering  Cuban  harbors  at  present  are  the  New 
York  and  Cuba  Mail  S.  S.  Co.  (American)  with  bi-w^eekly  service 
between  Havana  and  New  York,  bi-monthly  passenger  service  to 
Guantanamo  and  Santiago,  weekly  freight  service  to  the  same 
ports,  and  weekly  service  to  Mexico;  the  United  Fruit  Co.  (Ameri- 
can), with  weekly  passenger  and  freight  vessels  between  Havana 
and  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  Boston;  the  "  P.  and  0."  Line 
(American),  w^ith  daily,  except  Sunday,  passenger  and  freight  con- 
nections with  Key  West;  the  Munson  Line  (American),  with 
weekly  freight  service  to  Mobile  and  frequent  freight  connections 
between  important  ports  of  the  United  States  and  Cuba;  the 
United  S.  S.  Co.  (American),  with  bi-weekly  freight  service  from 
Galveston  to  Havana;  the  American  and  Cuban  S.  S.  Line,  with 
fortnightly  freight  service  between  New  York  and  Cuba;  the 
Herrera  Line  (Cuban),  with  fortnightly  service,  Santiago  to  Porto 
Rico;  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Co.  (English);  the  General 
Transatlantic  Line  (French),  with  monthly  passenger  and  freight 
service,  France  to  Havana;  and  the  Transatlantic  Company  of 
Spain,  with  monthly  service  to  Spanish  north  coast  ports  via  New 
York,  and  a  monthly  service  to  the  south  of  Spain  and  Mediter- 
ranean ports.  There  are  525  post  and  telegraph  offices,  and  tele- 
phone service  is  supplied  in  114  cities  and  towns.  A  commission 
to  report  within  six  months  upon  a  plan  for  the  nationalization 
of  the  railway  lines  was  nominated  by  presidential  decree  on  16 
Feb.  1916.       ^  ■        ' 


POPULATION 

The  number  of  inhabitants,  according  to  the  census  taken  in 
1907,  was  2,048,980.  Hi  1913  it  was  given  as  2,382,990.  In  1916 
(est.)  between  2,500,000  and  2,600,000. 

Bibliography 

The  Americas  (New  York,  published  monthly,  1914-17);  Animrio  Estadistico 
de  la  Eepublica  de  Cuba  (Habana  1915)  ;  Aspinall,  A.  E.,  The  Pocket  Guide  to 
the  West  Indies  (Chicago  and  New  York  1914)  ;  Caldwell,  R.  G.,  Lopez  Expeditions 
to  Cuba,  1848-1851  (Princeton  Univ.  Press  1915);  Censo  de  la  Eepublica  de 
Cuba,  1907'  (Washington  1908) ;  Colomljo,  C,  Columbus  in  Cuba  (Boston  1900)  ; 
Financial  Conference,  Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915)  ; 
Prriffin,  A.  P.  C,  List  of  Books  Relating  to  Cuba  (Washington  1898) ;  Henderson, 
•T.  B.,  Jr.,  Cruise  of  the  Thomas  Barrera  (New  York  1916)  ;  Hill,  R.  T.,  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  etc.  (New  York  1898);  Insular  Affairs,  Bureau  of,  Acts  of  Congress, 
Treaties,  and  Proclamations  relating  to  Cuba,  etc.  (Washington  1909) ;  Lindsay,  F., 
Cuba  and  her  People  of  To-dai/  (Boston  1911)  ;  Medina,  J.  T.,  La  Jmprenta  en  la 


CUBA 


643 


Habana  (Santiago  de  Chile  1904) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Cuba  (Washington  1914) ; 
Robinson,  A.  G.,  Cuba  Old  and  New  (New  York  1915) ;  Verrill,  A.  H.,  Cuba  Past 
and  Present  (New  York  1914) ;  Wilcox,  M.,  A  Short  History  of  the  War  with 
Spain  (New  York  1898) ;  Wood,  L.,  The  Military  Government  of  Cuba  (Am.  Acad, 
of  Pol.  and  Soc.  Science,  Publ.  369,  Philadelphia  1903). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  area  and  population  of  the  six  Provinces  of  Cuba,  with  their  capitals  and 
populations,  are  as  follows:  . 


PROVINCES 

Area 

(in  square 

miles) 

Population 

Capitals 

Population 

Havana  (including  Isle  of  Pines) 

3,174 
5,212 
3,260 
8,266 
10,076 
14,227 

651,266 
257,781 
270,513 
569,416 
154,567 
567,988 

Havana 

325 , 000 

Pinar  del  Ri  o 

52  472 

Matanzas 

65  931 

8anta  Clara 

54,885 

Camaguey 

79,166 

Santiago  de  Cuba 

62  358 

Total 

44,215 

2,471,531 

Havana 

The  principal  city,  chief  seaport  and  capital  of  Cuba  and  largest  city  of  the 
West  Indies,  is  situated  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island,  on  the  Bay  of  Havana. 
In  the  older  part  of  the  city  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked  and  until  the 
American  occupation  were  in  a  state  of  neglect.  The  newer  parts  of  the  city  are 
essentially  modern,  with  wide,  well  laid  out  and  paved  streets  and  promenades. 
The  climate  is  tropical  but  tempered  by  sea  breezes.  The  constant  humidity  of 
80  per  cent  renders  the  climate  very  trying  to  all  but  persons  of  the  strongest 
constitution.  The  city  has  many  fine  public  buildings  and  handsome  residences. 
The  water  supply  is  excellent  and  the  other  public  works  have  been  greatly  improved 
in  recent  years.  Electricity  is  used  as  a  motive  power  for  the  street  railway. 
Havana  is  an  important  railway  centre,  many  lines  reaching  the  seaboard  at  this 
point.  Industrially  Havana  has  the  first  place  among  the  cities  of  the  island.  Its 
chief  industrial  establishments  are  cigar  and  tobacco  factories  which  are  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Other  industries  are  box  and  barrel  making  for  the  tobacco 
and  sugar  trade,  wagons  and  carriages,  and  machinery.  Havana  has  one  of  the 
safest  harbors  in  the  world,  with  a  depth  sufficient  for  vessels  of  the  greatest 
draught.  The  total  value  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  port  is  approximately 
$140,000,000  annually,  of  which  the  imports  represent  about  $88,000,000,  and  the 
exports  $52,000,000.  Foodstuffs  and  cotton  are  the  principal  articles  of  import, 
while  cigars,  tobacco,  and  sugar,  form  the  bulk  of  the  exports.  About  one-half 
of  the  imports  are  from  the  United  States,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  exports  go 
to  that  country.  Havana  has  steamer  connection  with  New  York,  and  various 
other  ports  of  the  United  States,  also  with  England,  France  and  Spain.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  consul-general  of  the  United  States. 

Santiago  de  Cuba 

The  second  city  of  the  Republic  and  a  port  of  importance  is  situated  at  the 
northeastern  end  of  the  Bay  of  Santiago,  on  the  southeast  coast,  540  miles  by  rail 
from  Havana.    The  bay  is  completely  landlocked  and  deep,  affording  a  safe  refuge 


644  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  the  largest  vessels.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthful,  the  sea  breezes  being 
cut  off  by  the  chain  of  mountains  along  the  shore  at  this  point.  The  streets  are 
crooked  and  hilly,  lined  by  one-story  houses.  Yellow  fever  was  once  prevalent 
here,  but  modern  sanitation  methods  have  practically  eliminated  it.  The  water 
supply  is  not  very  good.  Santiago's  industries  are  dependent  on  the  mining  dis- 
tricts of  Oriente,  where  iron,  copper  and  manganese  are  mined.  The  city  contains 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  tobacco  factories.  The  foreign  commerce  is 
considerable  and  domestic  trade  is  large  also.  Iron  ore,  maganese,  copper,  cabinet 
woods,  coffee,  sugar  and  tobacco  are  exported. 

Camagiiey  or  Puerto  Principe 

The  largest  city  of  the  interior,  is  situated  about  30  miles  from  Nuevitas  on  the 
northern  coast  and  50  miles  from  Santa  Cruz  on  the  southern  coast.  It  is  situated 
in  a  savanna  region  and  is  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade  in  cattle  products,  for 
which  the  region  is  well  adapted.  Sugar  is  also  exported.  The  city  has  narrow, 
antiquated  streets.  Its  industries  are  those  connected  with  cattle  raising.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  trunk  railroad  joining  Santiago  and  Havana.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
consular  agent  of  the  United  States. 

Matanzas 

The  capital  of  the  Province  of  the  same  name,  and  the  third  city  in  population, 
is  situated  54  miles  east  of  Havana,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Matanzas  on  the 
north  coast.  It  has  straight,  regular  streets  and  many  handsome  buildings.  The 
climate  is  healthful  but  very  hot.  Sanitation  is  bad,  but  considerable  improvement 
is  taking  place.  The  hai-bor  is  large  and  well  sheltered,  but  accommodations  for 
unloading  or  loading  are  poor.  As  a  commercial  centre  Matanzas  ranks  next  to 
Havana.  Sugar,  molasses,  and  rum  are  the  chief  exports,  and  manufactured 
articles  are  imported.  The  city's  industries  include  a  petroleum  refinery,  tanneries, 
shoe  factories,  distilleries,  car  and  machine  shops,  cordage  works,  and  guava-jelly 
factories.  The  city  is  an  important  railway  centre.  A  consular  agent  of  the  United 
States  is  stationed  here. 

Other  Cities 

PiNAR  DEL  Rio,  90  miles  southwest  of  Havana,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail, 
is  the  centre  of  the  tobacco  industry  of  the  celebrated  Vuelta  Abajo.  Santa  CluVra, 
on  the  trunk  railway  between  Havana  and  Santiago,  and  150  miles  east  of  the 
former,  is  located  in  an  elevated  savanna  region.  It  is  a  well-built  city,  with  wide 
streets.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  district,  while  asphalt,  petroleum,  graphite,  gold 
and  copper  are  found  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Sagua  la 
Grande  on  the  north  shore,  and  the  port  of  Cienfuegos  on  the  south.  Sancti- 
Spiritus,  in  the  Province  of  Santa  Clara,  has  an  important  trade  in  the  products 
of  the  region,  principally  sugar.  It  has  rail  connection  with  the  port  of  Tunas 
on  the  southern  coast.  Trinidad,  also  in  Santa  Clara,  is  situated  45  miles  southeast 
of  Cienfuegos.  The  climate  is  healthful.  It  exports  coffee  and  sugar  through 
Casilda,  5  miles  distant.  Guantanamo,  in  Oriente,  10  miles  north  of  the  Bay  of 
Guantanamo,  exports  coffee,  sugar  and  lumber  through  the  port  of  Cainanera,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  The  naval  base  and  coaling  station  of  the  United 
States  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay  about  20  miles  from  the 
town.  M'anzanilix),  a  port  of  the  province  of  Oriente  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
gulf  of  Guacanayabo,  in  a  low  and  unhealthful  region.  It  is  regularly  built  and 
has  a  good  harbor.  It  is  the  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  fertile  Canto  Valley, 
which  include  sugar,  tobacco  and  lumber.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  consular  agent  of 
the  United  States. 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


Br  Marrion  Wilcox 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION 

THE  Dominican  Republic,  West  Indies,  a  country  which  occu- 
pies the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  island  of  Santo 
Domingo,  or  Haiti :  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  west  by  the 
republic  of  Haiti,  and  separated  by  the  Mona  Passage  from  Porto 
Rico  on  the  east.    Its  area  is  about  19,325  square  miles. 

The  mountains  —  the  centre  and  culmination  of  the  Great 
Antillean  uplift  —  form  several  cordilleras  or  roughly  parallel 
ranges.  The  highest  peak,  Mount  Tina  (10,300  feet),  is  northwest 
of  Santo  Domingo  city,  and  near  the  centre  of  the  island  are 
numerous  peaks  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet  high.  While  the  enor- 
mous mass  of  these  mountains,  occupying  four-tifths  of  the  island, 
renders  much  of  the  territory  nearly  inaccessible,  between  the 
ranges  lie  plains,  some  of  which  are  wonderfully  fertile,  while 
others  are  without  value  for  agriculture.  Toward  the  north  and 
west  are  the  famous  Vega  Real  and  the  sterile  plain  called  Despo- 
blado  de  Santiago;  near  the  south  coast  the  rich  valley  of  Bani, 
which  extends  between  the  Nizao  and  the  Ocoa;  and  in  sequence 
the  valleys  of  Azua,  San  Juan,  or  Antig-ua  Maguana,  Santo  Tome, 
Onceano,  Hincha,  Quava,  and  others;  toward  the  east,  extending 
even  to  Cape  Engaho,  is  a  region  in  which  the  praderias  or  llanos 
—  valleys,  meadows,  or  plains  —  are  most  common.  Even  the 
ridge  of  the  Cibao  Mountains  sinks  to  a  height  of  only  1,000  feet 
at  its  eastern  end. 

Rivers  and  Harbors 

The  Ozama  and  Isabela  rivers  unite  to  form  the  port  of  Santo 
Domingo  after  receiving  the  waters  of  many  smaller  streams,  such 

[645] 


646  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

as  the  Yavacao,  the  Monte  Plata,  and  the  Savita.  The  Haina,  or 
Jana,  which  empties  into  the  sea  about  10  miles  west  of  the  capi- 
tal, and  the  Nigua,  whose  course  is  still  farther  toward  the  west, 
enclose  a  very  beautiful  plain  which  was  a  source  of  wealth  during 
the  Suanish  period.  The  Nizao  flows  southward  between  fields  of 
sugar  cane  and  meadows  where  herds  of  cattle  graze.  Other 
rivers  are  the  Artibonito,  Yaqui,  Yuna,  Naranja,  and  Magna. 
The  coast-line,  about  940  miles  in  extent,  includes  the  Bay  of 
Samana  —  a  well-sheltered  harbor  extending  westward  from  the 
Mona  Passage,  its  average  width  being  12  or  13  miles  and  its 
length  more  than  25  miles.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  this  bay 
would  accommodate  the  largest  fleets,  and  that  defensive  works 
placed  at  its  entrance  would  make  it  practically  impregnable;  its 
strategic  value  is  certainly  so  great  that  it  should  be  reckoned  one 
of  the  republic's  chief  assets.  Other  ports  are:  on  the  north, 
Puerto  Plata  and  Monte  Cristi ;  on  the  south,  Santo  Domingo  city 
and  Azua. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resources 

The  geology  of  the  island,  as  described  by  Blake,  Marvin,  and 
others,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  eastern  ends  of  Cuba  and  Jamaica. 
There  are,  according  to  Mr.  Hill  (see  Bihliociraphy),  four  princi- 
pal formations:  "  the  older  mountain  rocks,  of  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  Age,  made  up  of  igneous  rocks  and  clays,  mantled  by 
gra\  els  and  crystalline  limestone ;  the  white  limestones  of  Ter- 
tiary Age ;  recent  alluvial  formations ;  and  the  coast  limestone  of 
elevated  reef  rock.  No  recent  volcanic  rocks  are  known."  (For 
the  Antillean  system,  see  Central  America,  p.  521).  It  has 
long  been  the  custom  to  say  that  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  republic  have  been  either  neglected  or  exhausted;  and  it  is, 
indeed,  quite  certain  that,  whereas  the  Spaniards  obtained  large 
amounts  of  gold  and  silver,  especially  the  former,  from  the  mines 
that  were  worked  during  the  early  years  of  colonization,  recent 
reports  made  by  American  experts  are  not  especially  favorable 
with  regard  to  these  two  metals.  The  fact,  however,  seems  to  be 
that  gold  exists  quite  generally,  but  not  in  paying  quantities  if  we 
allow  for  high-priced  labor.  The  profits  of  the  old  mines  were 
won  by  the  labor  of  native  and  African  slaves.  Copper,  iron, 
manganese,  platinum,  tin,  lignite,  salt,  and  petroleum  are  found ; 
and  the  analogy  of  the  Oriente  mining  region  in  Cuba  would 
suggest  that  the  deposits  of  the  first  three  metals  deserve  partic- 
ular attention. 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  647 

Soils  and  Climate 

The  diversities  of  both  soil  and  climate  are  greater  than  else- 
where in  the  Antilles.  Thus,  the  Vega  Real  is  fertile  and  well- 
watered;  the  Santiago  plain,  its  western  prolongation,  is  a  desert. 
The  soil  of  the  western  part  of  the  plain  of  Seylo  is  gravelly, 
while  that  of  the  eastern  part  is  composed  of  loams  and  clays. 
The  country  immediately  surrounding  Azua  is  barren;  but  the 
best  sugar  estates  on  the  island  are  only  three  miles  away  —  and 
the  sugar-lands  of  no  other  West  Indian  island  can  quite  rival  in 
fertility  the  Dominican  Republic's  best.  The  climate  of  this  coun- 
try is  healthful,  like  that  of  Porto  Rico  and  other  large  islands  in 
the  West  Indies.  Trade  winds  blowing  most  of  the  year  make  the 
nights  cool,  and  only  a  short  part  of  the  day  must  be  called 
intensely  hot,  particularly  in  low-lying  and  sheltered  regions. 
The  dry  season  extends  from  the  first  part  of  December  until 
June.  During  the  other  months  the  rainfall  is  as  a  rule  abundant 
in  the  central  and  northern  districts,  especially  in  the  northeast, 
which  is  probably  the  most  fertile  section  of  the  entire  country. 
In  1916  was  recorded  an  abnormal  rainfall  for  the  southern  sec- 
tion, when  the  precipitation  from  1  October  to  23  November 
totaled  22.67  inches,  more  than  three  times  that  of  1915  and  about 
seven  times  that  of  1914.  By  foreigners  who  have  lived  there 
and  know  the  country  intimately  the  Dominican  Republic  is  not 
considered  an  unhealthful  place  of  residence.  The  comparative 
freedom  from  cold-climate  diseases  is  often  overlooked  in 
commentaries  ujion  health  conditions  in  the  Tropics. 

Forests,  Flora,  and  Fauna 

Cedar,  ligimm  vitae,  mahogany,  and  other  cabinet-woods,  as 
well  as  timber  used  in  house-  and  ship-building,  are  taken  from 
the  forests ;  the  most  luxuriant  growths,  however,  have  no  present 
commercial  importance,  because  adequate  means  do  not  exist 
for  bringing  them  from  the  interior  regions  to  the  coast.  As  in 
other  parts  of  the  Antilles,  the  forms  of  vegetable  life  are  varied 
and  of  special  interest,  while  precisely  the  reverse  is  true  of  the 
fauna. 


HISTORY 


Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  to  America  visited  the  north 
coast  of  the  island  and  left  a  few  of  his  men.  These  were  killed 
by  the  natives ;  but  the  colony  of  Isabela,  established  on  his  second 
voyage,  endured  until  the  colonists  were  transferred  to  a  more 


648 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


healthful  locality.  The  settlement  on  the  south  coast  became 
eventually  the  chief  city.  Spanish  settlements  existed  also  at 
Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  Puerto  Plata,  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros, 
and  Bonao  in  the  first  decade  of  the  16th  century.  The  cultivation 
of  sugar  cane  began  in  1506.  Three  years  later  Christopher  and 
Bartholomew  Columbus  were  imprisoned  by  Bobadilla  in  the  cita- 
del of  Santo  Domingo.  The  natives  were  set  to  work  in  the  mines 
and  fields ;  and  very  soon  shiploads  of  Indians  were  being  trans- 
ported from  other  islands  to  replace  those  who  died  under  the 
hardships  of  this  forced  labor.  Subsequently  negroes  were 
brought  from  Africa  for  the  same  purpose,  a  considerable  number 
of  black  slaves  reaching  the  colony  before  1522.  There  was  a 
short  period  of  prosperity;  before  the  middle  of  the  century, 
however,  the  most  enterprising  colonists  were  draw^n  away  by 
the  superior  attractions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  the  country 
began  to  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  English  and  French  buc- 
caneers, who  established  their  headquarters  on  a  small  island  near 
the  northwest  corner  of  Haiti.  In  the  course  of  a  century  and  a 
half  the  section  west  of  the  Despoblado,  and  now  known  as  the 
republic  of  Haiti,  was  won  for  France.  The  Spanish  government 
at  the  close  of  the  18tli  century  abandoned  the  eastern  section  as 
well,  the  entire  island  passing,  first,  under  French  control;  but 
soon  afterward  the  successes  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  and  Dessa- 
lines  united  west  and  east  in  one  country,  iudependent  of 
the  European  powers  and  governed  by  the  black  revolutionists 


Covernment    House,    Santo    Domingo,    Dominican    Republic 

(Courtesy   of  the  Pan   American   Union) 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  649 

of  Haiti.  Between  1809  and  1821  Spain  again  held  the  eastern 
section,  and  the  old  name  Santo  Domingo  was  revived  with  that 
limited  application ;  but  in  the  year  last  mentioned  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island  revolted.  The  eastern  and 
western  sections  were  united  from  1822  to  1843,  together  forming 
the  republic  of  Haiti.  The  final  separation  took  place  in  1844, 
when  the  Dominican  Republic  was  established.  Spain  reasserted 
her  authority  once  more  for  a  brief  period  (1861-65) ;  with  that 
exception  the  many  struggles  through  which  the  country  has 
passed  since  1844  have  been  due  either  to  revolutions  or  to  Haitian 
antipathy.  In  1869  a  treaty  for  the  annexation  of  the  Dominican 
Republic  to  the  United  States  was  negotiated  during  General 
Grant's  presidency,  but  was  defeated  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
A  revolution  which  drove  President  Baez  into  exile  expressed  the 
resentment  of  the  San  Domingoans  when  this  failure  was  made 
known.  Comparatively  good  order  was  maintained  for  a  few 
years,  beginning  in  1890,  but  the  most  violent  methods  were  again 
employed  by  political  leaders  in  1898-99,  and  continued  in  1902-03. 
President  Jimenez  was  forced  by  a  revolutionary  uprising  to 
resign  his  office  in  May  1902.  His  successor,  Vasquez,  was  driven 
from  power  early  in  May  1903,  after  severe  fighting,  attended  with 
lieav\'  losses.  Seiior  Morales  became  President  in  1904.  Defaults 
in  the  payment  of  interest  to  European  holders  of  Dominican 
bonds  brought  on  a  crisis  of  a  character  so  threatening  that  the 
United  States  w^as  induced  to  take  charge  of  the  collection  and 
administration  of  customs  dues,  acting  in  the  capacity  of  a  trustee, 
for  the  protection  of  the  people  of  the  republic  and  of  their  credi- 
tors as  well.  In  1911  President  Caceres  Avas  assassinated,  and  a 
revolution  necessitated  the  resignation  of  his  successor  in  1912. 
Archbishop  Nouel  served  as  provisional  President  for  part  of  a 
year.  The  next  administration,  that  of  President  Bordas  Valdes, 
included  such  events  as  the  bombardment  of  Puerto  Plata  on  two 
occasions  by  government  forces  and  the  agreement  (1914) 
secured  by  an  American  mediatory  commission  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  provisional  government,  with  Dr.  Ramon  Baez  as 
President.  Elections  were  held  under  the  supervision  of  the 
United  States.  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez  was  inaugurated  as  Presi- 
dent December  1914.  In  1915  the  presence  of  warships  of  the 
United  States  in  Dominican  harbors  was  required  for  the  effectual 
suppression  of  a  revolt.  On  29  Aug.  1916  the  armored  cruiser 
Memphis,  navy  of  the  United  States,  was  driven  on  the  rocks  of 
the  outer  harbor  of  Santo  Domingo  (the  capital)  by  a  heavy  sea 
that  came  up  suddenly. 


650  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 


GOVERNMENT 

The  constitution  vests  the  executive  power  in  a  President 
chosen  by  an  electoral  college  for  a  six  years'  term.  Under  the 
present  constitution,  which  went  into  effect  1  April  1908,  the 
congress  ''  designates  a  person  to  take  charge  of  the  executive 
office,"  in  the  event  of  the  death  or  disability  of  the  President. 
There  is  no  Vice-President.  The  cabinet  officers  are  the  secre- 
taries of  Interior  and  Police,  of  Foreign  Aff'airs,  of  the  Treasury 
and  Commerce,  of  War  and  Marine,  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion, of  Agriculture  and  Immigration,  and  of  Promotion  (Fo- 
mento)  and  Communications.  {Pan  American  Union  pamphlet: 
see  Bibliography).  The  Congress  is  composed  of  Senate  (12 
members,  one  from  each  province)  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  (24 
members,  two  from  each  province),  both  senators  and  deputies 
being  elected  by  indirect  vote,  the  former  for  six  and  the  latter 
for  four  years.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  (eight 
members,  appointed  for  terms  of  four  years),  two  courts  of 
appeal,  etc. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Free  primary  instruction  is  offered  by  the  communes,  with 
the  aid  of  the  central  government;  the  system  including  also 
superior  technical  and  normal  schools,  and  a  professional  school 
or  university.  There  are  about  40  newspapers.  The  state  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic.  Religious  toleration  under  "  certain 
restrictions  "  is  assured  by  the  government's  present  policy  of 
encouraging  immigration. 


BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

The  legal  currency  has  been  the  American  dollar  since  1900, 
and  the  value  of  the  Dominican  peso  is  given  at  present  as  one- 
fifth  of  the  gold  dollar.  The  banks  are  the  Banco  Nacional  de 
Sto.  Domingo  and  the  Royal  Bank  of  Canada,  neither  of  these 
issuing  bills  as  yet.  The  International  Banking  Corporation 
acquired  the  established  banking  business  of  Santiago  Michelena 
in  the  Dominican  Republic,  with  head  offices  at  Santo  Domingo 
City  and  several  branches  and  agencies  in  other  parts  of  the  Island. 
The  Michelena  Bank  was  the  depository  for  customs  revenues 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  651 

under  the  arrangement  between  the  governments  of  Santo 
Domingo  and  the  United  States,  and  the  International  Banking 
Corporation  succeeded  to  it  in  that  capacity.  There  are  also  a  few 
private  bankers  and  merchants  engaged  in  the  banking  business 
(Group  Conference  Report — ^  Dominican  Republic  —  in  Financial 
Conference  Proceedings:  see  Bibliography).  The  republic  has  two 
debts,  both  guaranteed  by  customhouse  duties,  one  of  $20,000,000 
at  five  per  cent  interest,  and  the  other  of  $1,500,000  at  six  per  cent 
interest.  The  government 's  revenue  is  derived  from  customs,  alco- 
hol and  stamp  taxes,  wharf -dues,  posts  and  telegraphs,  and  civil 
registration.  In  the  fiscal  year  1915-16  total  receipts  were  esti- 
mated at  $4,468,000  and  disbursements  $4,406,567. 


COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY 

In  the  south  and  west  are  the  principal  sugar  plantations ;  the 
area  of  tobacco  is  the  north  and  some  parts  of  the  uplands  of 
the  interior;  coffee  grows  readily  in  the  mountain  regions,  and 
in  the  district  of  Barahona  its  production  on  a  large  scale  has 
begun;  the  cultivation  of  cocoa,  like  that  of  sugar  cane,  has 
increased  rapidly  since  about  1885;  cattle  raising  also  receives  a 
little  more  attention  than  formerly  was  the  case;  tropical  fruits, 
especially  bananas,  flourish  nearly  everywhere. 

Exports  and  Imports 

In  1915  the  principal  exports  were:  sugar,  102,801  tons; 
cacao,  20,223  tons;  leaf  tobacco,  6,235  tons;  coffee,  2,468  tons; 
hides,  501  tons;  beeswax,  213  tons;  bananas,  327,169  bunches. 
Total  value  of  foreign  commerce  in  that  year,  $24,327,575  (imports 
$9,118,514  and  exports  $15,209,061).  The  principal  imports  of  the 
republic  are  iron  and  steel,  cotton  manufactures,  wheat  flour,  rice, 
meat  and  dairy  products,  oils,  and  wood  and  its  manufactures.  The 
distribution  of  foreign  trade  in  1915  was  as  follows:  United 
States,  imports  $7,361,259  and  exports  $12,044,271;  Great  Britain, 
imports  $630,923  and  exports  $84,366;  France,  imports  $93,200 
and  exports  $189,448;  Germany,  imports  $95,317  and  exports 
$5,644.  In  1916,  315,700  bunches  of  bananas  valued  at  $157,850 
were  exported.  The  exports  reached  $36,293,799  in  1916,  of  which 
the  United  States  took  80.88  per  cent.  The  imports  of  1916  were 
$11,311,350,  and  of  this  amount  87.13  per  cent  was  supplied  by  the 
United  States. 


652  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

Besides  the  railway  referred  to  above,  which  crosses  two 
mountain  ranges  and  connects  Santiago  with  Puerto  Plata, 
another  line  to  furnish  transportation  from  Samana  Bay  to 
Santiago  has  been  built  to  a  point  beyond  La  Vega.  The  railways 
of  the  republic  have  an  extent  of  about  150  miles;  private  lines 
on  large  estates  about  225  miles.  There  are  352  miles  of  tele- 
graph, and  719  of  telephone  lines.  The  difficulties  of  communica- 
tion between  the  various  districts  of  the  country,  primarily  due  to 
the  Cordilleras,  are  in  large  part  attributable  to  the  grea,t  lack  of 
good  highways  —  without  which  peace  will  never  be  assured. 
There  is  steamship  service  between  New  York  and  Dominican 
ports,  but  the  vessels  are,  as  a  rule,  small  and  slow.  There  is  also 
regular  steamer  service  betw^een  Santo  Domingo,  Porto  Rico  and 
Cuba. 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 


A  rural  guard  (nominally  906  officers  and  men)  supplements 
a  military  force  numbering  about  1,300.  The  government  has  six 
small  vessels,  four  of  which  are  revenue  cutters. 


POPULATION 


The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1916  was  710,000  (est.),  or  36 
per  square  mile.  The  Despoblado  region  —  the  nearly  uninhab- 
ited district  of  high  mountains,  inaccessible  valleys,  and  virgin 
tropical  forests  —  comprises,  roughly  speaking,  the  central  third 
of  the  entire  area  of  the  island,  or  one-half  of  the  Dominican 
republic:  it  is  the  wide  border-land  fought  over  by  the  Haitians 
and  the  troops  of  the  Dominican  Republic.  The  people  of  the 
latter  country,  of  blended  Spanish,  Indian,  and  negro  blood  — 
with  the  small  proportion  of  white  descendants  of  the  Spanish 
colonists  and  foreign  merchants  —  occupy  an  area  that  is  actually 
much  more  restricted  than  a  glance  at  the  map  would  suggest. 

Bibliography 

No  other  single  work  contains  more,  or  more  trustworthy,  inf onnation  on  this 
subject  than  Dominican  Republic:  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  to  Santo 
Domingo   (Washington  1871).     The  following  also  should  be  consulted:     Abad, 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  653 

J.  R.,  La  Republica  Dominicana  (Santo  Domingo  1888);  Aspinall,  A.  E.,  The 
Pocket  Guide  to  the  West  Indies  (Chicago  and  New  York  1914);  Financial  Con- 
ference, Proceedings  of  the  First  Pan  American  (Washington  1915) ;  Hill,  R.  T., 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  with  the  Other  Islands  of  the  West  Indies  (New  York  1898) ; 
Hollander,  J.  H.,  The  Dominican  Convention  and  its  Lessons  (in  Clark  Univ., 
Worcester,  Mass.  Latin  America,  New  York  1914)  ;  Monte  y  Tejada,  A.  del, 
Historia  de  Santo  Domingo  (Santo  Domingo  1890);  Pan  American  Union, 
Dominican  Republic  (Washington  1915)  and  Latin  America  (Washington  1916). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Dominican  Republic  is  divided  into  12  provinces.  The  principal  cities  with 
their  populations  are  as  follows: 

San  Domingo 

The  capital  city  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ozama  River,  on  the  south  coast. 
It  is  regularly  built,  but  its  streets  are  poorly  paved.  It  contains  many  historic 
remains  of  the  Spanish  occupation.  The  surrounding  district  is  fertile.  The  har- 
bor is  an  open  roadstead.  In  1910  a  jetty  and  sea  wall  was  constinicted  at  the 
entrance.  A  concrete  wharf  1,400  feet  long  with  20  feet  depth  was  completed  in 
1913.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  consul-general  of  the  United  Staes.  Sugar  and 
coffee  are  the  chief  exports.  Cigars  and  cigarettes  are  manufactured.  Copper  is 
mined  near  by.    Population  estimated  at  25,000. 

Puerto  Plata 

An  important  port  situated  on  the  north  coast.  The  harbor  is  well  protected 
and  the  export  trade  is  very  large,  tobacco  being  the  principal  article  of  export. 
The  port  has  steamer  communication  with  the  United  States  and  Europe.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  United  States  consul.    Population  10,000. 

Samana 

The  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  fertile  Vega  Real,  is  situated  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  bay  of  Samana,  64  miles  northeast  of  Santo  Domingo.  Coeoanuts, 
cacao,  and  bananas  are  the  principal  exports.    Population  5,000. 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros 

The  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Yaqui  River,  24  miles  south  of  Puerto  Plata,  with  which  it  has  rail  connection. 
It  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  famous  Vega  Real,  the  most  fertile  and  healthful 
valley  of  the  Republic,  is  the  largest  interior  town,  and  has  a  thriving  trade  in 
cacao,  coffee,  tobacco  and  hides.    It  has  population  of  12,000. 

Other  Cities 

Sanchez,  at  the  head  of  Samana  Bay,  is  connected  by  rail  with  La  Vega  and 
Santiago.  It  is  of  considerable  importance  as  a  port.  Cacao,  tobacco  and  bananas 
are  exported.  Barahona  on  the  soutli  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Juan  River  has  a 
large  trade  in  the  products  of  the  district.  Baki,  Nisao  and  Macoris,  all  on  the 
south  coast,  are  thriving  ports. 


JAMAICA 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


JAMAICA  is  the  largest  of  the  British  West  Indian  Islands. 
It  occupies  the  central  position  in  the  Antillean  region,  being 
nearly  equidistant  from  Florida  and  the  northern  point  of 
South  America ;  from  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  Galveston ; 
from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  on  the  west,  and  St,  Thomas, 
on  the  east.  Its  greatest  length  is  144  miles;  greatest  breadth, 
49  miles ;  area,  4,207  square  miles.  The  eastern  part  of  the  island 
has,  as  its  most  commanding  feature,  the  Blue  Mountain  range 
(highest  peak  7,360  feet).  The  centre  and  west,  an  elevated 
plateau  of  later  geologic  formation,  show  the  characteristic 
Antillean  limestone  and,  more  perfectly  here  than  elsewhere  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  extraordinary  results  of  exposure  of  that  soluble 
material  to  the  tropical  rainfall.  This  upland  plain,  by  the  action 
of  the  elements,  has  been  carved  into  hills,  basins,  called  "  cock- 
pits," 500  feet  or  more  in  depth,  and  much  larger  and  deeper 
valleys,  in  which  the  plantations  are  situated,  and  from  which 
the  numerous  streams  often  find  their  way  to  the  sea  by  under- 
ground passages.  One  of  these  depressions,  the  Clarendon  Valley 
(drained  through  a  caiion),  is  25  miles  wide  and  50  miles  long; 
another,  St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale,  is  circular  in  form,  with  a 
diameter  of  about  10  miles.  Throughout  the  w^estern  half  of  the 
island  such  valleys  occur,  some  with,  others  without,  apparent 
drainage  outlets.  Coastal  plains  are  most  extensive  on  the  south 
side,  where  the  largest,  the  plain  of  Liguanea,  has  an  area  of  200 
square  miles.  There  are  no  navigable  rivers,  but  a  great  number 
of  small  streams,  pools,  and  thermal  springs.  In  the  limestone 
region  there  are  many  caverns,  interesting  on  account  of  their 

[654] 


JAMAICA  655 

size,  beauty,  or  the  relics  of  the  old  Indian  population  which  they 
contain.  The  mean  temperature  at  the  coast  is  very  little  more 
than  78°  F. ;  that  of  the  larger  part  of  the  habitable  regions  (1,000 
to  3,000  feet  above  sea  level)  is  about  73°  E\;  and  at  the  altitude 
of  5,500  feet  it  is  60°  F.  On  the  plateau  the  annual  variation  is 
scarcely  9°;  for  example,  at  St.  Elizabeth  the  maximum  is  75°  F. 
and  the  minimum  67°  F.  As  a  whole,  the  island  has  a  pleasant 
climate.  The  average  rainfall  is  66  inches,  the  extremes  being  100 
inches  on  the  high  mountains  and  44  inches  at  Kingston.  The 
death-rate  is  20.9  in  1,000;  but  this  favorable  showing,  as  com- 
pared with  the  other  islands  of  the  Antilles,  is  due  much  less  to 
natural  advantages  than  to  the  strict  enforcement  of  local  sani- 
tary and  quarantine  regulations.  The  total  number  of  inhabitants 
31  March  1915  is  estimated  at  883,376.  The  census  of  1911  gave 
as  the  number  of  whites  15,605;  colored  163,201;  black  630,181; 
East  Indian  17,380;  Chinese  2,111;  not  stated  2,905.  The  birth- 
rate is  little  less  than  twice  the  death-rate.  The  Jamaica  negroes 
are  fairly  good  laborers  when  well  fed;  the  menial  work  of  the 
island  is  performed  by  them,  and  they  are  regarded  as  cheerful, 
honest,  and  respectful  servants.  They  have  no  share  whatever  in 
the  government. 

Fauna  and  Flora 

Jamaica  has  no  native  mammals.  There  are  many  species 
of  lizards,  including  the  large  iguana,  a  few  harmless  snakes,  and 
the  slightly  poisonous  centipede  and  scorpion;  in  the  lowlands 
mosquitoes,  ants,  and  sand-flies  are  common;  butterflies,  fire- 
flies, and  beetles,  parrots,  pigeons,  water-fowls,  and  20  different 
kinds  of  song-birds  are  enumerated.  Edible  marine  fish  are 
seldom  caught  near  the  island,  but  the  streams  contain  a  few 
fresh-water  species.  The  flora  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
other  Antillean  regions  by  the  total  absence  of  the  royal  palm, 
and  by  the  abundance  of  pimentos,  or  allspice-trees,  which  are 
rarely  found  elsewhere.  Common  trees  are  the  ceiba,  mango, 
wild  orange,  cocoa-palm,  plantain,  fustic,  logwood,  and  cedar. 
Begonias,  orchids,  ferns,  and  grasses  abound,  except  on  the 
southern  coast,  which  has  a  flora  of  the  arid  type,  including  the 
cactus,  thorny  acacias,  etc. 

Agriculture 

There  are  1,012,128  acres  under  cultivation  and  care.  Of 
this  total  68,332  acres  are  devoted  to  pimento  (allspice),  but 
chiefly   as    a    by-product    on   lands    also   used  for   stock-raising. 


656  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Since  the  abolition  of  slavery  the  production  of  sugar  has  fallen 
off  very  greatly.  In  1805  Jamaica  exported  151,000  hogsheads 
of  sugar,  and  5,000,000  gallons  of  rum;  in  1897  the  cultivation 
of  sugar-cane  constituted  only  19  per  cent  of  the  whole  agri- 
cultural industry;  in  1914-15  only  31,727  acres  were  under  this 
crop.  Other  products  have  gradually  taken  its  place.  Since 
the  great  frosts  in  Florida  (1895-96)  the  exportation  of  oranges 
from  Jamaica  has  been  carried  on  profitably;  since  1886  tobacco 
has  been  grown  and  cigars  for  exportation  made  on  a  large 
scale.  Cotfee  from  the  Blue  Mountain  estates  is  of  fine  quality. 
The  cultivation  of  cocoa  has  increased  in  recent  years;  ginger 
grows  most  readily  in  the  rich  soils  on  the  mountains:  and 
among  the  other  exports  may  be  mentioned  lime-juice,  tamarinds, 
nutmegs,  a  number  of  dye-woods,  cabinet-woods,  etc.  Special 
instruction  in  agriculture  is  given  at  the  schools,  and  agricultural 
and  horticultural  interests  are  encouraged  by  the  government  and 
active  private  associations.  There  are  also  172,864  acres  under 
guinea  grass,  497,064  acres  under  common  pasture,  85,000  acres 
planted  with  bananas,  92,240  acres  with  mixed  crops.  The  banana 
crop  is  increasing  in  importance,  the  average  annual  output  now 
reaching  nearly  14,000,000  bunches,  valued  at  about  $5,800,000. 
The  annual  output  of  dyewoods  is  valued  approximately  at 
$440,000.  The  land  is  divided  into  small  holdings,  those  of  five 
acres  and  less  numbering  over  60,600  out  of  a  total  of  80,000 
holdings.  East  Indian  immigration  was  resumed  in  1891,  and 
since  then  the  large  estates  have  been  increasing  in  number. 
Some  of  the  streams  are  utilized  for  irrigating  the  sugar  and 
fruit  plantations,  but  because  of  their  turbulence  they  are  often  the 
cause  of  disastrous  floods.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  being  com- 
posed largely  of  sedimentary  deposits  from  the  white  and  red 
limestone  formations  Avhich  overlie  the  granite  that  forms  the 
principal  structure  of  the  island.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry,  and  nearly  all  others  are  dependent  thereon,  such  as 
sugar  mills,  tanneries,  oil  presses,  etc. 

Commerce,  Railways,  Roads,  Etc. 

The  United  States  has  the  most  important  trade  relations 
with  Jamaica,  furnishing  a  large  part  of  the  staple  food  supplies, 
and  affording  the  best  market  for  the  island's  fruit  and  sugar. 
Thus,  in  1914-15,  the  total  exports  were  valued  at  $14,522,- 
665,  the  United  States  taking  $8,847,310  in  value;  the  United 
Kingdom  $2,749,015,  etc.  Imports  from  the  United  States  were 
valued  at  $6,105,755,  and  from  the  United  Kingdom  at  $4,931,090. 


JAMAICA  657 

There  are  197 Vii  miles  of  railway,  1,1351/^  of  telegraph,  includ- 
ing railway  telegraph  lines;  865yo  of  telephone  lines;  ISVo  miles 
of  electric  and  81/4  of  steam  tramways.  The  system  of  public 
highways,  extending  into  all  parts  of  the  island,  is  admirable; 
the  roads  are  thoroughly  well  built  and  graded,  have  substantial 
bridges,  and  are  kept  in  good  repair.  The  total  tonnage  of 
shipping,  entered  and  cleared,  in  1914-15  was  4,306,848,  of  which 
2,240,429  were  British. 

Government,  Education  and  Religion 

The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  governor,  appointed  by 
the  king.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Privy  Council  aaid  a  Legislative  Coun- 
cil (the  governor,  five  ex-officio,  10  nominated,  and  14  elected  mem- 
bers). For  the  administration  of  local  affairs  there  are  boards 
elected  in  each  parish.  Admittance  to  the  lower  grades  of  the  civil 
service  is  gained  through  competitive  examinations.  The  govern- 
ment medical  service  has  in  charge  18  public  hospitals.  The  police 
system  includes  more  than  100  stations  in  different  parts  of  the 
island;  a  force  of  more  than  1,500  men  (769  district  constables) ; 
several  prisons,  reformatories,  and  industrial  schools.  There  is  a 
local  artillery  militia  and  rifle  corps  beside  the  garrison  of  regular 
troops.  Fortifications  and  batteries  are  at  Port  Royal,  Rocky 
Point,  Salt  Pond's  Hill,  Rock  Fort,  Fort  Augusta,  Fort  Clarence, 
and  Apostles'  Batter\\  (See  also  below  in  connection  with  Kings- 
ton). The  judicial  department  includes  a  high  court  of  justice  (9 
members),  circuit  courts,  and  a  magistrate  in  each  parish.  Public 
revenue  and  expenditure  in  1914-15  were  $4,900,850  for  the 
former,  $5,274,845  for  the  latter;  and  the  public  debt  was  $3,854,- 
305.  Public  elementary  schools  in  the  same  year  numbered  696; 
average  attendance,  56,333.  There  are  four  government  training- 
colleges  for  teachers;  several  endow^ed  secondary,  industrial,  and 
high  schools ;  a  public  lyceum  and  museum,  wdth  a  valuable  library, 
etc.  Local  examinations  are  held  on  the  island  by  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  In  1870  the  Church  of  England  w^as  disestablished 
and  disendowed  on  the  island;  in  1916  ('  Statesman's  Year-Book  ') 
the  churches  and  chapels  were  as  follow- s:  Church  of  England 
234;  Presbyterian  87;  Roman  Catholic  69;  Wesleyan  Methodist 
138;  Baptist  214;  Moravian  29;  Christian  Church  24;  Congrega- 
tional 30;  United  Methodist  Free  Church  44;  Church  of  Scotland 
12 ;  Salvation  Army  20 ;  Seventh  Day  Adventists  45 ;  Jewish  3. 

43 


658  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Dependencies 

The  Cayman  Islands,  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands,  and  the  Mor- 
ant  and  Pedro  Cays  are  attached  to  Jamaica  for  administrative 
purposes.  Of  these,  the  first  group  lies  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  180 
miles  northwest  of  Jamaica,  and  comprises  Grand  Cayman,  17 
miles  long,  4  to  7  broad ;  Little  Cayman,  9  miles  long  and  about  one 
mile  broad ;  and  Cayman  Brae,  10  miles  long  and  I14  miles  broad. 
The  government  is  administered  by  a  commissioner,  and  magis- 
trates are  appointed  by  the  governor  of  Jamaica.  The  population 
of  the  Cayman  Islands  is  about  5,800.  The  second  group,  Turks 
and  Caicos  Islands,  situated  nearly  500  miles  northeast  of 
Jamaica,  geographically  belongs  to  the  Bahamas;  but  the  gov- 
ernor of  Jamaica  exercises  a  supervising  power  over  the  local 
authorities  (a  commissioner  and  legislative  board  of  5  members). 
Area,  165yo  square  miles ;  population,  5,350 ;  capital.  Grand  Turk ; 
products,  salt,  sponges,  pink  pearl,  etc.  The  Morant  Cays  and 
Pedro  Cays  are  situated,  respectively,  about  33  miles  southeast, 
and  about  45  miles  southwest,  of  Jamaica. 

Chief  Towns 

Kingston,  the  capital,  has  (last  census)  57,379  inhabitants,  a 
good  water-supply  and  system  of  sewerage,  well-lighted  streets, 
large  shops,  a  street-railway,  etc.  The  town  is,  however,  unat- 
tractive ;  residences  of  the  officials  and  wealthy  merchants  are  built 
in  the  suburbs.  Public  institutions  are  the  museum,  library, 
colonial  offices,  schools,  churches,  almshouse,  penitentiary,  asylum, 
and  Victoria  Market.  Four  miles  away  is  the  important  naval  sta- 
tion of  Port  Royal,  headquarters  for  the  British  West  India  naval 
forces,  and  a  strongly  fortified  place.  Spanish  Town,  population 
7,119,  at  one  time  the  capital,  is  situated  15  miles  w^est  of  Kingston. 
Port  Antonio,  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  island;  Montego  Bay, 
population  6,616;  Savanna-la-Mar,  Falmouth,  Lucea,  St.  Ann's 
Bay,  Buff  Bay,  Port  Morant,  Black  River,  etc.,  are  distributed 
among  the  three  counties  of  Surrey,  Middlesex,  and  Cornwall. 

History 

The  native  word  from  which  we  have  the  name  Jamaica  signi- 
fies "  island  of  fountains."  Names  recalling  the  old  Spanish 
occupation  of  the  island  are  Montego  (Spanish  Manteca),  Bog 
Walk  (Spanish  Boca  del  Agua),  Wag  Water  (Spanish  Agua 
Alta),  and  others.     As  a  Spanish  colony   (1509-1655)   Jamaica 


JAMAICA  659 

was  backward  and  of  little  consequence;  the  total  population  in 
the  year  last  mentioned,  when  an  English  fleet  captured  it  (1655), 
was  only  3,000.  One  half  of  that  number  took  refuge  in  Cuba. 
The  settlers  who  arrived  subsequently  were  peasants  from  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  England,  English  subjects  from  the  other  West 
Indian  islands,  and  Jewish  traders  from  Minorca.  Negroes  Avere 
brought  from  Africa  in  great  numbers ;  the  old  town  of  Port  Royal 
being  chosen  as  a  convenient  point  from  which  to  reship  slaves  to 
the  other  islands  and  the  mainland.  That  town,  once  a  place  of 
great  wealth  and  importance,  was  ruined  by  repeated  calamities. 
"  On  7  June  1692  happened  that  earthquake  which  swallowed  up  a 
great  part  of  Port  Royal,"  says  Edwards,  who  explains  that  the 
town  "  was  chiefly  built  on  a  bank  of  sand,  adhering  to  a  rock  in 
the  sea,  and  a  very  slight  concussion,  aided  by  the  weight  of  the 
buildings,  would  probably  have  accomplished  its  destruction." 
Hurricanes  in  1712  and  1722,  and  a  conflagration  13  July  1815, 
completed  the  work  of  obliteration.  Toward  the  close  of  the  18th 
century  the  island  was  occupied  by  large  plantations,  and  was 
exceedingly  productive.  Before  that  time  610,000  slaves  had  been 
landed  at  Port  Royal.  The  freeing  of  the  negroes  resulted  in  the 
abandonment  of  the  island  by  many  landlords.  The  effort  to 
regain  the  lost  prosperity  through  diversified  agriculture  has 
already  been  mentioned.  In  August  1903  a  hurricane  inflicted 
great  injury  at  several  points  in  Jamaica,  and  on  the  Cayman 
Islands.  On  14  Jan.  1907  Jamaica  was  visited  by  a  disastrous 
earthquake  which  ("  in  ten  seconds,"  Treves  says)  almost  entirely 
destroyed  Kingston. 

Bibliography 

Aspinall,  A.  E.,  The  Pocket  Guide  to  the  West  Indies  (Chicago  and  New 
York  1914),  and  The  British  West  Indies  (London  1912);  Cundall,  F.,  Historic 
Jamaica  (London  1915);  Gardner,  W.  J.,  A  History  of  Jamaica  (London  1909); 
Henderson,  J.,  Jamaica,  Painted  by  A.  S.  Forrest,  Described  by  J.  Henderson 
(London  1906)  ;  Hill,  R.  T.,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  With  the  Other  Islands  of  the 
West  Indies  (New  York  1898) ;  New  York  Public  Library,  List  of  Works  Relating 
to  the  West  Indies  (New  York  1912)  ;  Phillips,  U.  B.,  A  Jamaica  Slave  Plantation 
(New  York  1914,  repr.  Amer.  Historical  Rev.,  Vol.  XIX,  No.  3)  ;  Treves,  F., 
The  Cradle  of  the  Deep  (London  1908). 


HAITI 


By  Marrion  Wilcox 


HAITI,  a  republic  comprising  the  western  portion  of  the 
island  of  Santo  Domingo  or  Haiti.  Its  area  is  about 
10,000  square  miles,  between  one-third  and  four-elevenths 
of  the  total  area  of  the  island,  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of 
which  are  held  by  the  Dominican  Republic  (q.v.),  credited  with 
19,325  square  miles,  between  seven-elevenths  and  two-thirds  of  the 
total.  Adjacent  islands  subject  to  the  Republic  of  Haiti  are :  La 
Gronave,  commanding  the  approach  by  water  to  the  capital; 
Tortuga  Island,  near  Port  de  Paix ;  and  Vache  or  La  Vache,  near 
Aux  Cayes.  The  ports,  beside  that  of  the  capital,  Port-au-Prince, 
are  Port  de  Paix,  Cape  Haitien,  Gonaives,  St.  Marc,  Petit  Groave, 
Jeremie,  Miragoane,  Aux  Cayes,  Jacmel,  and  Aquin.  Rivers  are : 
The  Artibonite,  navigable  for  100  miles,  the  Trois  Rivieres,  and 
the  Grrand  Anse.  The  largest  lake  is  Etang  Saumatre,  22  miles 
long  and  60  miles  wide.  (For  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country  see  Dominican  Repubijc,  p.  645) .  The  climate,  which  in  the 
highlands  is  temperate,  but  in  the  lowlands  tropical  —  even  more 
so  than  that  of  the  Dominican  Republic  —  favors  the  development 
of  a  varied  and  extensive  flora;  the  fauna  on  the  other  hand  is 
limited  here  as  in  many  parts  of  the  West  Indies. 


HISTORY 


At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  north  coast,  6  Dec.  1492, 
the  island  was  di\dded  into  five  states  or  cacicats.  Thus  disunited, 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  were  rather  easily  conquered  and 
rapidly  exterminated.  As  the  author  of  Haiti,  her  History  and  her 
Detractors  (see  Bibliography)  has  written:    **  The  natives  could 

[660] 


HAITI 


661 


not  stand  the  hard  work  imposed  on  them  by  the  Spaniards ;  they 
died  rapidly.  Then  began  the  importation  from  Africa  of  the 
black  slaves.  The  Spaniards  enjoyed  alone  their  new  possession 
until  1630,  when  the  French  adventurers  known  as  buccaneers  and 
freebooters,  after  occupying  Tortuga  Island,  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  what  became  St.  Domingue.  From  the  intercourse  between 
white  and  black,  resulted  in  St.  Domingue  an  intermediary  class, 
the  mulattoes.  Most  of  the  latter,  on  account  of  their  relation- 
ship, were  not  slaves ;  and  their  black  mothers,  their  relatives,  and 
other  slaves  who  could  own  enough  money  to  redeem  them- 
selves, little  by  little  obtained  their  freedom.  These  free  colored 
people  were  not  allowed  any  political  rights.  They  at  first  did  not 
resent  it.    They  endeavored  to  become  land-owners. 

**  When  the  French  Revolution  broke  out  in  1789  these  f reed- 
men  of  '  affranchis,'  who  by  that  time  had  accumulated  wealth, 
asked  for  equality  of  political  rights.  The  Assemblee  Nationale 
granted  them  those  rights.  But  the  French  landlords  or  ''  colons  " 
were  not  at  all  pleased  to  have  the  colored  people  for  their  fellow 
citizens.  A  hard  struggle  began.  The  '*  colons  ''  called  the  English 
to  their  rescue.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1793,  the  English  took  pos- 
session of  a  part  of  the  island.  The  colony  seemed  lost  to  France, 
being  occupied  partly  by  the  Spaniards,  partly  by  the  English, 
when  Toussaint  I'Ouverture  espoused  the  cause  of  France. 
This  extraordinary  man,  who,  up  to  40  years  of  age,  was  a  slave, 
revealed  himself  as  an  able  general  and  statesman.  He  succeeded 
in  ridding  the  country  of  the  Spaniards  and  ousted  the  English, 


Copyright,    Brown   &   Dawson,    N.    Y. 
The    Public    Market  at    Port   au    Prince,    Haiti 


662  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

who,  after  an  occupation  of  about  five  years,  were  compelled 
to  abandon  their  prey.  The  French  government  rewarded  him  by 
appointing  him  major-general  and  governor  of  the  island.  Later 
on.  Napoleon  I  thought  that  Toussaint  I'Ouverture  was  too  power- 
ful. In  1801  he  appointed  his  brother-in-law.  General  Leclerc,  gov- 
ernor of  the  colony,  and  sent  a  formidable  army  to  reduce  the 
authority  of  I'Ouverture.  The  latter,  after  a  few  skirmishes,  sur- 
rendered and  retired  on  one  of  his  properties.  Nevertheless, 
General  Leclerc  caused  him  to  be  arrested  and  deported  to  France 
in  June  1802;  to  that  end  the  French  general  resorted  to  treachery. 
The  colored  people  took  up  arms  against  the  French  domination  in 
September  1802  under  the  leadership  of  General  Dessalines ;  and  at 
the  end  of  the  year  1803,  Rochambeau,  who  at  the  death  of  General 
Leclerc,  took  command  of  the  French  army,  hard  pressed  in  the 
city  of  Cape  Haytien  by  black  troops,  was  compelled  to  capitulate. 
On  1  Jan.  1804  Haiti  proclaimed  its  independence,  with  General 
Dessalines  as  ruler.  Slavery  was  abolished.  Haiti  was  the  first 
country  to  take  that  step.  In  1822  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island 
came  under  the  administration  of  Haiti ;  but  in  1844  seceded  and 
established  an  independent  government,  known  to-day  as  the 
Dominican  Republic. ' ' 

In  Haiti,  the  record  for  the  67  years  next  following  is  little 
more  than  one  long  series  of  revolutions  and  usurpations,  often 
mere  contests  between  representatives  of  the  mulatto  and  black 
elements.  At  the  end  of  that  period,  during  the  turbulent  adminis- 
trations of  Lecomte,  Tancrede,  and  Oreste,  prominence  was  given 
to  demands  for  payment  of  arrears  of  the  republic's  foreign  debt; 
and  arrangements  for  the  arbitration  of  French  claims  had  actu- 
ally been  concluded  when  the  government  was  overthrown  by 
Theodore  and  Zamor  (1914).  The  latter  made  himself  President 
for  a  short  time,  until  he  was  forcibly  dispossessed  by  the  former. 
On  7  Jan.  1915  a  revolt  against  President  Theodore  occurred. 
Again,  in  April  and  July,  revolution,  the  massacre  of  political 
prisoners,  and  the  murder  of  President  Guillaume,  Theodore's  suc- 
cessor, made  necessary  the  landing  of  American  marines  to  restore 
order.  Continued  revolutionary  uprisings  led  to  more  active  inter- 
vention, and  on  16  Sept.  1915  a  treaty  was  signed  which  provided 
for  the  establishment  of  a  receivership  of  customs  and  supervision 
of  Haitian  finances,  for  a  term  of  10  years,  under  control  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  formation  of  a  native  constabulary  com- 
manded by  American  officers.  Secretary  Lansing  (25  Aug.) 
plainly  called  the  arrangement  **  this  protectorate."  It  is  not 
merely  a  financial  protectorate,  but  has  aspects  of  political  con- 


HAITI  663 

trol;  and  the  treaty,  "  presently  in  operation  in  all  its  aspects 
under  a  modus  vivendi  signed  by  the  American  Minister  and  the 
Haitian  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,"  awaited  the  approval  of 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 


GOVERNMENT 


The  constitution  dates  from  9  Oct.  1889.  The  National  Assem- 
bly embraces  two  bodies,  the  Chamber  of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate,  the  former  consisting  of  99  members,  elected  by  the  people 
for  three  years,  and  the  latter  of  39  members  chosen  for  terms  of 
six  years  by  the  Representatives  from  lists  supplied  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  and  a  board  of  electors.  The  President, 
elected  by  the  National  Assembly  for  a  term  of  seven  years,  can 
not  be  re-elected  except  after  an  interval  of  at  least  one  term.  His 
cabinet  comprises  six  members,  the  Secretaries  of  Foreign  Rela- 
tions, of  War  and  Navj^  of  Interior  and  General  Police,  of  Finance 
and  Commerce,  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  of  Public 
Works  and  Agriculture.  The  judiciary  includes  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  '*  Tribunal  de  Cassation,"  and  a  number  of  district  and 
municipal  courts. 

EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION 

Primary  education  is,  by  law,  compulsory  and  free.  The  num- 
ber of  registered  pupils  in  the  five  departments  of  the  republic  in 
1914  was  46,018.  There  are  344  secular  schools;  a  school  of 
agriculture  and  domestic  science  for  girls;  several  public  lycees; 
schools  of  medicine  and  law ;  and  private  schools  receiving  allow- 
ances from  the  government.  French  is  the  language  of  Haiti, 
though  the  country  people  speak  a  patois  called  '^  Creole."  The 
religion  of  the  people  is  Roman  Catholicism.  There  are  an  arch- 
bishop, three  bishops,  and  in  every  commune  at  least  one  priest. 
The  papacy  maintains  a  legate  at  Port-au-Prince,  and  Haiti  has  a 
minister  accredited  to  the  Holy  See.  Freedom  of  conscience  is, 
however,  guaranteed. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

The  most  important  products  are  coffee,  cacao,  cotton  and 
(among  forest  products)  Campeachy  wood,  lignum  vitae,  and 
fustic.    The  mineral  resources  are  undeveloped.    Deposits  of  gold, 


664  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

iron,  copper,  and  soft  coal  are  among  those  that  have  been 
definitely  located.  The  manufacture  of  articles  for  the  home  mar- 
ket gives  employment  to  a  relatively  small  number  of  the 
inhabitants. 

Exports  and  Imports 

Principal  exports  in  the  year  1914  were:  Coffee,  78,512,559 
pounds ;  cacao,  6,688,084  pounds ;  cotton,  3,121,839  pounds ;  cotton- 
seed, 5,369,175  pounds;  logwood  (Campeachy  wood),  54,618,800 
pounds;  fustic  (yellow  wood),  55,000  pounds;  lignum  vitae,  3,090,- 
020  pounds ;  honey,  1,264,690  pounds.  The  value  of  foreign  com- 
merce in  that  year  was  $18,928,351,  imports,  $7,612,792  and 
exports,  $11,315,559  est.  The  distribution  of  foreign  trade  was 
given  as  follows :  United  States,  imports  $6,381,688  and  exports 
$1,000,000 ;  France,  imports  $345,190  and  exports  $5,000,000 ;  Great 
Britain,  imports  $409,811  and  exports  $800,000 ;  Germany,  imports 
$338,004  and  exports  $4,200,000.  Imports  from  the  United  States 
into  Haiti  in  1916  were  more  than  130  per  cent  greater  than  in  the 
preceding  year.  In  1915  they  amounted  to  $3,806,672  and  in  1916 
to  $8,775,694,  an  increase  of  $4,968,392.  This  gain  is  due  largely  to 
continued  peace  throughout  the  country,  which  has  enabled  the 
people  to  work  and  be  paid  for  their  labor. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

Railways  are :  The  line  running  from  Cape  Haitien  to  Grand 
Riviere,  15  miles ;  that  connecting  Port-au-Prince  with  Lake  Etang 
Saumatre,  28  miles,  and  the  Port-au-Prince,  and  Leoganes  Rail- 
road, 20  miles.  Regular  service  from  New  York  and  from  southern 
ports  is  supplied  by  three  steamship  lines.  There  is  also  steam- 
ship service  between  Haiti  and  Cuba.  In  1880  Haiti  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  International  Union.  There  are  now  30  post  offices  in 
the  republic.    The  extent  of  telegraph  lines  is  about  124  miles. 


FINANCE,  ETC. 

The  national  debt  (excluding  the  currency  debt)  amounted  to 
$25,982,181  gold  on  1  July  1914.  The  revenue,  derived 
almost  exclusively  from  duties  on  exports  and  imports  paid  in 
American  gold,  amounted  in  the  fiscal  year  1914-15  to  4,980,146 
and  4,959,386  paper  gourdes  (value  of  gourde  $0.33  in  1915; 
average   for  five   years   about   20   cents).      More   than   one-half 


HAITI  665 

of  the  expenditure  is  for  the  public  debt.  The  monetary  system  has 
as  its  basis,  theoretically,  the  gourde,  which,  in  gold,  would  have  the 
value  of  $0,965,  currency  of  the  United  States.  But  no  gold  coins 
were  ever  mintedj  and  the  actual  currency  is  paper  which  fluctuates 
in  value  and  is  irredeemable. 


POPULATION 


The  number  of  inhabitants,  according  to  an  estimate  for  1917, 
is  about  2,030,000;  and  the  population  of  the  capital,  Port-au- 
Prince,  was  given  as  90,000.  Residing  in  the  republic  are  about 
500  white  foreigners  (Haitian  citizens  only  can  own  real  estate) ; 
otherwise  the  population  consists  of  blacks  and  mulattoes,  the 
former  about  90  per  cent  of  the  total. 

Bibliography 

Aspinall,  A.  E,,  The  Pocket  Guide  to  the  West  Indies  (Chicago  and  New 
York  1914);  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics  (now  Pan  American  Union), 
Haiti  (Washington  1892) ;  Harvey,  W.  W.,  Sketches  of  Hayti  from  the  Expulsion 
of  the  French  (London  1827);  Hill,  R.  T.,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  with  the  Other 
Islands  of  the  West  Indies  (New  York  1898)  ;  Leger,  J.  N.,  Haiti,  her  History  and 
her  Detractors  (New  York  and  Washington  1907) ;  Mackenzie,  C,  Notes  on  Haiti 
(London  1830) ;  Pan  American  Union,  Haiti  (Washington  1915)  and  Latin 
America  (Washington  1916)  ;  St.  John,  S.,  Haiti  or  the  Black  Republic  (London 
1884);  Steward,  T.  G.,  The  Haitian  Revolution,  1791  to  1804  (New  York  1914); 
Vibert,  P.,  La  Republique  d'Hditi  (Paris  1895) ;  Vincent,  S.,  La  Republique 
d'Haiti  (Bruxelles  1910). 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES 

The  Republic  of  Haiti  is  divided  into  five  Departments,  which  are  again  divided 
into  arrondissements. 

Port-au-Prince 

The  capital  and  chief  seaport  of  Haiti,  is  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island. 
The  region  is  unhealthful  and  the  sanitation  poor.  The  city  is  well  laid  out.  It  has 
a  safe  harbor,  which  is  fortified.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  100,000. 

Other  Cities 

Aux  Cayes,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Republic,  is  connected  by  rail  with 
Leoganes..  It  is  an  important  shipping  point  for  the  products  of  the  surrounding 
district,  of  which  coffee  is  the  principal  commodity.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consular  agent.  Cape  Haitien  on  the  north  coast  is  an  important  port  and 
has  a  large  trade  in  logwood,  cedar,  and  other  hardwoods,  coffee,  cacao  and  hides. 
The  city  is  well  laid  out  and  has  a  population  estimated  at  30,000. 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

FORMERLY  DANISH  WEST  INDIES 


By  Mahrion  Wilcox 


THIS  brief  statistical  note  is  included  in  the  present  work  for 
the  reason  stated  in  the  article  West  Indies  (q.v.).  The 
group  formerly  designated  as  the  Danish  West  Indies  lies 
about  40  miles  eastward  of  Porto  Rico  and  comprises  50  islands 
or  islets,  only  three  of  which  are  of  sufficient  size  to  be  known, 
except  locally,  even  by  name.  The  three  major  islands  of  the 
group  are  St.  Thomas,  St.  John,  and  St.  Croix  or  Santa  Cruz. 
St.  Thomas  lies  nearly  in  a  direct  line  east  and  west,  and  is  about 
13  miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of  a  little  more  than  two 
miles.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  group  because  of  the  fine 
harbor  at  Charlotte  Amalie  on  the  south  side ;  moreover  its  loca- 
tion on  the  direct  line  of  communication  between  European  ports 
and  the  entrance  of  the  Panama  Canal,  as  well  as  the  direct  line 
for  vessels  plying  between  ports  of  North  and  South  America, 
makes  it  a  logical  distribution  centre  for  goods  sent  to  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  Its  distance  from  New  York  is  1,400  miles;  from  Colon 
1,020;  from  La  Gruaira,  Venezuela,  480  miles.  The  commerce  of 
St.  Thomas  itself  —  although  its  imports  constitute  about  70  per 
cent- of  the  imports  for  all  three  islands  —  amounts  to  less  than 
$1,000,000  (average  of  the  fiscal  years  1915-16).  The  chief 
imports  are  foodstuffs  and  wearing  apparel;  exports,  bay  rum 
and  a  few  hides.  Charlotte  Amalie  is  the  only  town  on  the  island. 
Population  of  St.  Thomas  in  1917  about  10,600  or  10,700. 

St.  John — area  21  square  miles  — lies  about  four  miles  east 
of  St.  Thomas.  In  size  and  importance  the  least  of  the  major 
islands,  it  nevertheless  possesses  a  harbor  at  Coral  Bay  which, 
according  to  engineers,  requires  only  development  to  make  it  a 

[666] 


DANISH  WEST  INDIES 


667 


rival  of  the  better-known  harbor  at  Charlotte  Amalie.  A  very 
small  acreage  is  devoted  to  sugar  cane,  but  the  chief  industry  is 
the  growing  of  bay  leaves  and  the  distillation  of  the  bay  oil  from 
which  bay  rum  is  made.  The  inhabitants,  numbering  less  than 
1,000  in  all,  are  colored  or  of  mixed  blood,  wdth  very  few 
exceptions. 

St.  Croix,  the  largest,  w^ealthiest,  and  most  thickly  populated 
of  the  islands,  lies  about  40  miles  southeast  of  St.  Thomas  and 
has  an  area  of  84  square  miles.  Upon  it  are  the  two  towns, 
Prederiksted  and  Christiansted,  locally  known  as  Westend  and 
Bassin.  Christiansted  (population  about  4,500)  was  the  seat  of 
the  Danish  colonial  goverimient,  and  the  largest  government  house 
in  the  Lesser  Antilles  is  located  on  the  main  street  of  Christian- 
sted near  the  wharf.  Frederiksted,  though  smaller  (population 
about  3,000),  is  much  more  important  commercially.  The 
southern  districts  of  St.  Croix  are  well  suited  to  the  application 
of  modern  agricultural  methods,  and  here  are  found  the  large 
sugar  estates,  as  well  as  a  considerable  acreage  of  sea-island 
cotton.  The  roads  are  excellent  and  many  of  the  sugar  estates 
are  connected  with  the  factories  by  industrial  railroads.  The 
total  population  of  St.  Croix  is  given  as  14,000,  about  10  per  cent 
being  whites  of  unmixed  blood. 

The  climate  of  these  islands  is  healthful.  For  the  year  ending 
30  June  1915  the  records  furnished  by  the  director  of  the  colonial 
agricultural  experiment  station  in  St.  Croix  show  that  the  coolest 
weeks  were  18  to  31  January,  with  a  maximum  temperature  of 
83°  F.  aiid  a  minimum  of  65°  F.,  and  8  to  14  March,  maximum 
82°  F.  and  minimum  66'^  F.    The  hottest  weeks  were  31  August 


Coal  Carriers,  St.  Thomas 


668  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

to  6  September,  with  91°  F.  as  maximum  and  76°  F.  as  minimum, 
and  7  to  13  September,  with  maximum  92°  F.,  minimum  74°  F. 
No  records  of  rainfall  are  available  for  any  of  the  group  except 
St.  Croix.  On  that  island,  the  average  aimual  rainfall  for  63 
years  was  31.26  inches. 

Steamers  of  the  Quebec  Steamship  Company  running  from 
New  York  to  British  Guiana  stop  at  Frederiksted  in  each  direc- 
tion. Their  first  port  going  south,  as  well  as  the  last  going  north, 
is  St.  Thomas.  Until  the  middle  of  1914  eight  steamship  lines 
were  making  regular  calls  at  St.  Thomas.  Monthly  service  between 
St.  Thomas  and  Porto  Rico  was  formerly  maintained  by  a  steamer 
of  the  Compagnie  Grenerale  Transatlantique.  The  provisions  of 
the  coastwise  shipping  laws,  excluding  vessels  of  foreign  registry, 
now  apply  to  this  service.  St.  Thomas  is  headquarters  of  the  West 
India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Co.  (Ltd.),  whose  duplicate  cables 
extend  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  connect  at  Jamaica 
with  cables  from  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Two  newspapers 
are  published  in  St.  Thomas  and  three  in  St.  Croix. .  Both  of  these 
islands  are  provided  with  telephone  service.  The  largest  amount 
of  sugar  that  has  been  exported  from  the  whole  group  in  the  last 
15  years  was  recorded  in  1903,  when  the  total  was  19,275  short 
tons.  The  estimate  for  1916  was  16,000  short  tons.  The  manu- 
factures are  bay  rum,  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  concentrated  lime 
juice,  etc.  There  are  two  banks  —  the  National  and  the  St. 
Thomas  Savings  Bank.  For  the  purchase  of  the  Danish  group, 
see  West  Indies.  Consult  Brock,  H.  G.,  Smith,  P.  S.  and  Tucker, 
W.  A.,  The  Danish  West  Indies  (Special  Agents  Series,  No.  129, 
Washington,  Govt.  Printing  Office,  1917). 


PORTO  RICO 


Bt  Marrion  Wilcox 

PORTO  RICO*  is  an  island  of  the  West  Indies  and  a 
possession  of  the  United  States;  the  easternmost  and 
smallest  of  the  group  of  Greater  Antilles;  about  1,399 
miles  from  New  York  (distance  measured  from  San  Juan),  1,000 
miles  from  Havana,  and  less  than  1,000  miles  from  Colon;  lying 
between  lat.  17°  50'  and  18°  32'  N.  and  long.  65°  35'  and  67°  15^  W. 
Its  area  is  approximately  3,606  square  miles,  including  the  small 
islands  Vieques  and  Culebra,  in  the  passage  between  Porto  Rico 
and  the  Virgin  group,  and  Mona,  between  Porto  Rico  and  Santo 
Domingo.  The  climate  of  the  highlands,  where  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  72°  F.  or  less,  is  very  agreeable,  although  there 
is  an  excess  of  moisture  at  some  points.  The  mean  temperature 
at  San  Juan  ranges  in  different  years  from  78°  F.  to  82°  F.,  the 
maximum  on  record  being  99°  and  the  minimum  57°  F.  Compared 
with  that  of  the  other  West  Indian  islands,  Porto  Rico's  agricul- 
ture is  remarkably  diversified,  the  chief  products  being  sugar, 
tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  tropical  fruits,  upland  rice,  etc.  Statistics 
of  production  and  export  published  in  The  Americas,  December 
1916,  show  that  in  15  years  Porto  Rico's  exports  have  increased 
eight-fold,  and  during  the  same  period  there  has  been  a  ten-fold 
increase  in  imports,  *'  the  growth  both  relative  and  proportional 
being  overwhelmingly  located  in  the  statistics  of  the  island's 
trade  with  us  [the  United  States].  Under  the  helpful  encourage- 
ment of  the  government,  Porto  Rico's  production  of  sugar,  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  fruits,  and  the  successful  marketing  of  them,  have 
literally  sprung  up.    In  1901,  the  island  exported  $4,715,611  worth 

•Although  not  Latin  American  in  the  strictest  sense,  we  include  Porto  Rico  in  the  present  survey  fo 
convenience,  devoting  to  it,  however,  only  this  brief  statistical  note. 

[668a] 


CSSb  ENCn^CLOPEDlA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  sug:ar  at  $()8.43  per  ton.  In  the  year  cikUhI  30  .Tune  1916  it 
exported  $45,809,445  worth  at  $107.79  per  ton.  In  1901,  $1,678,- 
765  M^orth  of  coffee  at  13.7  cents  a  pound  was  exported ;  in  1915, 
$7,082,791  worth  at  13.8  cents.  Orange  shipments  valued  at 
$84,475  in  1901  rose  to  $790,797  last  year;  pineapples,  green  and 
canned,  and  grapefruit,  in  1901  included  in  $16,992  M^orth  of 
'  other  fruit,'  have  risen  in  the  export  record  to  $1,176,406  worth 
of  pineapples,  $122,876  worth  of  canned  pineapples,  and  $837,014 
worth  of  grapefruit."  The  value  of  Porto  Rico's  exports  to  the 
United  States  in  1916  was  $60,952,768 ;  to  other  countries, 
$5,778,805;  total  for  that  year,  $66,731,573.  The  value  of 
Porto  Rico's  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1916  was 
$35,892,515 ;  from  other  countries,  $3,058,641 ;  total  for  that  year, 
$38,951,156.  The  government's  estimate  for  1  Jan.  1917  gave 
the  number  of  inhabitants  as  1,223,981.  On  14  Dec.  1910  it  was 
1,118,012  (consisting  principally  of  whites,  nmlattoes,  negroes, 
and  Chinese).  It  is  to  be  observed  that  while  the  census  as  taken 
in  1887  shows  a  black  population  of  76,985,  that  taken  in  1899 
reduced  the  figure  to  59,390.  This  is  the  only  important  island 
in  all  the  West  Indies  the  M^hite  population  of  which  is  so  con- 
spicuously in  the  majority.  During  the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June 
1915  the  amount  expended  for  educational  purposes  was  $1,904,- 
719.54.  The  educational  system  in  1917  embraced,  besides  the 
university,  schools  of  five  classes:  rural,  graded,  continuation, 
high,  and  special.  The  total  enrollment  of  pupils  was  approxi- 
mately 170,000.  Outstanding  facts  of  the  island's  history  are  the 
following :  Its  discovery  by  Columbus,  19  Nov.  1493 ;  appointment 
of  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  as  governor  14  Aug.  1509;  San  Juan 
attacked  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  22-25  Nov.  1595;  from  1640  to  1780 
expeditions  equipped  in  Porto  Rico  for  the  long  struggle  with  the 
buccaneers ;  Porto  Rico  deprived  of  representation  in  the  Spanish 
Cortes,  1837;  manumission  of  slaves,  22  March  1873;  the  capital 
bombarded  by  Admiral  Sampson,  12  May  1898;  American  forces 
occupied  Guanica  25  July  1898 ;  protocol  signed  providing  for  the 
cession  of  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States,  12  Aug.  1898;  on  8 
Aug.  1899  the  island  devastated  by  a  hurricane,  accompanied  by 
excessive  rainfall.  On  1  May  1900  civil  government  was  inaug- 
urated, having  the  following  general  features:  As  executive,  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  consisting  of  an  executive  council  or  senate 
ap])oiiited  by  the  President  (six  Americans  and  five  Porto 
Ricans),  and  a  House  of  Delegates  of  35  elected  members; 
judiciary,  including  supreme  and  United  States  district  courts. 


67°00' 


Et-^f":I^v..§-^'"'" 


B 


66°45' 


66'30' 


-^,^^ ' 


^""•^ERToT.r — 


-Pt,  Caracole* *^ 


* 


LEADING  INDUSTRIES 


OF 


LATIN  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES 


AND  SPECIAL 


COMMERCIAL   INFORMATION 

[669] 


Trade  Methods  for  Latin  America 


Br  Orro  Wilsox 


THE  manufacturer  new  to  export  trade  who  wishes  to  build 
up  a  South  American  business  has  to  determine  first  of 
all  what  method  he  wishes  to  follow.  This  is  a  matter 
which  no  one  can  well  decide  for  him.  His  choice  of  methods  will 
depend  on  how  much  capital  he  can  afford  to  spend  before  getting 
returns;  on  whether  he  expects  to  carry  on  his  South  American 
business  rather  ambitiously,  or  merely  as  a  sideline  to  his  domestic 
business ;  on  the  nature  of  the  goods  he  has  to  sell,  and  the  extent 
of  foreign  competition  he  has  to  meet ;  on  conditions  in  the  foreign 
and  the  domestic  markets  when  he  makes  his  plans;  on  a  dozen 
considerations  which  probably  apply  only  to  his  particular  case. 
Moreover  what  will  apply  to  one  country  in  Latin  America  will  not 
necessarily  hold  good  for  others  —  he  must  remember  that  the 
term  '*  Latin  America  "  covers  sections  radically  different  in 
physical,  social,  and  commercial  conditions,  which  sections  have 
much  more  communication  with  oversea  countries  than  with  each 
other.  There  are,  however,  certain  recommendations  that  may  be 
made  with  regard  to  the  various  methods  open  to  the  exporter 
which  will  not  be  misleading  if  it  is  remembered  that  in  each 
individual  case  they  must  be  applied  with  discrimination  and 
common  sense. 

A  somewhat  arbitrary  classification  of  these  methods  may  be 
made  as  follows:  (1)  Correspondence,  with  or  without  catalogues 
and  other  printed  matter ;  (2)  export  commission  houses ;  (3)  trav- 
eling salesmen;  (4)  representation  by  native  import  houses; 
(5)  representation  by  one's  own  branch  houses  in  the  principal 
centres.  No  one  of  these  need  be  used  alone  although  any  one  may 
be.  Perhaps  most  firms  that  do  a  direct  business  of  any  conse- 
quence find  that  they  can  combine  two  or  more  of  these  methods 
very  effectively.  If  the  firm  feels  free  to  choose  among  them, 
however,  one  consideration  should  receive  particular  weight.  In 
all  export  business,  but  in  Latin  American  business  particularly,  it 
is  the  personal  equation  which  counts  heavily.  The  merchant  in 
most  parts  of  Latin  America  does  not  take  to  the  idea  of  buying 
and  selling  impersonally,  with  regard  only  to  the  profit  he  makes 
out  of  each  transaction,  but  considers  that  a  commercial  relation 

[670] 


TRADE  METHODS  671 

ordinarily  involves  a  certain  social  relation  as  well,  especially 
when  buying  arid  selling  have  continued  over  some  years.  The 
more  the  foreign  firm  can  give  an  impression  of  pleasing  per- 
sonality, therefore,  the  more  likely  it  will  be  to  obtain  and  retain 
the  goodwill  and  steady  business  of  a  large  clientele.  This  makes 
it  desirable  to  have,  whenever  possible,  a  personal  representative 
on  the  ground,  who  takes  a  part  in  the  life  of  the  community  and 
makes  his  firm  stand  for  something  more  than  a  letterhead  and  a 
far-away  producer  of  a  particular  brand  of  goods.  A  permanent 
agency,  manned  by  a  staff  which  represents  the  selling  firm 
exclusively,  is  therefore  in  general  the  most  effective  medium  for 
establishing  a  line  of  goods  on  the  Latin  American  market.  Fail- 
ing that  a  native  agency  or  a  force  of  traveling  men,  visiting 
the  chief  centres  often  enough  to  make  permanent  friends  and 
acquaintances,  is  to  be  recommended.  In  case  either  plan  is  not 
practicable  the  export  commission  house  or  the  correspondence 
method  may  be  used. 

Correspondence 

We  may  consider  briefly  some  features  of  each  of  the  methods 
mentioned  above.  With  regard  to  the  business-by-mail  plan,  it 
may  be  said  that  many  firms  interested  in  Latin  America  do  not 
feel  that  they  can  take  the  risk  of  sending  a  traveling  man  abroad, 
and  are  of  course  perfectly  justified  in  attempting  to  pick  up  what 
orders  they  can  through  letter-writing.  Such  orders  are  likely  to 
be  occasional  and  haphazard,  but  in  many  cases  they  open  the  way 
to  a  very  substantial  business.  The  first  thing  a  firm  should  do 
that  wishes  to  make  connections  in  this  way  is  to  gather  all  the 
information  it  can  regarding  the  section  of  the  world  in  which  it 
is  interested.  With  regard  to  Latin  America  there  has  been  a 
considerable  volume  of  literature  published  in  the  last  few  years, 
and  it  will  pay  the  man  in  charge  of  the  export  work  to  become 
acquainted  with  all  the  more  substantial  publications.  Various 
bibliographies  have  been  issued,  but  one  in  particular,  by  Peter  H. 
Goldsmith,  connected  with  the  American  Association  for  Inter- 
national Conciliation,  (published  by  Macmillan)  is  marked  by 
keen  discrimination.  The  second  step  in  preparing  for  the  cam- 
paign should  be  to  investigate  what  the  Department  of  Commerce 
can  do  to  assist  in  furnishing  information,  and  particularly  to 
subscribe  to  the  daily  publication  called  "  Commerce  Reports  ", 
which  contains  consular  reports  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  also 
publishes  daily  a  list  of  specific  requests  for  American  goods,  and 
it  will  be  well  worth  while  to  scan  these  "  trade  opportunities  " 

44 


672  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMEEICA 

closely  and  write  to  the  firms  making  the  requests  whenever  the 
notices  seem  promising.  This  daily  costs  $2.50  a  year,  and  can 
be  subscribed  to  through  the  Superintendent  •  of  Documents, 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington.  The  Pan  American 
Union,  at  Washington,  maintained  by  the  various  republics  of 
North  and  South  America,,  a  number  of  banks  with  Latin  Ameri- 
can branches,  including  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York,  the 
Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas,  the  First  National  Bank  of 
Boston.  The  Commercial  National  Bank  of  Washington,  and 
the  Guaranty  Trust  Company  of  New  York,  and  the  export 
trade  papers,  are  other  sources  of  information  that  should 
be  utilized.  Various  books  of  reference  should  be  placed  on  the 
office  shelves,  including  the  Exporters  Encyclopedia,  the  States- 
man's Yearbook,  standard  directories  of  the  merchants  of  the 
world,  and  the  South  American  Yearbook.  With  this  equipment 
the  next  step  is  to  compile  a  mailing  list,  for  which  various  sources 
can  be  utilized.  The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  has  published  a  Trade  Directory 
of  South  America,  and  also  has  on  hand  a  large  number  of  lists  of 
names  of  importers  of  various  lines,  which  can  be  obtained  on 
request.  The  American  consular  officers,  the  names  of  which  can  be 
obtained  from  the  Department  of  State,  will  send  on  request  lists 
of  firms  in  their  respective  cities,  and  the  banks  mentioned  will 
also  furnish  what  commercial  information  they  can,  although  they 
naturally  prefer  to  do  this  for  prospective  clients.  With  the  mail- 
ing list  compiled  it  will  be  advisable  to  w^rite  a  series  of  form 
letters,  work  up  attractive  catalogues  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese, 
and  if  the  article  to  be  sold  can  be  so  presented,  make  up  sets  of 
samples,  with  prices,  discounts,  and  terms.  In  place  of  elaborate 
catalogues  concise  pamphlets  and  folders  may  serve  the  purpose, 
but  they  should  in  all  cases  be  well  printed  and  preferably  illus- 
trated. Orders  that  result  from  the  sending  of  samples  and  litera- 
ture should  receive  the  greatest  attention,  and  every  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  documents  are  properly  made  out,  that 
invoices  correspond  in  detail  to  shipping  papers,  that  goods  are  so 
packed  as  to  insure  the  maximum  of  protection  with  the  minimum 
of  weight.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  all  letters  to  South  and 
Central  America  must  carry  five  cents  postage,  and  must  be 
written  in  Spanish  or  (for  Brazil)  Portuguese. 

Traveling  Men 

The  firm  that  makes  the  close  study  of  Latin  America 
suggested  will  come  across  many  passages  in  the  literature  it 
peruses  relating  to  the  proper  selection  of  traveling  men  for  Latin 


TRADE  METHODS  673 

America,  and  criticising  American  firms  for  sending-  there  poorly 
equipped  and  ill-educated  representatives,  with  a  personality  any- 
thing but  pleasing  to  the  merchants  they  approach.  This  criti- 
cism has  been  repeated  time  and  again,  but  it  has  probably  not 
been  too  much  emphasized.  The  traveling  man  sent  to  Latin 
America  should  by  all  means  be  a  gentleman,  in  the  sense  that  he 
is  self-respecting,  courteous,  and  well  mannered,  and  possessed  of 
a  sense  of  personal  dignity.  Too  many  American  salesmen  have 
fallen  very  far  short  of  this  mark.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
most  successful  salesmen  in  the  United  States  are  not  necessarily 
the  ones  to  be  selected  for  Latin  American  work.  The  firm  starting 
out  on  a  Latin  American  campaign  will  do  well  to  see  that  its  repre- 
sentative, first  of  all,  knows  his  line  and  is  fairly  well  acquainted 
with  business  practices ;  second,  possesses  the  qualities  of  a  gentle- 
man and  has  as  good  a  general  education  as  possible;  and  third, 
knows  the  language  of  the  country  to  which  he  is  going.  With 
regard  to  the  third  qualification  there  has  been  much  discussion, 
due  to  the  general  lack  of  properly  trained  and  educated  salesmen, 
whether  it  is  best  to  select  a  man  who  speaks  the  language,  Sppn- 
ish  or  Portuguese,  but  who  knows  little  about  the  goods  he  is  sell- 
ing, or  an  experienced  salesman  who  knows  the  line  but  not  the 
language.  It  would  be  unwise  to  dogmatize  in  deciding  this  point, 
but  it  is  worth  while  to  point  out  that  the  more  solid  qualities  of  a 
good  salesman  are  recognized  and  appreciated  the  world  over,  and 
that  of  these  qualities  thorough  familiarity  with  the  article  offered 
is  better  calculated  to  inspire  confidence  than  almost  any  other.  A 
superficial  knowledge  of  a  language  can  be  made  to  go  farther  than 
a  superficial  technical  knowledge,  and  in  many  lines,  such  as 
complicated  machinery,  a  lack  of  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
of  the  article  may  easily  be  disastrous.  Fortunately,  with  the 
spread  of  the  study  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  in  recent  years, 
the  necessity  for  making  this  choice  grows  less  and  less. 

The  salesman  once  chosen  should  be  allowed  plenty  of  time 
and  a  liberal  expense  account.  If  he  visits  only  the  important 
centres  of  South  America  he  can  make  the  trip  in  six  or  eight 
months,  but  better  results  will  be  obtained  by  allowing  him  ten  or 
twelve.  If  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  trip  brief  an  itinerary 
including  the  following  cities  will  doubtless  be  found  sufficient: 
Pemambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil  (Sao  Paulo 
should  in  practically  all  cases  be  included) ;  Montevideo,  Uruguay; 
Buenos  Aires  and  possibly  Rosario,  Argentina;  Valparaiso  and 
Santiago,  Chile;  Lima,  Peru;  Barranquilla,  Colombia;  and 
La  Guaira  and  Caracas,  Venezuela.    If  more  time  is  allowed  or  if 


674  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  Hue  is  one  for  which  there  is  a  widespread  demand,  the  cities 
of  Para,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Santa  Fe,  Bahia  Blanca,  Antofagasta, 
La  Paz,  Guayaqnil,  Bogota,  Cartagena,  Puerto  Cabello,  and 
Ciudad  Bolivar  might  be  added  to  the  list.  For  traveling  expenses 
$12  a  day  is  usually  considered  about  the  minimum,  and  if  sam- 
ples are  to  be  carried  the  amount  may  run  to  $15  and  $20.  Travel- 
ers should  be  inoculated  for  typhoid  before  starting  from  the 
United  States,  should  take  along  a  medicine  case  with  standard 
remedies,  should  be  careful  to  sleep  under  mosquito  netting  in 
tropical  countries,  should  drink  bottled  water  in  all  but  a  few  of 
the  larger  cities,  and  should  avoid  excesses  of  all  kinds.  A 
Department  of  Commerce  publication  entitled  Commercial  Trav- 
elers in  Latin  America,  which  gives  the  amount  of  licenses 
required  from  traveling  salesmen  in  the  various  countries,  should 
be  obtained  from  the  Government  Printing  Office  at  Washington 
and  taken  along  for  reference. 

Native  Agencies 

The  selection  of  a  firm  to  represent  the  exporter  in  each  large 
centre  of  Latin  America  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  to  his 
future  business  that  as  great  care  as  possible  is  to  be  paid  to  it. 
The  whole  difference  between  success  and  failure  rests  on  the 
matter  of  personnel,  even  more  in  the  case  of  these  agents,  who 
can  not  well  be  supervised,  than  in  the  domestic  end  of  the  busi- 
ness. If  the  exporter  plans  to  work  through  native  importing 
houses  in  Latin  America,  as  is  very  commonly  the  case  with  Euro- 
pean as  well  as  American  houses,  he  will  find  it  advisable  to  make 
the  trip  himself  to  South  and  Central  America,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  getting  a  personal  acquaintance  with  the  men  who  are  to 
act  for  him  and  personal  impressions  of  the  field,  and  of  leaving 
with  these  representatives,  in  turn,  a  personal  impression  of  him- 
self and  his  firm.  If  the  head  of  the  firm  can  not  go  he  should  at 
least  send  some  one  of  his  force  in  whose  judgment  he  has  con- 
fidence, and  give  him  authority  to  conclude  arrangements  for 
agencies.  He  should  determine  in  advance  in  what  cities  he  will 
establish  such  agencies,  what  territory  is  to  be  allotfed  to  each, 
what  credit  terms  are  to  be  allowed,  and  how  the  agencies  are  to 
be  supported  through  the  visits  of  traveling  men  or  the  distribu- 
tion of  literature.  In  deciding  the  first  point  the  importance  of 
adequate  preliminary  study  will  be  made  evident.  Certain  ground 
will  better  repay  cultivation  than  other  fields,  and  it  may  be  best 
to  concentrate  on  this  ground  and  let  the  rest  go  entirely  for  tlie 


TRADE  METHODS  675 

time  being.  In  general  the  River  Plate  region  is  perhaps  the  best 
territory  for  the  average  line  and  it  will  be  well  for  the  firm  to 
consider  first  the  establishment  of  its  agency  in  Buenos  Aires. 
Next  comes  southern  Brazil,  with  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo  as  the 
working  centre,  from  which  northern  Brazil  can  also  be  covered, 
although  if  it  is  possible  to  do  so  the  firm  will  find  it  worth  while 
to  work  this  field  from  one  or  more  of  the  large  coast  cities.  On 
the  west  coast  Valparaiso  or  Santiago  in  Chile  and  Lima  in  Peru 
are  the  logical  sites  for  agencies,  and  on  the  north  coast  Barran- 
quilla  or  Cartagena  and  Caracas  should  be  selected.  If  agencies 
can  not  well  be  established  in  all  these  cities  the  firm  should  be 
careful  about  making  the  common  mistake  of  assigning  large  terri- 
tory to  an  agency  in  a  far-distant  city.  The  various  sections  men- 
tioned are  for  the  most  part  quite  distinct  from  each  other,  and  it 
is  inconvenient  to  work  two  or  more  of  them  from  a  single  centre. 
Before  appointing  any  local  concern  as  his  agent  the  representative 
of  the  exporter  will  find  it  worth  while  to  talk  with  the  American 
consul  and  with  the  commercial  attache,  in  case  one  is  situated  in 
the  city  concerned. 

Branch  Houses 

The  advisability  of  establishing  in  Latin  America  various 
representatives  of  the  firm  sent  down  from  the  United  States, 
if  such  a  course  is  possible,  has  already  been  discussed.  As 
this  is  the  plan  which  involves  the  closest  relations  with  the 
parent  house  in  the  United  States  each  firm  will  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  solve  the  smaller  as  well  as  the  larger  problems  as  they 
arise  and  each  firm  will  accordingly  work  out  its  individual  salva- 
tion and  feel  its  way  to  a  successful  working  plan  even  more  so 
than  in  the  case  of  the  other  methods  mentioned.  The  subject  need 
not  be  elaborated  on,  except  to  point  out  one  or  two  additional 
advantages  resulting  from  this  plan.  One  of  these  is  that  it  makes 
possible  a  policy  of  extending  credit  to  customers  without  running 
undue  risks,  and  enables  the  firm  through  its  representatives  to 
watch  the  general  credit  situation,  to  make  collections,  to  adjust 
claims  with  a  minimum  of  friction,  to  transmit  money  at  a  mini- 
mum exchange  cost,  and  to  care  for  all  the  other  financial  details. 
The  branch  house  can  also,  if  necessary,  carry  stocks  of  goods  or 
repair  parts  and  accessories  in  warehouse  so  that  orders  can  be 
quickly  filled,  and  in  the  case  of  machinery  can  see  to  it  that 
clumsy  and  inexpert  handling  does  not  give  the  firm's  make  a  bad 
reputation  on  its  initial  trial.  Most  important  of  all,  perhaps,  it 
permits  the  carrying  out  of  an  energetic  program  for  pushing  the 


676  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

firm's  goods  on  the  Latin  American  market  such  as  is  common  in 
the  United  States,  although  of  course  by  different  methods.  This 
obviates  the  necessity  of  waiting  until  the  goods  establish  them- 
selves on  the  market  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events,  a  process 
usually  much  slower  in  Latin  America  than  in  the  United  States. 
When  competition  again  becomes  keen  between  the  United  States 
and  European  nations  this  method  will  have  still  more  to  com- 
mend it  because  of  the  possibility  of  this  positive  and  energetic 
action. 

Export  Commission  Houses 

All  these  methods  involve  direct  relations  between  buyer  and 
seller.  There  is  yet  the  indirect  method  of  trading  through  the 
export  commission  house.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
this  method  form  a  live  subject  of  discussion,  and  the  pros  and 
cons  are  too  many  to  be  fully  set  out  here.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  our  export  trade,  not  only  with  Latin  America  but  with  the 
rest  of  the  foreign  field  also,  has  in  the  past  been  carried  on 
through  these  houses,  and  this  is  the  accepted  European  method, 
followed  particularly  by  the  Germans  before  the  war,  but  also  by 
the  English,  French,  and  other  nationalities.  American  business 
houses,  less  well  organized  and  less  accustomed  to  working  in 
organization  than  those  in  Europe,  when  once  they  are  actively 
interested  in  foreign  trade  do  not  take  well  to  the  idea  of  dealing 
through  a  middleman,  and  there  is  consequently  a  tendency  to 
drift  away  from  the  commission-house  method  in  American  export 
trade.  This  has  not  gone  so  far,  however,  but  that  60  to  75  per 
cent  of  our  export  trade,  in  the  opinion  of  competent  observers,  is 
still  carried  on  in  this  indirect  manner.  The  chief  advantage  of 
using  the  commission  house  is  obvious.  It  attends  to  all  shipping 
details,  assumes  the  credit  risk  and  the  insurance,  sees  that  pack- 
ing is  adequate,  and  makes  out  the  proper  papers,  a  rather  myste- 
rious process  to  the  uninitiated.  It  has,  moreover,  connections  in 
foreign  countries  that  are  used  to  ordering  their  goods  througli 
commission  houses,  as  the  middleman's  profit  is  considered  to  be 
more  than  made  up  by  the  services  rendered  in  seeing  that  proper 
goods  are  supplied  and  that  the  shipments  come  forward  with  the 
greatest  facility.  It  thus  relieves  the  manufacturer  of  all  export 
details,  and  the  transaction  is  practically  one  in  domestic  trade. 
The  chief  disadvantage  is  that  the  manufacturer  can  not  push  his 
own  foreign  trade,  and  very  often  has  no  knowledge  as  to  where 
his  goods  are  going,  as  he  simply  fills  the  order  from  the  commis- 
sion house  and  takes  its  draft  in  payment.    Many  firms  regularly 


TRADE  METHODS  677 

solicit  business  from  commission  houses,  most  of  which  are  located 
in  New  York.  A  comprehensive  list  of  these  houses  in  New^  York 
and  other  cities  will  be  found  in  a  volume  entitled  the  Export 
Trade  Directory,  published  by  the  Johnston  Export  Publishing 
Co.,  17  Battery  Place,  New  York,  and  usually  available  in  public 
libraries. 

Whichever  method  or  combination  of  methods  is  decided 
upon,  it  should  be  remembered  that  all  of  them  except  the  last 
involve  as  close  a  study  of  Latin  American  conditions  on  the  part 
of  the  heads  of  the  firm  as  can  w^ell  be  made.  Every  method  is 
good  in  proportion  to  the  intelligence  used  in  carrying  it  out,  and 
in  this  case  intelligence  implies  a  knowledge  of  details  of  the  field 
on  the  part  of  those  directing  the  work.  Details  of  geography,  of 
the  economic  life  of  the  various  sections,  of  Latin  American 
psycholog}%  of  shipi)ing,  transportation,  finajices.  Government, 
and  education  of  each  country,  are  highly  important  for  the  export 
manager  to  know.  A  traveling  man  can  not  do  very  effective  work 
if  he  feels,  after  remaining  a  week  or  two  in  one  place  and  begin- 
ning to  get  acquainted  with  the  trade,  that  a  telegram  is  immi- 
nent ordering  him  to  go  on  or  to  return  home  because  the  firm 
thinks  he  is  using  more  time  than  it  would  take  to  get  substan- 
tial results  in  the  United  States.  Many  American  firms  lost  per- 
fectly trustworthy  customers  of  long  standing  at  the  beginning  of 
the  European  war  because  they  thought  it  necessary  to  shut  down 
drastically  on  allowance  of  credit.  A  close  knowledge  of  the  field 
would  enable  the  firm  to  determine  as  to  just  how  much  signifi- 
cance there  might  be  in  a  report  that  Argentina  had  prospects  of  a 
bumper  wheat  crop  or  that  rubber  prices  in  northern  Brazil  had 
taken  a  decided  drop.  Matters  of  this  sort,  affecting  directly  the 
bases  of  economic  life  in  a  community  and  hence  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  people,  are  as  important  factors  in  the  foreign  busi- 
ness of  a  firm  as  a  disastrous  fire  or  destructive  tornado  in  a 
near-by  region  might  be  in  the  domestic  field.  In  Latin  American 
trade  as  in  all  other  the  greatest  success  will  doubtless  be 
achieved  through  attaining  to  a  sure  grasp  of  fine  details  without 
losing  sight  of  the  larger  commercial  considerations. 


Characteristics  of  Latin  American  Markets 


By  Otto  Wilson 


THE  importance  of  a  close  and  exhaustive  study  of  the  Latin 
American  field  by  the  new  exporter  has  been  emphasized 
time  and  again  in  the  literature  on  commercial  Ijatin 
America  issued  in  the  last  few  years.  It  has  been  pointed  out 
that  the  secret  of  Germany's  success  in  foreign  trade  has  been  the 
thoroughness  with  which  her  merchants  familiarized  themselves 
with  every  detail  of  exporting,  and  the  lack  of  even  elementary 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  American  firms  has  been  cited  as  the 
chief  obstacle  to  the  general  advance  of  our  Latin  American  com- 
merce. This  is  no  doubt  largely  true,  and  an  intensive  campaign 
of  education  lasting  over  many  years  will  have  to  be  conducted 
if  American  exporters  are  to  meet  their  future  competitors  in  the 
Latin  American  field  on  even  terms.  Yet  the  individual  merchant, 
admitting  this  and  holding  himself  ready  to  take  such  steps  as 
may  be  necessary,  still  may  find  himself  at  a  loss  to  determine 
just  what  direction  his  studies  should  take.  He  knows  his  goods, 
he  knows  how  to  sell  them  and  ship  them,  even  to  Latin  America, 
and  he  wonders  what  else  he  must  find  out.  It  can  be  answered 
that  he  can  not  have  too  graphic  an  idea  of  the  field  in  which  his 
commercial  operations  are  carried  on  —  that  a  number  of  factors 
enter  into  the  conduct  of  business  which  have  never  come  to  his 
attention  because  he  has  taken  them  for  granted,  yet  which  are 
different  for  Latin  America  from  what  they  are  for  the  United 
States.  The  following  disconnected  notes  touch  on  a  number  of 
characteristics  of  Latin  American  markets,  and  will  be  valuable 
for  what  they  suggest  as  much  as  for  the  actual  information 
conveyed. 

Climate,  Temperature,  Etc. 

The  markets  of  Latin  America  are  in  general  the  markets  of 
a  temperate-zone  population.  Between  Para,  which  lies  practically 
on  the  equator,  and  Punta  Arenas,  the  southernmost  city  in  the 
world,  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  average  annual  temperature. 
But  a  good  part  of  the  population  of  tropical  Latin  America 
lives  at  an  elevation  which  affords  a  pleasant  climate,  while  in 
fho  south  there  is  comparatively  little  population  between  Punta 

[678] 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  LATIN  AMERICAN  MARKETS     679 

Arenas  and  the  milder  zone  of  Bahia  Blanca  and  Buenos  Aires 
and  westward.  In  the  latitude  of  Buenos  Aires  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  about  64  degrees.  The  summers  are  hot,  especially  in  the 
interior,  but  there  is  seldom  or  never  extreme  cold,  snow  being  a 
rarity.  Throughout  South  America  artificial  heating  in  winter  is 
little  known.  In  the  larger  cities  modern  heating  devices  are 
gradually  being  installed,  and  portable  oil  stoves  are  used  to  some 
extent,  but  as  a  rule  the  people  keep  warm  in  cold  weather  by 
putting  on  heavy  wraps  and  furs,  and  by  going  to  bed.  The 
high  price  of  fuel  is  in  part  responsible  for  this,  coal  in  normal 
times  ranging  in  price  from  $8  or  $10  a  ton  in  coast  cities  to  $50 
in  Bolivia.  For  cooking  charcoal  is  the  almost  universal  fuel, 
this  being  obtained  from  local  burners.  Electricity  is  available 
in  most  parts  of  South  America  and  the  price  is  low. 

House  Construction 

The  wooden  or  **  frame  "  house  so  common  in  the  United 
States  is  very  seldom  seen  in  any  part  of  Latin  America.  Instead 
the  brick  house,  covered  with  stucco  and  roofed  with  tile,  is 
practically  the  standard  in  every  country.  These  houses  are 
seldom  of  more  than  two  stories  and  in  most  cases  of  only  one, 
and  are  usually  constructed  in  the  old  Spanish  style,  with  a  court- 
yard in  the  centre.  In  the  interior,  the  partitions  are  usually  of 
brick  and  the  floors  of  tiles  or  wood.  For  the  more  pretentious 
residences  and  public  buildings  stone  is  also  a  common  building 
material.  The  poorest  classes  live  in  huts  of  adobe,  or  a  com- 
bination of  nmd  and  twigs,  covered  with  thatch  or  tiles.  Cor- 
rugated iron  is  becoming  very  widely  used,  both  for  roofing  and 
for  siding,  and  some  streets  and  sections  of  at  least  one  large 
city  present  the  spectacle  of  long  rows  of  houses  the  main 
covering  of  which  is  this  unattractive  material.  For  the  large 
business  buildings  in  the  more  modern  cities  like  Buenos  Aires 
structural  steel  is  common,  as  in  the  United  States.  There  is, 
however,  a  general  absence  of  the  tall  structures  which  are  so 
prominent  a  feature  of  United  States  cities. 

Politics  and  Government 

The  impression  common  in  the  minds  of  North  Americans  a 
few  years  ago  that  Latin  American  countries  were  in  a  chronic 
state  of  revolution  and  unrest  is  fast  fading  away  with  a  better 
acquaintance  with  conditions  there.  It  is  true  that  in  many 
countries   the   established  government  does   not   rest  on  strong 


680  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP^  LATIN  AMERICA 

foundations,  and  a  coiq)  d'etai  is  always  possible  when  the  admin- 
istration becomes  unpopular.  The  larger  countries,  however,  have 
been  for  the  most  part  frue  from  such  disturbances,  and  one 
country,  Chile,  claims  never  to  have  had  a  revolution,  although 
there  was  a  short  civil  war.  Even  in  the  countries  where  condi- 
tions are  less  stable,  however,  the  word  "  revolution  "  does  not 
usually  imply  the  long  period  of  disturbance  and  bloodshed  with 
which  it  is  commonly  associated  elsewhere.  It  usually  means 
simply  the  overthrow  of  one  faction  and  the  triumph  of  another, 
the  government  being  carried  on  along  about  the  same  lines  which- 
ever party  or  faction  is  in  control.  It  has  been  the  rule  heretofore 
for  the  government  to  influence  or  control  the  elections,  but  the 
more  progressive  countries  are  gradually  working  away  from  this 
practice,  and  in  recent  years  several  elections  have  been  held  that 
expressed  the  bona  tide  wishes  of  the  people.  There  is  not  yet  the 
widespread  interest  in  and  discussion  of  political  principles  that 
obtain  in  northern  democratically  organized  states,  and  politics 
remains  in  large  measure  personal  and  factional  in  character. 
The  Latin  American,  however,  is  usually  much  interested  in  the 
current  political  topic  of  the  time,  and  in  places  where  good  cable 
news  is  available  follows  international  developments  rather 
closely.  It  is  as  a  rule  advisable  for  the  commercial  visitor  to 
avoid  political  subjects  entirely. 

Amusements 

Latin  Americans  are  not  much  given  to  outdoor  sports  and 
games,  and  those  that  have  been  introduced  are  mainly  the  result 
of  English  influence.  The  English  have  brought  their  "  soccer  " 
football  with  them,  and  this  comes  nearest  being  the  standard 
Latin  American  game.  Baseball  has  been  introduced  by  resident 
Americans  and  a  good  deal  of  local  interest  has  been  taken  in  it, 
but  it  has  not  as  yet  been  much  taken  up  except  by  Americans. 
There  is  little  fishing  for  the  sake  of  recreation,  and  hunting  is 
also  rather  a  profession  than  a  sport.  In  Buenos  Aires  and  a  few 
other  large  cities  horseracing  is  very  popular,  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  are  expended  on  the  courses.  There  is  a 
certain  amount  of  bull-fighting  and  a  great  deal  of  cock-fighting, 
perhaps  because  the  latter  lends  itself  easily  to  betting  and 
gambling,  which  are  universal.  As  to  theatrical  entertainment  all 
large  cities  and  most  smaller  ones  have  their  opera  houses,  some- 
times costing  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  to  build.  Some  of 
these  are  representative  of  the  best  in  Latin  American  architec- 
ture, and  are  most  beautiful  and  ornate.  The  dramatic  and  nmsical 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  LATIN  AMERICAN  MARKETS     681 

productions,  however,  wliieli  are  given  in  tliom  would  rank  as 
second  or  third  rate  with  the  metropolitan  theatre-goer  of  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  The  best  singers  appear  regularly  in 
Buenos  Aires  in  operatic  productions  but  few  other  cities  are  so 
fortunate.  The  moving-picture  house  is  widely  popular.  It  is  a 
poor  village  that  does  not  have  its  band,  which  plays  in  the  evening 
in  the  public  promenade. 

Use  of  Machinery 

The  Latin  American,  speaking  generally,  is  not  of  a  mechanical 
turn  of  mind.  This  fact,  together  with  the  scarcity  of  coal,  has 
prevented  the  extensive  development  of  manufacturing,  and  it  is 
on  this  account  that  Latin  America  offers  such  a  promising  field 
for  the  sale  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured  articles.  Except  in  a 
few  lines  there  is  little  or  no  domestic  competition.  Brazil  and 
Chile,  and  to  a  certain  extent  Argentina,  have  been  fostering  their 
manufacturing  industries,  but  in  few  classes  of  goods  have  they 
become  independent  of  foreign  sources  of  supply.  (An  account  of 
the  lines  manufactured,  with  some  figures  of  production,  etc.,  will 
be  found  in  a  publication  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce  entitled  South  America  a.s  an  Export 
Field,  Special  Agents  Series  No.  81.)  When  machines  are  sent 
to  Latin  America  it  is  highly  desirable  that  some  one  from  the 
home  factory  be  on  hand  to  teach  the  buyer  how  to  set  up  and 
operate  them,  as  otherwise  a  promising  market  may  be  eliminated, 
at  least  for  several  years,  because  of  the  failure  of  the  first 
machine  or  two  to  work  properly.  In  many  cases  the  buyer  has 
to  depend  on  the  printed  instructions  for  guidance  in  setting  the 
machine  up,  and  these  may  be  inadequate  or  printed  in  English  or 
both,  in  which  case  there  is  danger  that  the  parts  may  lie  around 
unused  until  they  are  finally  abandoned.  In  addition  to  providing 
complete  and  detailed  instructions  the  shipper  of  machines 
(especially  if  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  have  a  representative 
on  the  ground)  should  be  most  careful  that  all  the  minor  parts 
are  included  in  the  box  or  crate  with  the  larger  parts,  and  that 
all  ])arts  are  packed  so  as  practically  to  insure  that  they  will 
arrive  unbroken. 

Commercial  Customs 

The  fact  that  Latin  America  is  the  land  of  manana  has 
almost  passed  into  a  proverb,  and  impresses  itself  on  the  minds 
of  most  commercial  visitors  on  their  first  tour.    In  Buenos  Aires 


682  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  one  or  two  other  cities  business  is  coming  to  be  carried  on 
with  the  dispatch  to  which  Americans  are  accustomed,  but  over 
the  rest  of  South  and  Central  America  buying  and  selling  as  well 
as  other  activities  are  marked  by  a  deliberateness  which  more 
energetic  foreigners  find  it  difficult  to  understand.  The  Latin 
American,  on  his  part,  can  not  understand  why  there  should  be  so 
much  hurry  in  concluding  some  ordinary  business  transaction,  his 
attitude  being  that  if  the  matter  can  not  be  conveniently  handled 
now  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  postponed.  The 
essential  difference  in  attitude  toward  business  matters  arises 
from  a  fundamental  difference  in  point  of  view,  the  North  Ameri- 
can merchant  too  often  considering  the  achievement  of  certain 
business  goals  as  his  chief  interest  in  life  whereas  the  Latin 
American  looks  on  his  store  or  his  plantation  as  a  means  of 
making  a  livelihood,  to  enable  him  to  follow  his  tastes  or  pleasures 
in  other  directions.  On  occasion  there  is  as  a  consequence  a  cer- 
tain indifference  to  profits  which  seems  odd  to  the  trader  from  the 
north.  A  merchant,  for  instance,  will  often  continue  buying 
from  a  house  which  he  has  long  patronized,  even  though  the  prices 
of  others  are  manifestly  lower,  merely  out  of  a  feeling  of  personal 
loyalty  and  friendship.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  at  all  sufficient 
to  demonstrate  clearly  how  the  buyer  of  imported  goods  can  make 
a  handsome  percentage  on  the  transaction,  as  such  argument  is 
likely  to  have  very  little  weight  if  the  prospective  customer  is 
irritated  into  a  personal  dislike  of  the  salesman.  In  domestic  life 
the  same  principle  of  action  holds  true.  A  North  American  trav- 
eler tells  how  he  and  a  companion,  in  going  through  Central 
America,  were  unable  to  visit  an  out-of-the-way  place  simply 
because  they  lacked  the  influence  of  personal  friendship  in  dealing 
with  the  owners  of  the  riding  mules  available.  Yet  they  were  in 
a  town  of  several  thousand  people,  with  a  number  of  public  livery 
barns.  It  is  necessary,  in  dealing  with  Latin  Americans  commer- 
cially, to  remember  constantly  that  the  highest  efficiency  in  sales- 
manship is  here  not  a  matter  of  speed,  energy,  or  "  drive  ",  but 
rather  an  appreciation  of  the  scale  of  values  of  the  people  and  an 
ability  to  adapt  oneself  to  their  point  of  view. 


Mineral  Industry  of  Latin  America 

By  Richard  Fekris 
Of  the  Editorial  Staff  of  the  Encyclopedia  Americana 

IT  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  known  mineral  riches  of 
Latin  America  exceed  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe  so 

far  explored.  Since  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  16th 
century  billions  of  dollars  in  silver  have  been  taken  from  a  very 
few  mines  in  Mexico,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Bolivia;  and  billions 
of  dollars  in  gold  have  been  mined  at  a  few  localities  in  Bolivia, 
and  hundreds  of  millions  recovered  from  the  soil  of  Mexico,  Peru, 
Colombia,  Brazil,  and  the  Guianas. 

But  Latin  America  does  not  have  to  base  her  claims  to 
importance  in  the  mineral  world  upon  the  almost  fabulous  records 
of  her  historic  past.  At  the  present  day,  with  her  treasures  prac- 
tically untouched,  she  is  holding  several  world  records  in  the  min- 
eral market.  The  entire  supply  of  the  world's  bismuth  comes 
from  Bolivia ;  by  far  the  largest  supply  of  thorium  is  furnished  by 
the  monazite  sands  of  Brazil;  the  unparalleled  nitrate  deposits  of 
Chile  supply  practically  all  of  the  world's  consumption  of  nitric 
acid,  and  quite  all  of  its  consumption  of  iodine;  Colombia  is  the 
only  considerable  source  of  platinum  outside  of  Russia;  the  tin 
production  of  Bolivia  stands  second  on  the  world's  tally  sheets; 
Colombia  supplies  the  world's  demand  for  fine  emeralds;  Brazil  is 
second  only  to  South  Africa  in  the  production  of  diamonds,  and 
for  many  years  was  first;  the  asphalt  lakes  of  Trinidad  and 
Bermudez  supply  the  world. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  prodigious  wealth  awaiting  develop- 
ment in  Latin  America  is  the  notably  disproportionate  enterprise 
with  which  it  has  been  attacked.  To  be  sure,  there  are  many  and 
grievous  difficulties  to  be  conquered,  but  they  are  far  from  being 
insurmountable,  and  when  considered  in  parallel  with  the  untoward 
climatic  conditions  in  Alaska,  seem  almost  negligible.  The  most 
serious  hindrance  is  the  lack  of  transportation,  and,  comparable 
with  this,  the  scarcity  of  water  and  dearth  of  fuel  must  be  men- 
tioned. The  preliminaries  of  new  undertakings  in  the  mineral  coun- 
try require  the  investment  of  very  substantial  sums,  but  these,  as  in 
the  case  of  railroads,  will  serve  to  develop  permanently  the  country 
they  traverse  as  well  as  afford  an  outlet  to  the  mining  sections,  and 
may  confidently  be  expected  to  reap  ever-increasing  returns.  How- 
ever, the  necessity  for  this  large  preliminary  outlay  is  precisely 

[683] 


684  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMEKICA 

the  reason  why,  generally  speaking"  the  active  mines  in  the  whole 
region  are  those  w^hich  have  been  in  operation  for  centuries,  and 
why  the  vast  mineral  treasure  of  the  less  accessible  places  is  left 
to  the  exploitation  of  the  individual  native  miner. 

The  mineral  belt  of  Latin  America  is  centred  upon  the  great 
continental  backbone  which  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  bears 
the  general  name  of  "  The  Rockies."  In  Mexico  it  is  a  broad 
zone  traversing  the  entire  country  from  northwest  to  southeast. 
Through  Central  America  it  is  lower  in  altitude  and  with 
apparently  fewer  treasure  spots.  In  South  America,  it  appears 
again  as  the  Andes,  following  along  the  entire  western  coast. 
Other  smaller  areas  add  their  tribute,  notably  the  coastal  uplift  of 
southeastern  Brazil,  know  as  the  great  Brazilian  plateau.  Glaciers, 
and  other  erosive  agencies  have  scattered  far  and  wide  their  grind- 
ings  from  the  mother  lodes,  so  that  the  territory  available  for 
profitable  exploration  and  development  is,  broadly  speaking, 
boundless;  and,  somewhere  within  the  region  may  be  found 
every  mineral  having  commercial  value. 

The  disturbed  conditions  in  Mexico  and  the  influences  of  the 
European  war  upon  the  mineral  output  of  South  America  make 
it  quite  impossible  to  present  an  accurate  survey  of  Latin  Amer- 
ica's potential  production  of  any  of  the  metals.  The  most  that 
can  be  done  is  to  show  the  actual  production  under  these  great 
disadvantages. 

Gold 

In  Mexico  and  Central  America  almost  all  the  mining  of  gold 
is  from  the  lode.  In  South  America  much  the  greater  output  is 
from  the  placers  which  for  centuries  have  been  accumulating 
fragments  from  lodes  of  unrivalled  richness  high  up  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Andes,  and  as  yet  undiscovered.  The  stores  of  gold  and 
golden  objects  carried  away  from  the  Inca  and  Aztec  chiefs  by 
Pizarro  and  Cortes  were  doubtless  the  accumulations  of  many 
years,  and  in  all  probability  were  the  product  of  the  placers. 
Under  the  Viceroys  a  very  large  amount  of  gold  and  silver  was 
obtained  under  a  system  of  forced  labor  at  no  expense  to  the  task- 
masters. In  Bolivia  alone  the  great  placer  deposits  have  been 
worked  since  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  and  are  estimated  to 
have  produced  $2,500,000,000.  About  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury the  leading  gold  producing  country  of  the  world  was  the  south- 
eastern highland  of  Brazil  in  the  present  State  of  Minas  Greece. 
The  workings  were  mainly  placer  but  there  were  some  lode  mines. 
Some  of  the  more  remarkable  yields  of  mining  under  modern 
methods  are:   Butters  (Salvador),  $4,138,050,  on  a  capitalization 


MINERAL  INDUSTRY  685 

of  $729,000;  Dos  Estrellas  (Mexico),  $10,335,000,  oil  a  capitali- 
zation of  $150,000;  Mexico  Mines  of  El  Oro,  $4,458,745,  on 
a  capitalization  of  $875,000;  Penoles  (Mexico),  $6,361,687,  on  a 
capitalization  of  $180,000;  San  Rafael  (Mexico),  $1,442,380,  on 
a  capitalization  of  $60,000 ;  Sorpresa,  $3,979,240,  on  a  capitaliza- 
tion of  $384,000. 

The  latest  figures  which  are  nearly  enough  complete  to  give  a 
fair  comparison  of  the  relative  gold  production  of  the  countries  of 
Latin  America  are  those  of  1913,  which  follow : 

Argentina    $107,300 

Bolivia 175,000 

Brazil 3,570,000 

British  Guiana 879  000 

Chile 731,000 

Colombia   2,971,700 

Costa  Rica 415,000 

Cuba 28,000 

Dutch  Guiana 571,100 

Ecuador 406,500 

French  Guiana 3,050,000 

Honduras 1,000,000 

Mexico   20,500,000 

Nicaragua    1,100,000 

Peru   492,000 

Salvador 1,245,000 

Uniguay 111,000 

Venezuela    623,500 

Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  European  war  in  1914,  the 
demand  for  metals  other  than  silver  and  gold  lessened  consider- 
ably, so  that  large  numbers  of  men  found  their  way  to  the  fields 
yielding  the  precious  metals.  The  etfect  was  most  marked  in  the 
yields  of  Colombia  and  British  Guiana,  the  former  increasing  to 
$4,678,000  (nearly  60  per  cent),  and  the  latter  increasing  to 
$1,126,515  (28  percent). 

As  to  the  immediate  outlook  it  may  be  said  there  are  enormous 
gold-bearing  deposits  on  the  summits  and  slopes  of  the  Peruvian 
and  Bolivian  Andes,  and  this  section  is  probably  richer  than  the 
most  productive  area  now  being  worked  anywhere  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere.  Glacial  moraines  miles  in  extent  show  gold  in  pay- 
ing quantities,  and  great  alluvial  ^'  pampas  "  are  equally  rich.  In 
addition,  gold  may  be  picked  out  of  every  stream  flowing  down  to 
the  lowlands.  In  the  Nechi  and  Condoto  rivers  in  Colombia 
dredges  are  at  work,  the  yield  ranging  from  20  to  50  cents  a  cubic 
yard,  though  not  yet  in  the  richest  section.  Drills  show  that  an 
average  of  70  cents  per  yard  prevails  throughout  a  mass  of 
7,000,000  yards.    In  1915  gold  to  the  value  of  $1,720,000  was  taken 


686  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

by  two  dredges  from  the  Nechi  River.  The  mines  of  Chiquiaguillo 
are  noted  for  the  unusual  size  of  the  nuggets  secured,  the  largest 
weighing  52i/^  ounces,  of  which  47  ounces  were  solid  gold.  In  the 
form  of  lodes,  gold  is  found  both  on  the  eastern  and  western  slopes 
of  the  Andes,  the  veins  often  crossing  the  water  courses,  and 
showing  an  outcrop  hundreds  to  thousands  of  feet  above  the  base 
of  the  ravines.  They  are  traceable  for  miles,  from  three  to  eight 
feet  in  width,  and  showing  from  one  to  five  ounces  of  gold  per  ton. 
The  whole  country,  and  this  is  true  also  of  Mexico  and  Honduras, 
is  dotted  with  signs  of  ancient  workings.  In  Honduras  many  of 
these  diggings  are  being  worked  to-day  with  the  most  primitive 
appliances,  and  yielding  surprising  returns.  In  the  Brazilian 
plateau  the  ore  is  showing  richer  quality  as  the  mines  are  sunk 
deeper.  The  St.  John  del  Rey  mine  is  now  the  deepest  in  the  world 
having  reached  the  depth  of  nearly  5,000  feet.  This  mine  and  the 
Ouro  Preto  combined  have  a  steady  output  of  about  $233,000  a 
month.  Formerly  the  gold  output  was  mostly  placer,  and  aban- 
doned placer  mines  are  very  numerous  in  Minas  Geraes.  In  French 
Guiana  and  Dutch  Guiana  some  of  the  placer  territory  has  appar- 
ently run  out,  though  it  is  still  considered  profitable  for  dredges. 
With  all  its  potential  richness,  however,  the  whole  of  Latin  Amer- 
ica is  at  present  yielding  only  about  one-fifth  as  much  gold  as  is 
South  Africa. 

Silver 

Large  as  has  been  the  total  of  gold  produced  by  Latin 
America,  the  amount  of  silver  has  been  many  times  larger.  The 
records  do  not  go  back  of  about  1545,  when  Europeans  found 
many  silver  mines  yielding  enormous  quantities,  and  millions  of 
dollars  in  silver  ornaments,  images,  and  objects  of  art.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  yearly  silver  output  of  Mexico 
was  about  $27,000,000;  it  is  now  about  $45,000,000.  The  State  of 
Zacatecas  alone  has  produced  nearly  or  quite  $1,000,000,000  in 
silver.  The  most  famous  silver  mine  in  South  America  is  at 
Potosi,  Bolivia,  discovered  in  1545.  Fully  $3,000,000,000  has  been 
taken  from  this  '*  silver  mountain,"  and  its  yearly  output  is  about 
$2,450,000.  Another  noted  mine  is,  or  was,  that  at  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
now  equally  famous  for  its  enormous  copper  production,  the  silver 
it  now  yields  being  what  is  found  in  with  the  copper.  Another 
mine  of  fabulous  richness  is  that  at  Valenciana,  Mexico,  which 
from  1760  to  1810  produced  over  $300,000,000.  In  Colombia  sev- 
eral discoveries  have  been  made  of  ore  carrying  from  500  to 
750  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton.  In  Chile  and  Argentina,  silver  has 
been  found  on  both  sides  of  the  great  eruptive  masses  of  the  moun- 


MINERAL  INDUSTRY  687 

tain  country,  but  as  yet  is  little  worked.  The  silver  output  of 
those  countries  is  largely  that  recovered  from  argentiferous  cop- 
per ores. 

The  latest  authoritative  figures  for  the  silver  production  of 
Latin  America  are  those  for  1914,  as  follows : 

Argentina   $19,500 

Bolivia  2,200,000 

Chile 39,600 

Colombia   194,300 

Ecuador 12,500 

Peru   4,618,400 

Mexico   39,099,200 

Central  America   1,330,600 

The  total  of  $47,520,000  is  about  41  per  cent  of  the  entire  silver 
output  of  the  world  ($116,719,000)  for  that  year.  With  the 
increase  of  copper  mining  in  Peru,  the  silver  output  of  that 
country  has  risen  to  about  $6,000,000  annually ;  a  part  of  this,  how- 
ever, comes  from  the  argentiferous  lead  of  the  mine  at  Ancachs. 

Copper 

For  many  years  Mexico  and  Chile  have  been  among  the  lead- 
ing contributors  to  the  world's  supply  of  copper,  Chile,  indeed, 
having  been  at  one  period  the  largest  copper  producer  in  the 
world.  Recently  Peru  has  taken  third  place  in  Latin  America's 
copper  production,  the  mines  at  Cerro  de  Pasco,  long  famous  for 
their  great  output  of  silver,  now  being  claimed  to  include  one  of 
the  largest  known  deposits  of  copper  ore.  From  Venezuela  mines 
$15,000,000  worth  of  copper  have  been  taken  in  15  years.  In 
Bolivia  also  copper  mining  has  developed  in  many  localities, 
usually  in  connection  with  silver  mines  of  long  standing.  In  Brazil 
some  large  copper  smelters  are  in  continuous  operation,  and  the 
increased  price  due  to  the  European  war  has  occasioned  the  pump- 
ing out  of  the  old  Cobre  copper  mine  near  Santiago,  Cuba,  which 
has  stood  full  of  water  for  a  century  or  more.  In  Gruatemala  and 
Costa  Rica  many  copper  deposits  are  found,  but  few  are  worked, 
and  these  but  feebly.  Mexico's  copper  output,  which  in  normal 
times  is  about  175,000,000  pounds  annually,  in  1915  had  dwindled 
to  68,255,676  pounds.  In  Chile,  however,  the  greatest  development 
has  taken  place.  Fully  2,000  copper  mines  are  in  more  or  less 
active  operation,  many  of  them  by  individual  native  miners  in 
localities  far  removed  from  transportation  facilities,  only  the  rich- 
est findings  reacliing  civilization  in  bags  on  the  backs  of  mules  or 
llamas.  Recent  explorations  in  the  region  of  Chuquicamata  have 
revealed  the  largest  known  body  of  copper  ore  in  the  world, 
45 


688  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

estimated  to  contain  at  least  700,000,000  tons  of  ore  averaging  38 
pounds  of  copper  to  the  ton.  And  these  figures  are  completely 
overshadowed  by  those  of  Peru,  where  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines 
are  yielding  140  pounds  to  the  ton,  besides  11  ounces  of  silver  and 
nearly  one-tenth  of  an  ounce  of  gold.  For  1916  the  exports  of 
copper  from  Chile  amounted  to  146,605,900  pounds,  and  from 
Peru,  91,766,475  pounds.  Under  the  stimulus  of  the  war  demand 
and  the  war  prices,  vigorous  exploration  is  in  progress  throughout 
the  whole  of  western  South  America,  and  a  very  large  increase  in 
output  may  be  expected  within  the  next  two  or  three  years. 

Tin,  Platinum  and  Bismuth 

In  the  world's  production  of  tin,  Bolivia  holds  second  place, 
following  the  Malay  states ;  the  output  for  1915  being  21,794  tons 
—  about  half  that  of  Malaya,  and  over  four  times  that  of  the  long 
famous  mines  of  Cornwall.  In  several  instances  former  silver 
mines  are  now  yielding  tin  ores,  the  silver  having  disappeared. 
Many  rich  lodes  of  tin  ores  have  been  located  at  high  elevations 
in  the  Bolivian  Andes,  at  places  remote  from  transportation  lines, 
and  the  claim  is  confidently  made  that  this  region  holds  the  largest 
and  most  valuable  tin  deposits  in  the  world.  Formerly  a  large 
proportion  of  the  tin  output  of  Bolivia  w^as  won  from  placers,  and 
while  these  are  by  no  means  exhausted,  lode  mining  has  been  found 
more  profitable.  The  tin  exports  of  Bolivia  now  exceed  a  value  of 
$15,000,000  annually.  Within  the  past  three  or  four  years  tin  mining 
has  been  developed  in  Catamarca  province,  Argentina,  and  small 
shipments  are  reaching  the  market  from  that  locality.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  tin  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Latin  America  where 
silver  occurs,  but  the  individual  outputs  are  small,  and  do  not 
appear  in  the  records. 

Next  to  Russia,  Colombia  is  the  most  important  source  of 
platinum  in  the  world.  Its  output  in  1915  was  about  19,000  ounces, 
and,  as  the  Russian  production  had  diminished  one-half  on  account 
of  the  war,  the  Colombia  production  amounted  to  one-seventh  of 
the  world's  output.  From  a  value  of  $44  per  ounce  in  1914,  plati- 
num has  risen  to  $100  per  ounce  in  1917,  stimulating  the  mining  of 
this  metal  to  the  fullest  extent.  The  workings  are  generally  in 
gold-bearing  gravels,  and  some  of  these  deposits  have  been  found 
in  Ecuador,  and  are  being  developed.  Platinum  in  small  quanti- 
ties has  also  been  found  in  the  gold  placers  of  Brazil.  The  crude 
platinum  mineral,  as  it  comes  from  Colombia  has  a  very  large 
admixture  of  either  iridium  or  osmiridium,  amounting  sometimes 
to  30,  or  even  50  per  cent. 


MINERAL  INDUSTRY  689 

Very  nearly  the  whole  of  the  world's  supply  of  bismuth  comes 
from  the  Bolivian  mines  at  Tasna,  and  the  Chorolque  mountain. 
At  the  former  locality  the  deposits  constitute  the  largest  known 
occurrence  of  bismuth  ores.  The  meial  is  associated  with  tin  and 
silver,  and  is  nearly  all  sulphide.  At  Huayni-Potosi  a  considerable 
part  of  the  large  yield  is  native  metal.  Another  locality  which  has 
been  worked  successfully,  though  in  a  small  way,  for  bismuth  is 
that  of  San  Gregorio,  Peru,  and  it  is  known  that  bismuth  is  plenti- 
ful in  other  Peruvian  territory.  For  1915  the  Bolivian  product 
was  568  tons,  valued  at  about  $1,071,000;  the  Peruvian  output  was 
about  25  tons. 

Coal  and  Petroleum 

The  retardation  which  the  mineral  industries  of  Latin 
America  suffer  through  lack  of  cheap  fuel  has  already  been 
noticed.  The  condition  is  not  due  to  the  barrenness  of  the  terri- 
tory in  this  primal  necessity,  but  to  indifferent  development  *of  a 
natural  supply  actually  abundant.  All  through  the  Andes  region 
coal  exists  in  large  quantities,  and  in  many  localities  wide  seams 
are  exposed  to  view  for  long  distances  along  the  slopes  and  in  the 
sides  of  ravines,  millions  upon  millions  of  tons  being  in  sight. 
Some  of  these  coal  veins  come  down  almost  to  tide  water  —  as  at 
Paracas  and  near  Trujillo,  Peru.  Good  coal  is  found  also  along 
the  coast  of  Ecuador,  but  it  is  as  yet  undeveloped.  It  is  difficult 
to  understand  this  situation  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  in  Bolivia 
coal  imported  from  England  brings  $40  per  ton,  and  delivered  at 
the  Potosi  mines,  $70  per  ton.  Although  Peru  has  almost  unlimited 
deposits  of  both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  as  well  as  lignite, 
the  only  considerable  mining  done  in  that  country  is  by  the  indus- 
trial companies  which  consume  it.  About  700  tons  a  day  is  thus 
mined,  most  of  it  being  turned  into  coke.  In  Chile,  new  deposits 
have  been  discovered  recently  in  the  Aconcagua  region  near  Rio 
Blanco.  In  Southern  Chile,  coal  is  mined  extensively  at  Lota  and 
Coronel,  at  the  former  place  the  mines  running  out  under  the  sea 
for  more  than  half  a  mile.  The  yearly  output  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal mines  aggregates  more  than  a  million  tons.  As  fuel,  the 
Chilean  coal  is  not  of  the  highest  grade,  having  about  80  per  cent 
of  the  heating  value  of  the  imported  British  coal.  The  Lota  mines 
have  been  w^orked  since  1852.  In  Colombia,  coal  is  found  in  many 
widely  separated  localities;  good  bituminous  coking  coal  in  the 
interior,  and  lignite  beds  near  the  coast.  No  attempt  at  commer- 
cial development  has  been  made.  There  is  more  or  less  coal  of 
fair  quality  in  Venezuela,  worked  only  for  local  purposes.     In 


6!)0  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


A   Section   of  the  Zorritos  Oil    Fields,    Republic   of    Peru 

(Courtesy   of  the  Pan   Amerioan   Union) 

Mex'ico,  coal  is  very  plentiful,  and  the  deposits  in  some  eases  are  of 
great  extent.  At  one  locality  in  Coaliuila  a  visible  supply  of  300,- 
000,000  tons  has  been  found.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  result  of 
the  delay  in  coal  development  is  that  under  this  condition  no  great 
iron  industry  can  be  brought  into  being,  and  without  this,  the 
whole  country  must  be  at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  other 
sections.  The  coal  production  averages  annually  about  1,350,000 
tons  for  Chile,  980,000  tons  for  Mexico,  300,000  tons  for  Peru  and 
16,500  tons  for  Brazil. 

The  petroleum  beds  of  Mexico  and  Peru  are  important  sources 
of  fuel  oil,  the  Mexican  fields  occupying  fourth  place  in  the  records 
of  the  world  output.  The  Mexican  field  at  Tampico  contains  one 
of  the  most  productive  wells  ever  opened,  yielding  105,000  barrels 
per  day.  The  total  capacity  of  the  wells  now  producing  in  Mexico 
is  not  far  from  600,000  barrels  per  day.  The  1915  output  is  given 
authoritatively  at  35,000,000  barrels.  The  only  considerable  active 
oil  production  in  South  America  is  in  the  Lobitos  fields  of  Peru ; 
their  yearly  output  is  about  3,500,000  barrels.  In  Bolivia,  however, 
there  is  an  immense  oil  belt  150  miles  long  and  this  continues  over 
the  national  boundary  into  Argentina  to  Comodoro  Eivadavia 
where  the  Government  is  pushing  development.  In  Colombia, 
petroleum  has  been  found  in  the  upper  Magdalena  district,  and  at 
Santander  an  oil  area  100  miles  in  length  and  60  miles  in  widtli 
has  been  located.  It  contains  many  spontaneous  oil  springs. 
Another  large  field  has  been  located  in  Venezuela  near  the  city  of 
Maracaibo,  and  in  the  River  Limon  district  in  several  places  near 
the  asphalt  lake  oil  oozes  from  the  ground.  There  is  also  a  small 
refinery  in  active  operation  at  Santa  Elena  in  Ecuador.     On  the 


MINERAL  INDUSTRY 


691 


island  of  Trinidad  the  development  has  reached  an  output  of  700,- 
000  barrels  annually.  The  Guatemala  oil  fields  are  controlled 
rigidly  by  the  Government,  and  the  output  is  small  at  present. 
With  exceptional  prospects  for  a  great  oil  industry  all  Latin 
America,  with  the  single  exception  of  Mexico,  cannot  be  said  to 
have  seen  even  the  first  stages  of  its  possible  development. 


Other  Metals  and  Minerals 

Foremost  among  the  lesser  mineral  products  of  Latin  America 
stands  nitrate  of  soda,  or  "  Chile  nitrate."  The  only  locality  in 
the  world  where  this  invaluable  salt  is  found  in  considerable 
quantity  is  the  Atacama  desert  in  northern  Chile,  an  interior  dry 
valley  between  the  Coast  ranges  and  the  xVndes.  Associated  with 
the  nitrate  (29  per  cent)  is  sodium  chloride  (43  per  cent),  sodium 
sulphate  (5  per  cent),  and  calcium  sulphate  (4  per  cent).  A  small 
proportion  (1/10  of  1  per  cent)  of  sodium  iodate  supplies  the  world 
with  iodine  —  about  450  tons,  valued  at  about  $2,000,000,  annually. 
These  nitrate  deposits  supply  not  only  the  largest  part  of  the 
world's  nitric  acid  for  industrial  purposes,  but  also  the  bulk  of  the 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  for  the  world's  agriculture.  With  the  out- 
break of  the  European  war  a  great  demand  sprang  up  for  Chile 
nitrate  as  a  source  of  the  ingredients  of  explosives,  and  previous 
exports  were  trebled  to  meet  this  demand.  In  1916  the  output  of 
the  nitrate  fields  was  about  3,000,000  tons. 

Iron,  which  has  been  well  called  the  foundation  of  all  modern 
civilization,  exists  in  enormous  (juantities  and  of  unrivalled  quality 
throughout  all  Latin  America,  awaiting  development.  In  the 
Brazilian  plateau  are  billions  of  tons  of  ore  carrying  up  to  50  per 


Stt. 


Copyright,    Newman   Traveltalks   and    Brown    i*i    Uawson,    N.    Y. 

In  the   Nitrate  District  of  Northern   Chile 


692  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

cent  of  the  metal,  but  coal  and  transportation  are  lacking  for  its 
successful  utilization.  Great  iron  deposits  are  found  also  in  Chile, 
and  some  ore  is  exported.  At  Tofo  the  explorers'  drills  have 
blocked  out  a  mass  of  Bessemer-grade  ore  calculated  to  contain 
100,000,000  tons.  Here,  too,  a  lack  of  coking  coal  is  holding  back 
development.  In  the  province  of  Atacama  deposits  of  iron  ore 
aggregating  500,000,000  tons  contain  gold  in  the  proportion  of  one 
ounce  up  to  16  ounces  per  ton.  In  Venezuela  a  start  has  been  made, 
and  a  million  tons  of  67  per  cent  ore  are  being  shipped  annually. 
In  the  southeastern  part  of  Cuba  has  been  located  an  immense 
body  of  iron  ore  estimated  at  300,000,000  tons,  carrying  one  per 
cent  of  nickel.  In  1915  Cuba  shipped  830,000  tons  of  iron  ore,  and 
200,000  tons  of  manganiferous  iron  ore.  Other  important  deposits 
have  been  found  in  northern  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Colom- 
bia, and  Peru. 

Since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  war  and  the  consequent 
advance  in  the  price  of  antimony  from  six  cents  to  40  cents  a 
pound,  many  antimony  mines  throughout  Latin  America,  unprofit- 
able at  the  old  prices  have  gone  into  active  operation.  The  effects 
are  most  marked  in  the  increase  of  Bolivia's  exports  of  ore  (50 
per  cent)  from  205  tons  in  1914  to  19,786  tons  in  1915.  The  anti- 
mony ores  are  found  in  the  same  localities  as  the  tin  ores,  but  in 
different  veins.  Mexico  also  has  rich  antimony  deposits,  and  in 
normal  times  exported  upwards  of  4,500  tons  of  metallic  antimony 
annually.    Since  1911  the  production  has  been  greatly  reduced. 

About  half  the  world's  supply  of  borax  is  produced  by  Chile. 
The  western  range  of  the  Andes,  known  as  the  Cordillera  Occi- 
dental, traverses  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  extends  into  Argentina. 
Many  of  the  peaks  of  this  range  were  volcanoes,  and  at  their  bases, 
at  elevations  of  12,000  feet  above  the  sea,  are  a  succession  of  lakes 
whose  waters  are  saturated  with  borax,  which  thickly  encrusts 
their  shores  and  forms  a  thick  pellicle  on  the  surface.  Lake 
Ascotan  in  Chile  is  capable  alone  of  supplying  the  whole  world's 
demand  for  borax  for  many  years  to  come.  Bolivia  and  Peru  have 
similar  lakes,  and  in  Peru  are  dry  beds  of  lakes  which  formerly 
existed  there,  now  a  mass  of  borax  and  other  salts. 

Four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  vanadium  is  produced  by 
a  single  mine  in  Peru,  which  yields  about  3,000  tons  annually.  The 
mine  has  much  greater  possibilities  if  there  were  a  larger  market 
for  its  product. 

About  one-tenth  of  the  total  production  of  tungsten  is  supplied 
by  Latin  America;  Mexico,  Bolivia,  Argentina,  and  Brazil  joining 
to  make  up  their  yearly  output  of  1,200  tons  of  60-per  cent  ore. 


MINERAL  INDUSTRY  693 

In  precious  stones,  Colombia  leads  the  world  with  the  finest  of 
emeralds,  of  such  perfection  that  they  are  valued  at  three  times  the 
price  of  perfect  diamonds  of  equal  weight.  The  mines  at  Muzo 
hold  the  record  of  having  produced  the  largest  emerald  known,  a 
stone  weighing  within  two  pennyweights  of  nine  ounces.  The 
diamond  mines  of  Brazil  have  yielded  some  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  world's  jewels,  notably  the  "  Estrella  do  Sul  "  (Star  of  the 
South),  which  weighed  after  cutting  125  carats,  and  was  sold  to  the 
Rajah  of  Baroda  for  a  figure  said  to  have  been  close  to  $15,000,000. 
Brazil  holds  the  record  for  black  diamonds  with  a  stone  weighing 
3,150  carats.  The  diamond  fields  of  Brazil  promise  profitable 
returns  for  years  to  come,  and  recent  prospecting  has  revealed  new 
possibilities  in  a  ledge  of  diamonds  in  the  matrix.  Brazil  is  also 
rich  in  aquamarines,  topazes,  and  amethysts.  A  large  pearl  fish- 
ery is  in  operation  in  the  waters  about  Margarita  Island,  employ- 
ing 1,000  boats  and  upwards  of  3,000  persons. 

The  largest  known  supply  of  thorium  exists  in  the  monazite 
sands  of  the  Brazilian  coast,  and  to  this  must  be  added  a  recently 
discovered  bed  of  gravel  in  the  interior,  estimated  to  contain  not 
less  than  60,000  tons  of  this  scarce  and  valuable  metal. 

The  great  sulphur  mine  at  Tinguirirca,  Chile,  holds  another 
world's  record  as  the  richest  sulphur  mine  known,  much  of  its  out- 
put being  pure  native  sulphur.  For  years  the  Mexican  mines  at 
Aguascalientes  and  OUague  have  been  producing  important  quan- 
tities of  sulphur. 

The  very  important  asphalt  lakes  of  Trinidad  and  Bermudez, 
each  covering  an  area  of  more  than  1,000  acres,  and  together  yield- 
ing a  very  large  proportion  of  the  world's  total  production  of 
asphalt,  is  only  one  more  testimony  to  the  marvellous  richness  in 
mineral  wealth  possessed  by  Latin  America.  The  manganese  and 
zircon  of  Brazil,  the  lead  and  graphite  of  Mexico,  the  zinc  of 
Guatemala,  the  molybdenum  and  mercury  of  Peru,  the  talc  of 
Uruguay,  may  only  be  mentioned  as  of  those  for  which  space  lacks 
for  detailed  discussion.  Enough  has  been  told  to  show  that  the 
story  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Latin  America  has  scarcely  begun 
to  unfold,  and  with  so  much  already  known,  a  mighty  development 
must  be  looked  for  in  the  nearer  future.  Consult  Ugarte,  M.,  El 
Porvenir  de  la  America  Latina  (Valencia  1911) ;  Pan  American 
Union,.  General  Descriptive  Data  in  20  separate  pamphlets,  one 
devoted  to  each  of  the  Latin  American  republics  (Washington 
1915-17) ;  Boletin  del  Instituto  Geologico  de  Mexico,  Nos.  1-14 
(Mexico  1895-1900). 


The  Cotton  Industry  in  Latin  America 


Bv  James  L.  Watkins 


THERE  is  no  more  inviting  field  in  the  world  for  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  cotton  manufactures  of  the  United  States  than 
is  to  be  found  in  the  twenty  Latin  Republics  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  They  lie  almost  at  our  doors,  and  those  on 
the  western  coast  have  been  brought  much  closer  since  the  opening 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  They  are  bound  to  us,  and  we  to  them,  by 
political  ties  that  should  make  not  only  for  mutual  friendship  but 
for  mutual  trade.  Our  trade  with  them  should  be  of  such  recipro- 
cal nature  as  to  take  whatever  we  possibly  can  of  their  products, 
and  make  it  possible  for  them  to  buy  whatever  of  our  surplus 
products  they  may  need. 

Prior  to  the  European  war  we  enjoyed  a  comparatively  small 
share  of  the  import  trade  of  these  countries,  and  this  applies 
especially  to  the  cotton  goods  trade,  but  the  war  has  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  we  can  supply  almost  every  requirement  in  this  line 
and  supplant  to  a  large  extent  the  European  manufacturer. 

We  have  made  a  good  beginning.  For  instance  the  total 
value  of  our  cotton  trade  in  1907-08  with  all  Latin  America,  and 
including  the  West  Indies,  amounted  to  $7,366,526,  and  in  1912-13 
the  year  before  the  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe,  to  $15,506,377. 
This  was  a  gain  in  the  five  years  of  $8,139,851,  or  llOi/a  per  cent. 
But  just  two  years  following,  1915-16,  the  total  exports  reached 
the  value  of  $38,381,074,  a  gain  of  $22,874,697,  or  a  little  more  than 
147  per  cent.  The  statistics  contained  in  the  following  table  give 
the  value  of  our  trade  with  each  country  for  the  fiscal  years 
1907-08,  1912-13  and  1915-16.  It  is  certainly  a  gratifying  exhibit, 
every  country  showing  a  substantial  gain,  except  Honduras,  where 
there  was  a  loss  of  25  per  cent.  The  most  conspicuous  gains 
(1913-14  —  1915-16)  are  shown  in  the  value  of  the  exports  to 
Mexico,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  the  British  West  Indies,  Venezuela, 
Peru,  Chile,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay.  Of  course  this  is  largely 
due  to  the  total  suspension  of  exports  from  Germany,  and  the 
interruption  of  the  maritime  trade  of  other  belligerent'  European 
nations,  all  of  which  may  be  only  temporary.    But  the  American 

[694] 


COTTON 


695 


exporter  ought  to  be  prepared  to  meet  the  fierce  competition  he 
must  encounter  when  the  war  is  over,  and  not  part  with  a  dollar 
of  the  trade  he  has  acquired  where  there  is  any  possibility  of 
maintaining  it. 


Value  of  Cotton  Goods  Exported  from  the  United  States  to  Latin  America  and 

West  Indies 


country 

1907-08 

1912-13 

1914-15 

Per  cent 
increase 
1912-13 
1914-15 

Mexico 

$782,966 
329,067 
333,921 
26,479 
329,161 
246,222 
257,567 
201,957 

$1,064,895 
427,445 
699,506 
131,448 
407,730 
349,401 
293,262 
1,122,185 

$4,891,956 
578,579 
523,688 
188,017 
735,144 
518,651 
623,699 
1,396,880 

359 

Gautemala 

35 

Honduras 

British  Honduras 

43  5 

Salvador 

80 

Nicaragua 

49 

Costa  Rica 

113 

Panama 

24  5 

Total 

2,507,340 

4,495,872 

9,456,614 

iin  3 

Increase,  dollars 

1,988,532 
79 

4,960,742 
110 

Increase,  per  cent 

Haiti 

742,978 

34,570 

40,711 

2,563 

3,648 

655 

1,245,822 

1,465,710 

986,076 

960,041 

104,531 

28,302 

14,550 

2,903,372 

2,276,749 

1,347,919 

1,973,542 

109,556 

34,062 

93,024 

7,741,671 

55 

San  Domingo 

37 

British  West  Indies 

105  5 

Dutch  West  Indies 

5 

Danish  West  Indies 

21 

French  West  Indies 

520 

Cuba 

132 

Total 

2,070,947 

6,462,582 

13,576,523 

110 

Increase,  dollars 

4,391,635 
212 

7,113,941 
110 

Increase,  per  cent 

624,587 
307,973 
106,770 

9,378 
132,409 
445,960 
685,207 
97,084 
222 
373,545 

5,104 

1,453,774 
376,314 
218,232 
295,645 
188,004 
808,674 
538,421 
146,344 
3,261 
431,368 
87,886 

2,607,192 

1,114,606 

498,321 

366,254 

675,686 

1,638,043 

6,495,724 

870,613 

16,360 

782,755 

282,383 

79 

Venezuela 

197 

133 

Bolivia 

24 

260 

Chile 

102 

Argentina 

1,107 

Uruguay 

503 

401 

Brazil 

82 

221 

Total 

2,788,239 

4,547,923 

15,347,937 

237.5 

1,759,684 

10,800,014 

Increase,  per  cent 

63 

237.5 

7,366,526 

15,506,377 

38,381,074 

147.5 

Increase,  dollars 

8,139,851 
110.5 

22,874,697 
147.5 

Increase,  per  cent 

696  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Cotton  Production  in  Latin  America 

Cotton  production  in  the  Latin  American  Republics  is  reach- 
ing important  proportions,  the  average  crop  now  being  385,000,000 
pounds  in  those  countries.  Brazil  leads  with  an  annual  crop  of 
207,000,000  pounds.  The  Mexican  crop  averages  100,000,000 
pounds,  the  Peruvian  62,000,000  pounds,  and  that  of  the  West 
Indies  6,500,000  pounds.  Venezuela,  Haiti  and  Argentina  produce 
3,522,000,  3,122,000  and  1,230,000  pounds  respectively.  Among  the 
smaller  producers  are :  Colombia  with  790,000  pounds,  the  Domin- 
ican Republic  with  368,000  pounds,  Nicaragua  257,000  pounds, 
Ecuador  250,000  pounds  and  Paraguay  51,000  pounds. 

The  following  pages  will  give  the  latest  reliable  information 
concerning  the  cotton  industry  in  the  southern  countries. 

Mexico 

Among  the  countries  of  Central  and  South  America  Mexico 
ranks  second  in  the  production  of  cotton.  The  staple  is  cultivated 
on  a  small  scale  in  many  sections  of  the  Republic,  but  the  princi- 
pal cotton  lands  are  found  in  the  States  of  Tamaulipas  and  Vera 
Cruz  on  the  Gulf  coast;  Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Sinaloa,  Sonora,  and 
Lower  California  on  the  Pacific  coast;  and  Durango,  Coahuila 
and  Chihuahua  in  the  North  Central  section.  But  at  least  80  or  90 
per  cent  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  the  Central  States  of  Durango 
and  Coahuila,  in  what  is  known  as  the  Laguna  section.  The 
Laguna  lands  are  said  to  be  of  even  greater  fertility  than  those 
of  the  famous  Nile  Valley.  No  fertilizers  are  needed  as  there 
is  plenty  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  and  the  Nazas  River  which  irri- 
gates the  lands  brings  down  the  required  phosphates  and  potash. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  so  great  tliat  one  irrigation  in  August 
or  September  assures  a  large  crop  the  next  year. 

There  are  no  reliable  statistics  relating  to  cotton  production 
in  Mexico,  but  the  normal  crop  is  estimated  at  about  200,000  bales 
of  500  pounds.  The  unsettled  condition  of  the  country,  however, 
has  so  greatly  interfered  with  cotton  cultivation  that,  in  1914-15 
the  output  was  only  about  145,000  bales. 

Mexico  exports  very  little  raw  cotton  in  ordinary  times,  but 
the  closing  of  the  mills  in  Torreon,  Durango,  and  other  interior 
towns  has  forced  the  cotton  planters  in  the  past  few  years  to  send 
a  considerable  amount  of  their  staple  to  the  United  States. 
Besides  these  exports  from  20,000  to  25,000  bales  raised  in  the 
Imperial  Valley  are  ginned  in  the  United' States  from  the  seed 
cotton  sent  across  the  border. 


COTTON  697 

According  to  the  latest  official  figures  there  are  in  Mexico 
139  cotton  mills,  containing  762,149  spindles  and  27,019  looms. 
These  mills  in  normal  times  consume  about  162,000  bales  of  cotton, 
and  employ  34,500  operatives,  and  the  output  was  approximately 
17,605,000  pieces  of  cloth  and  5,002,000  pounds  of  yarn,  valued  at 
$26,548,000  (gold).  Most  of  the  mills  are  fitted  for  only  the 
coarser  grades  of  goods  which  find  their  best  customer  in  the  peon. 
The  government  levies  a  direct  tax  of  5  per  cent  on  all  mill  sales. 
Most  of  the  mills  are  small,  the  average  containing  5,225  spindles 
and  182  looms.  There  are  only  13  mills  with  over  10,000  spindles, 
the  largest  single  mill  containing  44,184  spindles  and  1,675  looms. 
The  largest  group  of  mills  are  located  in  the  States  of  Puebla  and 
Vera  Cruz,  and  in  the  Federal  District.  The  most  important  of 
the  mill  towns  are  Puebla,  Atlizco,  Orizaba,  and  Mexico  City. 

Before  the  condition  of  the  country  became  so  unsettled  the 
imports  of  cotton  goods  into  Mexico  showed  a  steady  increase,  the 
requirements  of  the  people  growing  proportionately  faster  than 
the  capacity  of  the  local  mills  for  supplying  them.  In  1908  the 
total  output  of  the  mills  was  valued  at  $27,357,000,  while  the 
imports  were  valued  at  $8,846,000,  so  that  Mexico  imported  nearly 
one-fourth  of  its  requirements  of  cotton  goods.  The  Mexican 
tariff  on  cotton  goods  is  among  the  highest  in  the  world,  being 
exceeded  by  those  of  Peru,  Russia  and  Brazil.  On  some  classes  of 
cloth  the  duty  amounts  to  three  times  its  value  abroad,  especially 
on  the  coarser  grades;  the  imports  are,  therefore,  mostly  of  the 
finer  grades  of  cloth,  and  such  specialities  as  are  not  made  in 
Mexico. 

In  1913  the  imports  of  cotton  goods  from  the  United  States 
increased  to  the  value  of  $1,065,000;  in  1914,  to  $1,201,000;  in 
1915,  to  $2,261,000;  and  in  1916,  to  $4,892,000,  and  in  the  eight 
years  from  1908  to  1916,  $4,072,000  or  3681/0  per  cent. 

Guatemala 

No  cotton  is  produced  in  Guatemala,  but  it  contains  the  only 
cotton  mill  in  Central  America.  This  mill  is  owned  and  operated 
by  an  American  and  is  located  near  Quezaltenango.  It  operates 
6,000  spindles  and  150  looms,  and  manufactures  coarse  colored 
cottons  and  unbleached  sheeting,  called  ''  manta."  The  cotton 
used  in  the  mill  is  mainly  American,  but  it  also  uses  some  Mexican 
and  occasionally  a  little  Peruvian. 

Guatemala  is  the  largest  importer  of  cotton  goods  in  Central 
America,  and  cotton  manufactures  make  up  the  largest  single 


698  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

import  of  the  country,  amounting  to  about  24  per  cent  of  all 
imports  and  in  some  years  to  nearly  a  third.  Of  this  trade  pre- 
vious to  the  European  war  England's  share  was  about  53  per 
cent,  that  of  the  United  States  24  per  cent,  that  of  Germany  18 
per  cent,  and  all  other  countries  the  remaining  5  per  cent. 

Of  the  total  of  $1,735,000  worth  of  cotton  manufactures 
imported  in  1913,  the  last  normal  year  before  the  war.  Great 
Britain  supplied  $778,000,  the  United  States  $504,000,  Germany 
$337,000,  and  other  countries  $116,000.  In  1914  Great  Britain 
supplied  $597,000,  the  United  States  $311,000,  Germany  $286,000, 
and  other  countries  $95,000,  of  the  total  of  $1,289,000  worth  of 
cotton  manufactures. 

The  statistics  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce 
for  1916  show  exports  of  cotton  goods  to  Guatemala  valued  at 
$578,579.  The  demand  is  mainly  for  goods  that  are  staple 
articles  in  the  United  States. 

Honduras 

Cotton  is  not  cultivated  in  Honduras,  though  the  cotton  tree, 
which  is  indigenous  throughout  Central  America,  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  But  the  extreme  height  of  the  tree,  reaching 
20  to  30  feet,  makes  it  impracticable  to  gather  the  fibre  which  is 
so  very  short  that  it  is  practically  worthless  for  spinning.  How- 
ever, experiments  have  shown  that  both  the  soil  and  climate  of 
Honduras  are  highly  favorable  to  the  successful  cultivation  of 
upland  and  sea-island  varieties  of  cotton.  There  are  no  cotton 
mills  in  this  Republic. 

The  United  States  almost  monopolizes  the  trade  of  Honduras, 
both  imports  and  exports,  and  just  prior  to  the  European  war 
supplied  the  country  with  about  65  per  cent  of  its  total  imports  of 
cotton  goods.  The  main  imports  in  this  class  are  prints,  gray 
goods,  colored  and  white  goods.  The  United  States  has  the  bulk 
of  the  trade  in  gray  goods  and  more  than  half  of  that  in  colored 
and  dyed  goods.  England  supplies  most  of  the  white  goods,  such 
as  bleached  muslins,  fancy  cottons,  ginghams  and  drills.  In  1908 
our  share  in  the  cotton  goods  import  trade  was  less  than  661/2  per 
cent,  in  1911  it  increased  to  about  72  per  cent  and  in  1914  to  nearly 
80  per  cent.  In  1916  the  total  value  of  our  trade  in  cotton  goods 
amounted  to  $523,688. 

Before  the  European  war  a  part  of  the  import  business  was 
done  with  European  countries  whose  banks  carried  the  mercantile 
classes,  enabling  the  merchants  to  give  long  credit.     Very  little 


COTTON  699 

business  is  now  done  except  w  itli  the  United  States,  and  the  busi- 
ness community  has  been  adapting  itself  to  the  shorter  term 
credits  allowed  by  American  exporters.  Some  American  houses 
are  allowing  more  liberal  terms,  and  the  establishment  of  a  bank 
at  Ceiba,  operating  with  iVmerican  capital,  has  been  of  material 
benefit  in  fostering  closer  trade  between  Honduras  and  the  United 
States. 

Nicaragua 

There  is  a  limited  area  of  Nicaragua  that  is  suitable  for  grow- 
ing cotton,  and  the  cotton  produced  (from  imported  Mississippi 
seed)  is  said  to  compare  favorably  with  American  upland.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  country,  however,  is  too  mountainous  to 
raise  cotton,  and  the  area  suitable  for  cotton,  said  to  be  not  much 
greater  than  50,000  acres,  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Western  coast 
in  the  province  of  Chinandega,  north  of  the  port  of  Corinto. 
In  1908  a  crop  of  192,026  pounds  was  produced,  iii  1912  it 
increased  to  256,344  pounds,  but  in  1914  the  yield  was  only  12,562 
pounds. 

Cotton  cloth  (hand-made)  is  produced  in  Nicaragua  only  in 
small  quantities,  the  amount  imported  practically  representing 
all  that  is  used.  The  cheaper  qualities  of  cotton  cloth,  such  as 
gray  and  bleached  sheetings,  prints,  ginghams,  and  drills,  make 
up  the  greater  share  of  the  textile  imports.  In  1908  the  total 
value  of  imported  cotton  goods  amounted  to  $909,000,  and  in  1913 
to  $1,022,846.  In  the  latter  year  England  supplied  55  per  cent 
of  the  cotton  cloth  imported;  the  United  States,  29  per  cent; 
France,  7  per  cent;  and  Italy,  Germany  and  Spain  smaller 
amounts.  In  1914  the  imports  of  cotton  goods  dropped  in  value 
to  $828,000,  and  in  1915  to  less  than  $600,000.  In  the  latter  year 
there  were  no  imports  from  Germany,  and  the  decrease  in  the 
imports  of  cloth  from  England  amounted  to  approximately  80  per 
cent.  The  value  of  our  exports  in  1915  was  $259,528,  and  in  1916 
$518,651. 

Salvador 

No  raw  cotton  is  produced  in  Salvador,  nor  are  there  any 
establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton.  The  imports  of 
cotton  goods  into  Salvador  are  listed  as  cotton  yarn  and  thread, 
and  as  cotton  cloth  and  other  manufactures  of  cotton,  and  while 
there  are  no  details  as  to  the  kinds  of  goods  imported,  the  manu- 
factures of  cotton  form  by  far  the  largest  importations,  being 
from  33  to  35  per  cent  of  the  total.     This  trade  is  practically 


700  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

monopolized  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  These 
countries  on  an  average  furnish  60  and  30  per  cent,  respectively, 
of  the  total  and  all  other  countries  10  per  cent.  In  1907  the  total 
value  of  cotton  goods  imported  amounted  to  $1,153,000,  of  which 
Great  Britain  supplied  $653,736,  the  United  States  $331,721,  and 
all  other  countries  $167,673,  and  in  1914  to  $1,532,000,  showing  an 
increase  of  about  33  per  cent.  Of  the  1914  total  Great  Britain 
supplied  $847,724,  the  United  States  $462,491,  Italy  $105,231,  and 
other  countries  $117,017.  In  1916  the  imports  from  the  United 
States  increased  in  value  to  $735,144. 

Costa  Rica 

Cotton  is  not  cultivated  in  Costa  Rica,  and  there  are  no  estab- 
lishments for  its  manufacture,  and  as  there  is  practically  no  hand- 
manufacture  in  the  country,  all  cotton  wares  consumed  are 
imported.  Of  the  piece  goods  imported,  the  United  States 
monopolizes  the  trade  in  gray  goods  to  almost  as  great  an  extent 
as  England  does  in  the  sale  of  white  goods.  The  English  also 
have  the  largest  share  of  the  colored  goods  trade,  while  the  United 
States  has  the  largest  proportion  in  the  sale  of  prints.  In  1913 
cotton  goods  to  the  value  of  $828,948  were  imported,  of  which 
$355,042  worth  came  from  Great  Britain,  $243,802  from  the  United 
States,  $124,699  from  Germany,  and  $105,405  from  other  countries. 
The  cotton  imports  in  1915  totaled  $466,699,  and  of  this  $129,848 
came  from  Great  Britain,  $266,333  from  the  United  States,  and 
$70,518  from  other  countries. 

The  imports  of  cotton  goods  from  the  United  States  in  1916 
are  valued  at  $623,699,  an  increase  over  1915  of  about  135  per 
cent. 

Panama 

No  cotton  is  produced  or  manufactured  in  Panama,  and  there 
is  no  hand-loom  work  except  possibly  on  a  small  scale  among  the 
Southern  Indian  tribes.  The  share  of  the  United  States  in  the 
trade  of  Panama  has  steadily  increased  since  the  foundation  of 
the  Republic  until  now  it  buys  nearly  all  that  Panama  has  to  sell, 
and  supplies  about  73  per  cent  of  her  requirements  from  other 
countries.  Notwithstanding  the  favorable  position  held  by  the 
United  States  in  the  general  trade  of  the  Republic,  for  some  time 
prior  to  the  European  war,  England  controlled  more  than  half  of 
the  cotton  goods  trade,  the  share  of  the  United  States  being  about 
one-third,  the  remainder  falling  mainly  to  Germany.    But  a  com- 


COTTON     ■  701 

parison  of  the  imports  in  more  recent  years,  1914  and  1915  for 
instance,  shows  that  the  United  States  is  gaining  at  the  expense 
of  European  countries,  on  account  of  the  war,  in  nearly  all  classes 
of  goods  imported,  Spain  being  the  only  European  country  that 
increased  its  exports  in  1915.  There  are  no  recent  available  statis- 
tics showing  the  share  of  the  United  States  and  other  countries 
in  this  trade  as  compared  with  that  of  other  countries,  but  in  1915 
the  imports  from  the  United  States  amounted  in  value  to  $913,391, 
and  in  1916  there  was  an  increase  to  $1,396,880,  or  53  per  cent. 
The  main  imports  from  the  United  States  consist  of  bleached, 
unbleached,  and  colored  cloths,  knit  goods,  clothing  and  other 
wearing  apparel,  other  miscellaneous  wares,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  yarn. 

Cuba 

The  proximity  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States,  the  peculiarly 
close  political  relations  of  the  two  countries,  the  wealth  of  the 
island,  make  Cuba  of  all  the  Latin  American  countries  the  most 
inviting  field  for  the  American  manufacturer  of  cotton  goods,  for 
there  are  no  goods  of  this  character  manufactured  in  Cuba,  and 
the  climate  is  such  that  cotton  goods  are  used  for  clothing  by  both 
sexes,  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  being  dressed  in  cotton 
both  winter  and  summer.  And,  yet,  until  the  past  few  years,  the 
United  States  had  a  comparatively  small  share  of  Cuba's  imports 
of  cotton  wares. 

Cuba 's  imports  of  cotton  goods  in  the  order  of  value  are  cloth, 
knit  goods,  lace,  ready-made  clothing,  and  thread.  Of  the  cloths 
imported  the  largest  takings  are  white  goods,  prints,  colored 
goods,  and  gray  goods.  Prior  to  the  European  war,  Great  Britain 
supplied  more  than  half  the  cloths  classed  as  close-woven,  fol- 
lowed by  Spain,  the  United  States,  France,  and  Switzerland.  Of 
loose-woven  cloths  Great  Britain  also  supplied  over  half,  followed 
by  the  United  States,  Spain  and  France.  The  bulk  of  the  knit 
goods  came  from  France,  Germany  and  Spain,  with  only  a  small 
amount  from  the  United  States,  laces  from  Great  Britain,  with 
smaller  amounts  from  Germany,  France,  and  Spain.  Of  the  wear- 
ing apparel  imported  the  United  States  furnished  nearly  half,  with 
lesser  amounts  from  France,  Austria,  and  Germany.  Cotton 
velvets  were  imported  from  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  tulle  from 
the  latter  country  and  France,  pique  from  Great  Britain,  and 
passementerie  from  Germany,  the  United  States,  and  France. 

Prior  to  1900  the  exports  of  cotton  goods  from  the  United 
States  to  Cuba  were  a  very  small  proportion  of  that  country's 


702 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


requirements,  he'uig  a  little  less  than  7  per  cent  of  the  total,  but 
beginning  with  the  independence  of  the  Island,  the  proportionate 
share  of  the  United  States  has  increased  materially,  and  in  1915 
reached  37i/^  per  cent  of  the  total. 

The  cotton-goods  trade  of  Cuba  ever  since  1900  has  been 
undergoing  a  marked  change,  which  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
American  manufacturer.  This  change  would  be  far  more  pro- 
nounced if  the  imports  by  countries  for  1916  were  available,  inas- 
much as  the  value  of  cotton  goods  sent  to  Cuba  from  the  United 
States  increased  from  $4,325,000  in  1915  to  $7,742,000  in  1916, 
being  a  gain  of  $3,417,000,  or  79  per  cent  in  a  single  year.  Of 
course  this  increase  is  mainly  due  to  the  w^ar  in  Europe,  but  it 
only  goes  to  show  what  the  American  manufacturer  may  do 
toward  building  up,  if  not  practically  monopolizing,  a  trade  which 
logically  belongs  to  the  United  States.  This  country  buys  four- 
fifths  of  Cuba 's  exports,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
enjoy  an  equivalent  share  of. its  import  trade. 

The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  all  cotton  goods 
imported  into  Cuba  from  the  leading  countries  during  the  years 
specified : 

(BY  THOUSANDS  OF  DOLLARS) 


Year 

-  Great 
Britain 

United 
States 

Spain 

France 

Germany 

All 
others 

Total 

1907 

$4,155 
3,209 
3,293 

$1,390 
2,833 
4,325 
7,742 

$1,665 
1,558 
1,519 

$1,084 
738 
486 

$675 
464 
157 

$289 

882 

1,406 

$9,258 

9,684 

11,186 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Haiti 

A  very  superior  quality  of  cotton  is  grown  in  Haiti,  but  the 
crop  is  small  and  the  quantity  uncertain,  owing  to  continuous 
revolutions  and  the  unsettled  condition  of  labor.  In  1914  the 
exports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  3,121,839  pounds,  and  in  1915 
to  1,762,102  pounds,  nearly  all  of  which  was  shipped  to  Liverpool. 
There  are  no  cotton  manufactures,  all  the  cotton  wares  used  being 
imported.  There  are  no  statistics  relating  to  the  cotton  goods 
imported  from  the  various  countries,  but  as  the  United  States  is 
now  controlling  about  90  per  cent  of  the  import  trade,  it  may  be 
Mssumed  that  most  of  the  cotton  goods  used  are  obtained  from  this 
country. 


COTTON  703 

In  spite  of  revolutions  the  cotton-goods  trade  with  Haiti 
shows  a  gratifying  increase  in  recent  years,  the  total  value  of 
such  goods  exported  to  that  Republic  in  1916  being  $2,276,749, 
compared  with  $770,452  in  1915;  $1,706,208,  in  1914;  and  $742,978, 
in  1908. 

Dominican  Republic 

The  cotton  growing  district  of  this  Republic  is  in  the  northern 
half  of  the  island,  principally  the  Provinces  of  Monte  Christi,  San- 
tiago, and  Puerto  Plata,  and  some  little  planting  in  the  Provinces 
of  Espaillat  and  La  Vega.  The  Province  of  Pacificador  also  con- 
tains much  good  cotton  land.  The  cotton  grown  is  of  the  sea- 
island  variety  and  commands  a  high  price.  The  cultivation  of 
cotton  for  export  was  begun  in  1908,  and  for  a  time  enjoyed  consid- 
erable prosperity  though  the  production  was  small.  The  largest 
yield  was  in  1912,  but  since  then  the  crops  have  gradually  lessened, 
and  in  1914  only  368,439  pounds  were  exported,  and  297,471  pounds 
in  1915. 

The  cotton  wares  used  in  the  Republic  are  all  imported,  as 
there  are  no  hand-looms  or  mills  for  making  such  goods.  The  total 
value  of  cotton  goods  imported  in  1913  amounted  to  $1,880,211 ;  in 
1914,  to  $1,232,725;  and  in  1915,  to  $1,869,849.  The  values  of  the 
cotton  goods  imported  from  each  country  in  1915  were  as  follows : 
United  Stat-es,  $1,377,222;  Great  Britain,  $390,192;  Porto  Rico, 
$62,716;  Germany,  $19,875;  Spain,  $15,517;  France,  $4,327.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  United  States  controls  the  bulk  of  the 
cotton  trade,  its  share  being  nearly  74  per  cent  of  the  total,  while 
that  of  Great  Britain  is  20  per  cent,  the  remaining  6  per  cent  being 
divided  between  Porto  Rico,  Germany,  Spain  and  France.  Our 
cotton-goods  exports  in  1916  are  valued  at  $1,348,000. 

Virgin  Islands,  formerly  Danish  West  Indies 

In  1913  the  island  of  St.  Croix  produced  778,000  pounds  of 
sea-island  cotton,  but  the  following  year  the  crop  was  almost  a 
failure,  amounting  to  only  62,000  pounds.  The  value  of  cotton 
textiles  imported  in  1914  amounted  to  $70,006,  of  which  Great 
Britain  contributed  $49,838,  the  United  States  $13,798  and  Ger- 
many, $4,614.  The  value  of  imports  in  1916,  from  this  country 
amounted  to  only  $39,398.  As  the  Danish  islands  now  belong  to 
the  United  States  what  little  outside  trade  is  carried  on  will  no 
doubt  soon  fall  to  this  country. 

46 


704  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Colombia 

A  small  amount  of  cotton  is  grown  in  Colombia,  which  is 
confined  to  the  Departments  of  Bolivar,  Atlantico,  and  Magdalena. 
Most  of  the  cultivated  cotton  fields  lie  along  the  banks  of  the 
Magdalena  River,  between  Barranquilla  and  Colomar.  There  is 
also  a  small  amount  of  cotton  gathered  from  the  native  wild  cotton 
trees.  The  staple  of  the  cultivated  cotton  is  11/2  to  1%  inches, 
grown  from  Mississippi  seed  imported  every  second  year.  It 
resembles  sea-island  cotton,  but  the  fibre,  which  is  long  and  silky, 
is  said  to  be  too  fine  for  use  in  the  local  mills.  This  has  resulted 
in  the  exportation  of  the  Colombian  cotton,  and  the  importation 
of  American  cotton  for  domestic  manufacture.  In  1914  the  Colom- 
bian cotton  sold  in  the  Liverpool  market  as  high  as  24  cents  a 
pound.  In  1907  the  raw  cotton  exported  amounted  to  564,242 
pounds,  and  in  1914  to  789,390  pounds.  In  1915,  owing  to  the 
European  war,  there  were  no  exports,  the  small  crop  being  con- 
sunaed  by  local  mills. 

According  to  government  statistics  (1915-16)  there  are  in 
Colombia  21  establishments  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  "  tex- 
tiles and  threads,"  with  a  combined  capital  of  $3,530,400.  How 
many  of  these  are  engaged  in  cotton  manufactures  is  not  shown, 
but  there  are  at  least  four  cotton  mills  of  importance,  one  each  at 
Cartagena,  Medellin,  Samaca,  and  Bogota.  They  operate  some 
20,000  spindles  and  200  looms,  and  make  narrow  gi*ay  sheeting, 
drills,  and  thread.  Besides  these  there  are  four  undershirt 
mills  —  one  at  Cartagena,  another  at  Barranquilla,  and  two  at 
Medellin.  There  are  also  hosiery  machines  at  Cartagena  and 
Buga. 

Textiles  form  the  largest  single  item  of  imports  into  Colombia, 
and  of  these  cotton  goods  are  by  far  greater  than  all  others.  In 
1908  the  total  value  of  cotton  goods  imported  amounted  to 
$6,616,602,  the  value  of  the  goods  received  from  each  countr}^ 
and  the  percentage  share  of  each  being  as  follows :  Great  Britain, 
$3,929,674,  per  cent  59.5;  United  States,  $1,477,082,  per  cent  22; 
Germany,  $425,540,  per  cent  6.5;  France,  $312,135,  per  cent  5; 
Spain,  $135,084,  per  cent  2 ;  all  other  countries,  $337,087,  per  cent 
5.  In  1913  the  value  of  cotton  goods  received  from  the  United 
States  was  almost  the  same  as  in  1908,  amounting  to  $1,453,774, 
in  1915  it  dropped  to  $846,793,  but  in  1916  it  was  more  than  three 
times  as  much  reaching  $2,607,192.  Of  course  this  great  increase 
was  the  result  of  the  disturbance  of  trade  caused  by  the  European 
war.  Colored  cloths  are  the  chief  item  of  imports,  followed  by 
bleached  and  unbleached  cloths. 


COTTOX  705 


Venezuela 


Cotton  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  Venezuela,  most  of 
which  is  raised  near  Valencia  and  consumed  by  local  mills.  The 
staple  is  strong,  and  silky,  and  about  lA  inches  in  length. 
Besides  the  cotton  of  domestic  growth  consumed  in  the  mills,  a 
small  quantity  was  exported  prior  to  the  European  war,  the  total 
in  1908  being  396,885  pounds,  which  was  mostly  taken  by  France, 
some  going  to  Germany,  the  Netherlands  and  the  United  States. 
But  that  the  crops  of  very  recent  years  have  been  too  small  to 
meet  local  requirements,  is  evidenced  from  the  fact  that  within  the 
past  year  the  surtax  of  25  per  cent  of  the  duty  on  imported  cotton 
has  been  removed,  and  now  the  import  tax  is  only  3.43  cents  per 
pound. 

There  are  four  cotton  factories  in  Venezuela,  operating  about 
19,000  spindles  and  500  looms.  They  employ  1,800  hands  and  con- 
sume about  6,250  bales  of  cotton  aimually.  The  mills  are  located 
in  Caracas,  Valencia,  Maracaibo  and  Cumana.  These  mills  make 
gray  goods,  coarse  wearing  cloths,  plain  sheeting,  and  hosiery. 

The  cotton-goods  trade  is  the  most  important  in  Venezuela, 
and  one  in  which  the  United  States  appears  to  the  worst  advan- 
tage. Of  the  total  value  of  this  trade  in  1908,  amounting  to 
$4,191,270,  Great  Britain  furnished  such  goods  to  the  value  of 
$2,545,536;  Germany,  $681,530;  and  the  United  States  $307,973,  the 
latter 's  share  being  only  a  fraction  over  7  per  cent.  Our  share 
in  this  trade  in  1910  was  7.7  per  cent;  1911,  8  per  cent;  1912,  10.3 
per  cent ;  1913,  22.6  per  cent ;  1914,  12.5  per  cent ;  and  the  first  six 
months  of  1915,  20.9  per  cent.  The  items  of  most  importance  con- 
stituting this  trade  are  in  the  order  named,  prints,  drills, 
madapollam,  undershirts,  checks  and  plaids,  gray  shirting,  white 
shirting,  hosiery,  etc.  The  imports  of  cotton  goods  has  been  con- 
siderably affected  by  the  European  war,  the  value  having  fallen 
from  $3,907,726  in  1913,  to  $2,460,525  in  1914,  and  since  1914  still 
less  than  this  as  indicated  by  the  imports  of  the  first  six  months 
of  1915.  The  exports  of  cotton  goods  from  the  United  States  to 
Venezuela  in  1915  are  valued  at  $413,203,  and  in  1916  at  $1,114,606, 
an  increase  of  $701,403,  or  170  per  cent. 

Ecuador 

Cotton  is  raised  in  Ecuador  south  of  Guayaquil  and  also 
around  Ibarra,  north  of  Quito,  but  to  what  extent  there  is  no  avail- 
able information.    Most  of  the  cotton  produced  is  used  in  domestic 


706  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

manufacture,  and  occasionally  some  little  is  exported.  In  1908 
7,317  pounds  were  shipped  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1914 
120,000  pounds  to  Great  Britain.  The  mills  depend  upon  home 
grown  cotton  for  their  limited  supplies,  the  duty  on  raw  cotton 
being  so  high  (4.42  per  pound)  as  to  prohibit  any  imports. 

Of  the  imports  cotton  goods  are  the  most  important,  forming 
24.5  per  cent  of  total  in  1908,  the  value  of  which  was  $2,453,900. 
Of  this  amount  Great  Britain  contributed  $1,573,243,  or  64  per 
cent ;  Germany,  $395,724,  or  16  per  cent ;  Italy,  $147,020,  or  6  per 
cent;  the  United  States,  $106,770,  or  4.5  per  cent;  Spain,  $103,268, 
or  4.5  per  cent ;  and  all  other  countries,  $127,875,  or  5  per  cent,  of 
which  Belgium  contributed  $76,357 ;  France,  $34,820 ;  and  all  other 
countries  $16,698.  The  principal  articles  of  import  are  white 
shirting,  prints,  gray  shirting,  knit  underwear,  cotton  trousering, 
handkerchiefs,  and  hosiery.  Cotton  goods  in  general  are  dutiable 
at  5.06  cents  per  pound  gross  weight,  but  a  few  pay  special  rates. 
In  1915  the  value  of  cotton  goods  imported  from  the  United  States 
was  $146,854,  and  in  1916  $498,321,  an  increase  of  $351,467,  or 
240  per  cent. 

Peru 

Cotton  has  been  one  of  the  chief  products  of  Peru  since  the 
time  of  the  Incas,  but  only  within  the  past  15  years  has  there  been 
any  attempt  to  increase  the  acreage  and  improve  the  methods  of 
cultivation.  Nearly  all  of  the  crop  is  gro^\^l  on  the  west  coast 
near  the  sea  and  within  the  valleys  formed  at  intervals  between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea  by  small  rivers.  The  alluvial  deposits 
in  these  valleys  are  rich  in  nitrogen  and  potash  and  are  very 
productive.  Cotton  growing  as  a  rule  is  very  profitable,  and  hence 
the  area  is  being  increased,  and  with  greater  irrigation  upon  which 
all  of  the  crops  depend,  and  the  gradual  development  of  intensive 
farming  the  crop  is  steadily  increasing,  or  was  increasing  until 
the  European  war.  The  very  high  freight  rates  and  the  limited 
demand  in  European  countries  has  been  very  discouraging  to 
planters,  and  the  crops  the  past  few  years  have  fallen  off 
considerably. 

The  cotton  plantations  vary  in  size  from  500  to  5,000  acres,  are 
owned  principally  by  Peruvians,  and  the  laborers  are  native 
Indians  whose  average  wage  is  about  60  cents  a  day.  Peruvian 
cotton  may  be  divided  roughly  into  five  staple  classifications :  The 
so-called  *'  full  rough  "  cotton,  coming  mostly  from  the  planta- 
tions in  the  Piura  valley;  the  ''modern  rough,"  from  the  dis- 
tricts   of    Palpa    and    Uazca;    sea-island,    largely    from    Supa ; 


COTTON  707 

mitififa,  grown  at  several  localities  along  the  coast;  and  "  Peru 
soft,"  locally  known  as  Egypto.  The  rough  Peruvian  is  the 
indigenous  cotton  of  the  tree-cotton  variety,  and  has  a  strong, 
rough,  wooly,  crinkly  staple,  about  1%  to  l^/o  inches  long,  and  its 
price  is  largely  governed  by  the  price  of  wool  as  it  is  used  to  mix 
with  wool  in  the  manufacture  of  ''  all-wool  "  underwear,  hosiery 
and  cloth.  The  crop  of  long-stapled  sea-island  and  mitififa,  grown 
from  imported  sea-island  and  Egyptian  seed,  is  small  as  the  staple 
and  quality  are  found  to  deteriorate  with  a  consequent  lowering  of 
price,  which  to  some  extent  is  governed  by  the  price  of  Egyptian 
cotton,  a  variety  it  closely  resembles.  The  "  Peru  soft  "  or 
Egypto  (a  misnomer  for  it  is  grown  from  American  upland  seed) 
is  much  more  extensively  cultivated  than  even  the  native  cotton. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  an  annual,  in  Peru  it  is  cultivated  as  a 
biannual,  though  the  second  year's  crop  is  about  20  per  cent  less 
than  that  of  the  first.  Its  staples  runs  from  1%  to  IVi  inches,  and 
its  market  value  is  governed  by  the  price  of  American  upland. 

In  1902  the  cotton  crop  of  Peru  was  106,914  bales;  in  1905, 
139,609  bales;  in  1909,  315,640  bales;  in  1913,  the  largest  crop  ever 
made,  364,706  bales;  in  1914,  346,422  bales;  and  in  1915,  318,071 
bales.  The  average  bale  weighs  about  170  pounds.  The  United 
States  consumes  annually  about  5,654,500  pounds  of  Peruvian 
cotton.  In  1915-16  the  imports  amounted  to  5,454,000  pounds,  but 
the  bulk  of  the  cotton  exported  from  Peru  goes  to  Liverpool.  In 
1913  the  United  States  exported  to  Peru  cotton  goods  to  the  value 
of  $198,331,  and  in  1916  to  the  value  of  $675,686,  an  increase  of 
$477,355,  or  242  per  cent. 

There  are  seven  cotton  mills  in  Peru,  five  of  which  are  located 
at  Lima,  operating  67,900  spindles  and  2,293  looms,  the  capital 
invested  being  $2,057,000.  These  mills  manufacture  mostly  gray 
sheetings  and  shirting,  gray  ducks,  ticks  and  drills,  and  gray  and 
colored  checks  and  striped  cloths;  also  blue  drill,  khaki  drills 
and  trousering,  ordinary  grades  of  white  flannel,  and  white  drills 
and  tow^els.  Outside  of  the  domestic  consumption  one  of  the  best 
markets  for  these  goods  is  Bolivia,  and  a  small  quantity  is  also 
taken  by  Chile.  The  mills  consumed  41,177  bales  (Peruvian 
weights)  in  1913,  32,353  bales  in  1914,  and  44,118  bales  in  1915. 

Bolivia 

Cotton  is  not  grown  in  Bolivia,  nor  are  there  any  manufac- 
tures of  cotton.  The  imports  of  cotton  goods  average  in  value 
about  $1,000,000  a  year,  and  are  largely  confined  to  a  few  standard 
lines.    The  greatest  demand  seems  to  be  for  gray  sheetings,  white 


708  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

shirtings,  printed  flannelets,  and  cotton  trouserings  or  cassinettes. 
In  most  South  American  countries  Great  Britain  has  controlled 
about  half  the  cotton  goods  trade,  but  prior  to  the  European  war 
Germany  had  nearly  half  the  Bolivian  trade.  Great  Britain  only 
about  a  fourth,  the  remainder  being  divided  between  the  United 
States  and  Peru,  with  a  small  amount  going  to  Italy  and  France. 
Most  of  the  gray  sheeting  used  is  from  the  United  States  and 
Peru,  with  a  small  amount  from  England.  This  is  the  only  line 
in  which  the  United  States  is  prominent  in  this  market,  the 
imports  consisting  almost  wholly  of  Massachusetts  shirtings. 
Besides  these  about  the  only  American  cotton  goods  used  are 
small  amounts  of  drills,  duck  and  ticking.  The  trade  in  white 
shirtings  is  monopolized  by  Great  Britain,  and  that  in  printed 
flannelets  was  done  mainly  with  Germany,  some  of  the  finer 
grades  coming  from  Great  Britain.  The  cheap  cotton  trouserings 
or  cassinettes  were  furnished  almost  entirely  by  Germany,  as  were 
corduroys,  used  not  only  for  riding  trousers  but  by  the  poorer 
white  population  for  suits,  on  account  of  their  stout  wearing 
quality. 

No  detailed  statistics  of  the  cotton  trade  of  this  Republic  are 
obtainable,  and  hence  the  proportionate  share  of  the  United 
States  is  unknown.  However,  our  exports  of  this  class  of  goods 
for  the  fiscal  year  1915-16  shows  an  appreciable  gain  over  the 
previous  year,  particularly  in  bleached  and  unbleached  goods.  In 
bleached  cloths  the  increase  was  from  110,806  yards  to  1,200,944 
yards  and  in  unbleached  cloths  from  1,934,264  yards  to  3,069,619 
yards,  while  the  value  of  all  cotton  wares  increased  from  $146,597 
to  $366,254. 

Chile 

No  cotton  is  grown  in  Chile,  but  there  are  three  cotton  fac- 
tories of  some  importance,  operating  about  5,000  spindles  and  400 
looms,  besides  there  are  seven  or  eight  knitting  mills.  These 
mills  make  shirts,  underwear  and  hosiery,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
miscellaneous  wares. 

Among  the  South  American  countries  Chile  ranks  third  as  a 
buyer  of  cotton  goods,  its  annual  imports  for  some  years  prior  to 
the  European  war  averaging  over  $11,000,000  in  value.  Cotton 
goods  form  the  largest  single  item  of  the  imports,  the  value  of 
which  amounted  to  $11,442,939  in  1905,  to  $13,262,180  in  1907,  to 
$12,214,864  in  1909,  to  $9,025,176  in  1913  and,  due  to  the  war,  to 
only  $6,324,368  in  1914.  There  are  no  very  recent  statistics  show- 
ing the  share  of  each  country  in  the  imports. 


COTTON  709 

Among  the  principal  imports,  in  the  order  of  value,  are  col- 
ored and  dyed  goods  in  general,  white  shirting,  knit  goods,  prints, 
drills,  yarn,  gray  sheeting,  osnaburgs,  sewing  thread,  flannel, 
passementerie,  lace,  oxfords,  bed-covers,  handkerchiefs,  ticking, 
cotton  waste,  and  cotton  blankets.  The  trade  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  period  named,  consisted  mainly  of  osnaburgs  for  making 
flour  sacks,  flannel,  gray  sheeting,  sail  duck,  white  goods  and 
yarn.  The  value  of  the  cotton  goods  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  Chile  in  1914-15  was  $639,031  and  $1,638,043  in  1915-16, 
an  increase  of  $999,012,  or  156  per  cent.  This  increase  was  mainly 
confined  to  bleached,  unbleached,  and  colored  cloths  the  exports  in 
1914-15  being  6,780,257  yards,  as  compared  with  12,211,220  yards 
in  1915-16. 

Argentina 

Cotton  cultivation  has  been  undertaken  on  a  small  scale  in 
Argentina  for  some  years.  There  are  large  tracts  of  land  in  the 
northern  and  northwestern  section  of  the  country  that  are  well 
adapted  for  cotton,  but  for  lack  of  experience,  capital  and  suffi- 
cient labor,  the  crop  has  made  little  progress.  The  provincial 
governments  and  various  agricultural  societies  have  tried  to 
encourage  cotton  growing  by  offering  prizes  at  agricultural  fairs, 
and  in  1913  the  Province  of  Corrientes  granted  partial  exemption 
from  taxation,  and  a  bounty  for  picking  cotton.  Most  of  the  cotton 
grown  in  Argentina  comes  from  the  Territory  of  Chaco,  where 
European  farmers  are  doing  most  of  the  planting,  employing 
native  Indians  and  peons  from  Paraguay  and  the  Province  to  pick 
the  cotton.  There  are  also  small  areas  devoted  to  cotton  in  Cor- 
doba, Santa  Fe,  Corrientes  and  several  other  Provinces.  In  1907 
the  exports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  116,767  pounds ;  in  1912  to 
1,230,000  pounds;  in  1913,  to  750,000  pounds,  and  1914,  to  609,500 
pounds. 

There  is  one  cotton-spinning  mill  in  Argentina  with  9,000 
spindles,  and  five  cotton-weaving  mills  with  a  total  of  1,200  looms. 
The  spinning  mill  has  a  capital  of  $850,000,  and  consumes  from 
650,000  to  750,000  pounds  of  raw  cotton  annually,  most  of  which 
is  imported  from  the  United  States,  and  small  quantities  from 
Brazil  and  Peru.  The  capacity  of  this  mill  is  about  1,100,000 
pounds  of  yarn.  The  five  weaving  mills  have  a  capital  of  $732,000 
and  employ  1,415  operatives.  The  production  of  the  mills  is  fig- 
ured at  8,000,000  to  10,000,000  yards  annually,  comprised  mainly 
of  duck,  canvas,  gray  sheeting  and  shirting,  and  a  small  amount 
of  colored  goods.  There  are  also  forty-three  knitting  mills  with 
650  machines,  with  a  yearly  production  of  about  4,000,000  pounds. 


710  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  most  important  single  item  imported  into  Argentina  is 
cotton  goods.  Of  this  trade  prior  to  the  European  war  Great 
Britain  controlled  about  half,  the  remaining  half  being  competed 
for  by  Italy,  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  the  United  States,  Spain, 
and  other  countries.  As  indicating  the  share  of  each  country  in 
this  trade  the  imports  in  1908  is  a  fair  illustration.  The  total 
value  of  the  cotton  goods  imported  amounted  to  $27,119,134,  and 
of  this  Great  Britain  furnished  $13,428,662,  or  49.5  per  cent ;  Italy, 
$5,403,737,  or  20  per  cent;  Germany,  $3,731,172,  or  14  per  cent; 
Prance,  $1,623,565,  or  6  per  cent;  Belgium,  $916,788,  or  3  per  cent; 
the  United  States,  $685,207,  or  2.5  per  cent ;  Spain,  $663,266,  or  2.5 
per  cent ;  and  all  other  countries,  $666,737  or  2.5  per  cent. 

Piece  goods  form  the  bulk  of  the  cotton  manufactures 
imported,  and  most  of  these  are  classed  as  colored  goods,  which 
include  both  goods  made  with  dyed  yarn,  usually  known  as  colored 
goods  and  piece-dyed  goods.  Other  piece-goods  imports,  in  the 
order  of  their  value,  are  printed,  bleached,  and  gray  goods, 
especially  of  cotton  and  wool  mixed  cloths  for  trousering,  women's 
skirts,  etc.  In  addition  to  piece  goods  the  other  chief  imports  of 
cotton  manufactures  are  cotton  yarn,  hosiery,  lace  handkerchiefs, 
bed  covers,  blankets,  cotton  flour  bags,  haberdashery,  duck  and 
canvas,  ready-made  clothing,  ribbons  and  tapes,  and  towels. 
Heretofore  the  trade  of  the  United  States  was  confined  chiefly  to 
cotton  flour  bags,  yarn,  duck  and  canvas,  with  a  small  amount  of 
ready-made  clothes,  gray  drills,  madapollams,  and  candle  wicks. 
But  since  the  beginning  of  the  European  war  this  country  has 
made  extraordinary  gains,  especially  in  the  exports  of  bleached, 
unbleached  and  colored  cloths,  knit  goods,  and  yarns.  The 
increase  in  the  value  of  each  of  this  class  of  goods  in  1915-16  as 
compared  with  1914-15  is  as  follows:  bleached  cloths  from 
$11,612  to  $225,716;  unbleached  cloths,  $178,179  to  $578,663;  col- 
ored cloths,  $14,344  to  $796,786 ;  knit  goods,  $169,572  to  $1,686,512 ; 
yarns,  $475,528  to  $2,183,809,  while  the  total  of  all  cotton  goods 
increased  from  $1,064,265  in  1914-15  to  $6,495,724  in  1915-16. 
This  shows  a  gain  in  one  year  of  $5,431,459,  or  510  per  cent. 

Paraguay 

There  is  considerable  land  in  Paraguay  very  productive  and 
well  adapted  to  cotton  raising,  but  the  lack  of  labor,  the  lack  of  a 
home  market,  high  freight  rates  abroad,  and  the  fact  that  other 
crops  pay  better  have  tended  to  restrict  cotton  production.  What 
little  cotton  there  is  made  is  grown  partly  from  the  indigenous  tree 


COTTON  711 

cotton,  which  bears  for  several  years  without  replanting  and 
yields  a  strong  fibre  about  l^/i  inches  in  length,  and  partly  from 
imported  American  seed  which  gives  a  fibre  li^g  inches  long  and 
is  whiter  in  color  than  the  indigenous  cotton.  Prior  to  1870  about 
43,000  acres  were  cultivated  in  cotton.  Since  that  date,  as  a  result 
of  the  war  in  which  the  country  had  been  engaged,  cotton  culture 
has  been  neglected.  In  1905,  18,893  pounds  were  exported;  in 
1906,  13,018  pounds,  and  in  1907,  19,092.  The  total  crop  during 
these  years  averaged  about  51,000  pounds.  Experiments  during 
1915  were  carried  on  with  American  seed  and  under  the  direction 
of  an  experienced  American  planter,  the  results  being  very  satis- 
factory. There  are  no  cotton  manufactures  in  Paraguay  and 
prior  to  the  European  war  the  cotton  goods  trade  was  divided 
between  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain  and  France,  the 
rank  of  each  being  in  the  order  named. 

Uruguay 

Cotton  is  not  grown  in  Uruguay,  and  there  are  only  two  or 
three  small  cotton-weaving  mills  with  some  300  looms.  There  is 
also  a  small,  but  increasing  number  of  knitting  machines  for 
making  hosiery.  The  products  of  the  weaving  mills  consist  of 
plaid  flannelets,  known  as  tartan,  a  good  grade  of  khaki,  Turkish 
towels,  common  stripes  and  checks,  and  a  small  amount  of  fancy 
goods.  There  are  no  available  statistics  of  the  imports  of  cotton 
goods  or  the  origin  of  the  same,  but  a  recent  report  (27  Jan.  1917) 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce  shows  that  the 
imports  of  cotton  goods  for  the  first  six  months  of  1916  were 
valued  at  $967,933.  The  value  of  cotton  goods  exported  to 
Uruguay  in  1914—15  from  the  United  States  amounted  to  $126,054, 
and  in  1915-16  to  $870,613,  an  increase  in  value  of  $744,559,  or  590 
per  cent.  The  value  of  bleached,  unbleached  and  colored  goods 
increased  from  $20,279  to  $145,307;  knit  goods  from  $25,609  to 
$377,810;  and  yarns  from  $14,444  to  $133,067. 

Brazil 

It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  sufficient  and  available 
lands  in  Brazil  to  produce  40,000,000  bales  of  cotton;  and  yet, 
compared  with  such  possibilities  it  contributes  a  very  small  share 
to  the  cotton  commerce  of  the  world.  The  crops  fluctuate  from 
year  to  year,  but  in  spite  of  the  increasing  demand  for  home  con- 
sumption, and  high  protection,  production  shows  little  tendency  to 
increase.    The  tariff  on  imported  raw  cotton,  7.27  cents  a  pound. 


712  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

is  the  highest  in  the  world,  the  next  highest  being  Russia  with  7.22 
cents  a  pound,  Peru  with  2.65  cents,  and  Mexico  mth  1.74  cents. 

The  unprogressive  state  of  cotton  culture  is  said  to  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  cotton  is  grown  in  small  patches  by  small  farmers, 
who  till  the  lands  by  the  most  primitive  methods,  and  who  have 
neither  the  money  nor  the  knowledge  to  adopt  more  advanced 
systems;  also,  to  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities.  Again, 
another  drawback  is  the  uncertain  and  irregular  rainfall,  which  is 
often  excessive  at  the  fruiting  period  and  at  other  times  fails 
entirely,  resulting  in  prolonged  drought. 

Cotton  can  be  raised  practically  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
but  the  States  producing  the  largest  crops  (in  the  Northeastern 
section)  are,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  about  as  follows: 
Pernambuco,  Parahyba,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Ceara,  Alagoas, 
Maranhao,  Sergipe,  Sao  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes  and  Bahia. 

The  Pernambuco  cottons  are  in  general  of  long  staple,  and  the 
arboreous  Peruvian  varieties  predominate.  The  varieties  most 
cultivated  are  known  locally  as  quebradinho,  creoulo,  caiana,  and 
governo,  especially  the  first  two,  both  of  which  are  tree-cotton. 
The  crop  of  this  State  ranges  from  150,000  to  250,000  bales.  The 
States  of  Parahyba  and  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  are  ranked  after 
Pernambuco  in  cotton  production.  The  tree  cotton  of  these  States 
gives  the  largest  yield  and  will  bear  six  to  eight  years.  Sea-island 
cotton  also  gives  good  results.  The  Maranhao  cotton  ranks  second 
only  to  the  famous  sea-island.  The  varieties  most  cultivated  are 
the  Peruvian  and  some  varieties  of  herbaceous;  the  creoulo,  que- 
bradinho, and  the  governo  being  mostly  esteemed.  The  highlands 
produce  cotton  trees  that  bear  eight  or  ten  years,  and  are  often 
20  feet  or  more  in  height.  The  sandy  lands  of  the  State  of  Ceara 
produce  an  excellent  cotton,  the  fibre  of  which  is  strong,  flexible 
and  silky ;  the  salt  marshes  produce  the  acclimated  sea-island,  and 
also  tree  cottons  that  bear  regularly  for  periods  up  to  10  years. 
The  herbaceous  varieties  produce  cotton  in  three  to  four  months. 
The  small  State  of  Alagoas,  in  proportion  to  its  size  produces  more 
cotton  than  most  of  the  other  States.  In  the  State  of  Sergipe  the 
herbaceous  cottons  predominate,  but  there  are  also  some  of  the 
longer-staples  grown.  The  herbaceous  cottons  take  six  months 
and  the  tree  cottons  nine  months  to  bear. 

The  statistics  of  cotton  production  in  Brazil  are  very  unsatis- 
factory and  not  always  reliable,  but  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained the  crop  from  1910  to  1915,  inclusive,  in  Brazilian  bales  (of 
176  pounds  each)   averaged  966,000  bales,  the  maximum  being 


COTTON  713 

reached  in  1913  with  1,165,000  bales,  and  the  minimum  in  1915  with 
781,000  bales. 

On  account  of  the  increased  domestic  consumption,  the  exports 
of  raw  cotton  from  Brazil  have  declined  considerably  in  recent 
years.  Back  in  1872  as  much  as  173,115,500  pounds  were  exported. 
Nothing  like  this  amount  has  since  been  sent  out  of  the  country, 
as  the  home  consumption  has  continually  increased.  The  exports 
in  1912  reached  36,980,000  pounds,  in  1913,  82,504,000  pounds,  and 
fell  to  1,960,000  pounds  in  1915. 

The  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton  in  Brazil  has  developed 
to  such  an  extent  in  the  past  20  years  that  it  is  now  the  most 
important  industry  in  the  country.  And,  it  is  not  only  a  valuable 
asset  in  the  prosperity  of  Brazil,  but  also  a  growing  factor  in  its 
economic  development  as  is  evident  from  the  following  data  very 
recently  compiled  by  Seiior  Cunha  Vasco,  showing  the  comparative 
status  of  the  industry  in  1905  and  1916: 

1905  1916 

Number  of  mills  working  regularly 110  250 

Number  of  spindles   working   regularly 734,928  1,  464,  218 

Number  of  looms  working  regularly 26,  420  49,  648 

Number  of  hands  working  regularly    39,  159  72,943 

Annual  production  in  yards 264,749,  000  261,520,  700 

Capital $48,427,000  $78, 756, 000 

Value  of  output 30,260,750  59,  783,750 

The  annual  consumption  of  cotton  per  spindle  is  estimated  at 
88.18  pounds,  from  which  it  is  deduced  by  Centro  Industrial,  a 
commercial  association  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  of  high  standing,  that 
not  less  than  129,121,900  pounds  of  cotton  are  consumed  annually. 
The  leading  States  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  in  the  order  of 
importance:  Minas  Geraes,  Sao  Paulo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Federal 
District,  Bahia.  and  Maranhao.  There  are  from  one  to  a  half 
dozen  mills  in  ten  other  States.  The  goods  made  in  the  Brazilian 
mills  are  chiefly  of  the  coarse  and  medium  grades.  The  largest 
output  is  of  colored  goods,  followed  by  gray,  printed,  dyed,  and 
bleached,  in  the  order  named.  Some  of  the  larger  mills  are  manu- 
facturing the  finer  grades,  part  of  which  compare  favorably  with 
the  imported  goods  in  both  w^eave  and  finish. 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  cotton  from  the  United  States  to 
Brazil  in  1913,  amounted  to  $386,368,  and  in  1916  to  $782,755,  a 
gain  of  $396,387,  or  103  per  cent. 


^ 


Cattle  and  Meat   Industry  of  Latin 

America 

By  W.  B.  Graham 
Chancellor  of  the  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

THE  world  demand  for  meat,  and  particularly  beef,  has 
directed  attention  to  Latin  America  as  the  most  promising 
field  for  its  production.  Locally,  there  are  but  few  places 
in  either  the  Northern  or  Southern  group  where  cattle  have  not 
been  raised  with  success  since  the  Spanish  settlement.  Due,  how- 
ever, to  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and  extensive  meat 
preserving  plants,  until  recently  their  great  value  in  export  trade 
was  almost  entirely  in  their  hides.  In  consequence,  the  native 
stock  deteriorated  through  interbreeding  and  acclimatization  to 
the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  conditions,  the  result  being  a  non- 
fat producing  animal  of  small  size  whose  beef  was  unsuited  to  the 
tastes  of  foreign  buyers.  But  with  a  foreign  demand,  and  the 
installation  of  packing,  refrigerating,  and  transportation  facili- 
ties, cattlemen  of  the  pampas  of  Argentina  early  recognized  the 
need  of  scientific  methods.  Foreign  pedigreed  stock  has  been 
introduced  for  cross  breeding,  fat  producing  feedstuffs  have  been 
cultivated,  sanitary  regulations  have  been  decreed  and  enforced, 
inland  transportation  has  been  facilitated  and  markets  have  been 
established.  The  result  is  that  to-day,  under  the  stress  of  war 
requirements  for  foodstuffs,  Argentina  is  prepared,  along  with 
her  sister  Republic,  Uruguay,  and  the  beginning  of  a  powerfully 
potential  export  meat  trade  is  unfolding  itself  throughout  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent,  including  both  Brazil  and  Para- 
guay, with  the  southern  provinces  of  Chile.  The  present  develop- 
ment, yet  in  its  beginning,  has  shown  that,  wherever  intelligent 
encouragement  has  been  given  to  the  cattle  industry  it  has  pros- 
pered. Cheap  grazing  land,  cheap  labor,  salubrious  climate, 
luxuriant  vegetation,  improved  methods  of  refrigeration  and 
transportation,  await  only  the  scientific  correlation  of  these  ele- 
ments in  the  more  intensive  application  of  the  principles  of  ani- 
mal industry  to  make  Mexico,  Central  America,  the  West  Indies, 
and  South  America  a  constant  producer  of  cattle,  beef,  and  other 
meat  producing  animals  for  ages  to  come. 

[714] 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  715 

Argentina 

The  Argentine  Republic  is  tiie  greatest  live  stock  country  of 
Latin  America.  Situated  between  22°  and  55°  of  South  Lati- 
tude, it  has  every  degree  of  climate  that  the  United  States  has, 
including  a  diversity  of  rainfall.  Certain  parts,  particularly  in 
Patagonia,  are  semi-arid,  and  deducting  these,  along  with  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Andes,  and  90,000  square  miles  under  cultivation, 
from  the  whole  area  leaves  an  estimated  484,162  square  miles 
available  for  live  stock,  an  area  approximately  twice  the  size  of 
the  State  of  Texas.  The  number  of  cattle,  officially  estimated  1 
Jan.  1915,  was  30,000,000—3.8  per  capita  —  valued  at  $955,- 
350,000,  in  addition  to  80,000,000  sheep,  valued  at  $203,808,000,  / 

4,564,000  goats,  valued  at  $3,875,748,  and  3,200,000  swine,  valued  | 

at  $33,968,000.  Of  a  total  of  exports  amounting  to  $558,280,643 
in  1915,  animals  and  animal  products  aggregated  218,780,416  gold 
pesos  ($0,965),  or  $211,516,181.44. 

From  the  days  of  the  earliest  settlers  the  raising  of  cattle  has 
been  the  important  industr}^  of  the  country,  the  immense  ''  pam- 
pas," or  prairies,  and  the  ^aJjikdous^climate  being  particularly 
adapted  for  live  stock.  But  comfiiercially,  as  far  as  exports  were 
concerned,  cattle  were  raised  chiefly  for  their  hides,  the  meat 
being  consumed  at  home,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  export 
trade  in  dried  beef,  or  "  tasajo,"  the  only  form  of  preservation 
generally  known,  and  a  limited  number  of  stock  on  the  hoof  sent 
to  neighboring  countries.  The  result  locally  was  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Argentina  became  the  greatest  consumers  of  beef  in  the 
world,  a  reputation  they  still  maintain,,  the  per  capita  consump- 
tion being  275  pounds  in  the  cities,  and  about  300  pounds  in  the 
country,  as  against  112  pounds  for  Great  Britain,  102  pounds  for 
Germany,  80.3  pounds  for  the  United  States,  and  77  pounds  for 
France. /The  first  shipment  of  refrigerated  beef  was  exported 
from  Buenos  Aires  to  Havre  in  1877  —  80  tons.  While  it  was 
hailed  as  a  success,  it  was  not  until  the  period  beginning  1885  that 
it  became  of  commercial  importance.  The  amount  shipped  in  that 
year  was  small —  a  valuation  of  only  $1,680  —  but  sufficient  to 
show  its  commercial  practicability,  and  from  that  time  it  has  grown 
to  immense  proportions,  being  to-day  the  greatest  staple  of  the 
country,  and  a  product  that  will  not  attain  to  its  potentialities  for 
years  to  come.  •  It  is  sufficiently  large  at  the  present  time  to  control 
the  world  quotations  of  meat,  and  has  been  responsible  for  the 
ill tr eduction  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  not  only  into  the 
exploitation  of  Argentine  industry  but  that  of  the  entire  Rio  Plata 
territory  and  the  whole  semi-tropic  South  America  southward. 


716  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

During  the  past  generation  the  leading  ranchmen,  supported 
by  the  government  in  the  realization  of  the  need  for  better  beef 
stock,  have  imported  the  best  examples  obtainable  of  well  known 
European  breeds,  which  they  have  either  crossed  with  the  native 
cattle  or  kept  pure.  This  movement  has  taken  place  largely  during 
the  past  decade.  Considered  from  all  points  of  view,  the  Shorthorn 
has  been  accepted  as  the  animal  best  adapted  to  Argentina's 
needs,  figures  from  the  Argentine  Herd  Book  for  the  present  year 
(1917)  showing  15,127  bulls  and  27,422  cows  of  this  breed.  Other 
breeds  are  in  the  following  order :  Hereford,  2,294  bulls  and  4,280 
cows;  Aberdeen  Angus,  1,638  bulls  and  2,654  cows;  Flemish, 
respectively  62  and  185 ;  Red  Polled,  56  and  71 ;  Jersey,  34  and  41 ; 
Red  Shorthorn,  17  and  30;  and  Devon,  4  and  16.  This  does  not 
represent  all  the  cattle  of  pedigreed  stock,  but  those  registered 
only.  The  number,  of  various  breeds,  registered  in  the  Herd  Book 
from  1908  to  1917  is  60,107  bulls  and  66,091  cows,  of  which  approx- 
imately 54,000  are  alive  to-day.  From  1901  to  1914  there  were 
brought  into  the  Republic  12,761  pedigreed  animals,  chiefly  from 
Great  Britain,  valued  at  $8,000,000,  or  an  average  of  $637  each. 
The  interest  in  live  stock  improvement  is  so  keen  that  animals 
of  real  promise  command  the  highest  prices.  At  the  show  sale  of 
1913  at  Buenos  Aires,  the  Shorthorn  bull,  Americus,  sold  for 
$33,968,  the  world's  record  price,  other  high  figures  being  Dur- 
ham Shorthorn  (in  1915),  $25,476,  and  the  Shorthorn  reserve 
champion  (1916),  $23,353.  The  average  price  brought  for  200 
bulls  auctioned  in  1915  was  $2,420. 

The  great  majority  of  stock  for  breeding  purposes  is  brought 
from  Great  Britain,  the  government  regulations  being  extremely 
stringent  as  to  the  country  of  origin,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
prevent  the  entry  of  stock  afflicted  with  the  foot-and-mouth 
disease  and  other  plagues.  The  regulations  were  in  fact  so  strict 
that  it  has  been,  until  quite  recently,  impossible  to  introduce  any 
live  stock  whatever  from  the  United  States,  the  fact  of  the  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  existing  in  any  part  of  the  country  operating 
as  a  bar  to  cattle  from  any  other  part,  even  across  the  continent 
where  the  plague  might  be  unknown.  However,  at  the  solicitation 
of  the  American  Shorthorn  Breeder's  Association  the  regulations 
were  modified  by  Decree  of  6  Oct.  1915,  in  the  sense  that,  while 
importation  is  prohibited  from  any  country  while  the  foot-and- 
mouth  disease  "  exists  or  has  existed  in  an  epizootic  or  general 
form;  or  from  departments,  provinces,  countries,  or  states  where 
the  disease  exists  or  has  existed  within  three  months  previous  to 
shipment,  the  three  months  counts  from  the  date  of  the  official 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  717 

declaration  of  the  extinction  of  the  disease,  provided  that  such 
declaration  has  not  been  made  until  15  days  have  elapsed  from 
the  last  case."  The  government  feels  that  it  is  able  now  to  suc- 
cessfully cope  with  the  cattle  plague. 

Under  the  patronage  of  the  government,  the  Sociedad  Rural 
Argentina  —  the  national  organization  interested  in  live  stock  — 
holds  annual  international  live  stock  exhibitions  at  Buenos  Aires, 
at  which  prizes  for  excellence  are  awarded  by  a  jury  sent  to 
Argentina  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  London,  thus 
maintaining  breed  standards,  the  while  keeping  alive  the  interest 
between  Argentina  and  her  greatest  meat  customer.  Further 
encouragement  is  given  to  the  meat  industry  by  the  government 
agricultural  schools,  and  also  by  the  sending  abroad  of  students, 
or  ''  becados,"  to  study  veterinary  science  in  the  leading  institu- 
tions of  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
These  young  men,  fresh  from  the  latest  and  most  advanced 
instruction  abroad,  return  to  take  up  their  work  on  the  great 
ranches  or  with  the  department  of  the  government  concerned  with 
live  stock  where  they  are  a  strong  factor  in  the  promotion  of 
animal  industry. 

With  the  exception  of  those  parts  of  Argentina  devoted  to 
agriculture  in  whole  or  part,  cattle  run  on  immense  ranges  similar 
to  those  of  a  generation  ago  in  the  western  United  States.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  but  little  care  is  required,  the  pasturage  and 
climate  being  favorable.  There  is,  however,  the  danger  every 
few  years  of  droughts,  diminishing  the  supply  of  water  and  grass, 
causing  poorly  conditioned  stock  to  be  rushed  to  market.  The 
results  are  commercially  bad  for  the  industry,  in  that  the  country 
is  depleted  of  its  stock  of  calves  and  breeding  cows,  as  is  shown 
by  the  varying  gains  and  losses  indicated  in  the  national  census. 
Of  late,  however,  since  the  success  of  the  refrigerating  packing 
houses  has  been  demonstrated  commercially,  a  vast  acreage  has 
been  regularly  devoted  to  the  raising  of  feedstufPs  for  cattle,  the 
principal  ones  being  com,  1,250,000  bushels,  1915-16,  and  alfalfa, 
known  locally  as  *'  lucerne,"  18,219,997  acres,  1914.  Recently 
the  silo  system  has  been  installed  as  a  remedy  to  overcome  the 
effects  of  droughts,  largely  through  the  encouragement  of  the 
railroads.  These  measures,  taken  in  connection  with  the  improve- 
ments in  breeding  and  the  increasing  world  demand  for  cattle 
products,  is  an  earnest  of  the  continuance  and  growth  of  Argen- 
tine cattle  raising  and  meat  packing. 

The  packing  houses  of  Buenos  Aires,  La  Plata,  and  other 
Argentine  cattle  markets  rank  with  the  best  in  the  world,  and  in 


718  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

connection  with  their  output  a  fleet  of  vessels  fitted  for  the  carry- 
ing of  frozen  and  chilled  meats  plies  between  the  Rio  Plata  and 
European  ports,  with  lesser  facilities  for  meeting  the  require- 
ments, just  beginning,  of  North  America.  It  is  estimated  that  of 
the  British  investments  of  approximately  $2,500,000,000,  more 
than  one-half  is  devoted  in  one  way  or  another  to  the  cattle  or 
packing  industries.  Likewise,  Argentina  has  been  a  favorite  field 
for  American  investments,  particularly  in  the  packing  establish- 
ments. Among  the  principal  packing  plants,  with  their  produc- 
tion of  frozen  and  chilled  beef  in  1912,  are  the  following:  River 
Plate  Fresh  Meat  Company  (British),  608,677  quarters;  Sansin- 
ena  Meat  Freezing  Company  (British),  472,487  quarters;  Las 
Palmas  Produce  Company  (British),  572,020  quarters;  Frigo- 
rifico  Argentino  (Argentine),  351,905  quarters;  La  Blanca  Argen- 
tine Meat  Freezing  Company  (United  States),  531,571  quarters; 
Smithfield  and  Argentine  Meat  Company  (British)  ,  373,320 
quarters;  and  La  Plata  Cold  Storage  Company  (United  States), 
1,212,786  quarters,  in  addition  to  233,488  quarters  by  other  con- 
cerns. Besides  this,  these  same  plants  slaughtered  3,584,927 
head  of  sheep.  Since  1912  numerous  plants  have  been  installed 
in  various  parts  of  the  Republic,  the  most  important  being  the 
Frigorifico  Armour  (United  States),  installed  at  Buenos  Aires 
in  1916,  one  of  the  most  complete  and  modern  in  the  world.  Due 
to  the  present  European  war  demands  they  have  been  operated 
at  their  capacity.  Southern  Patagonia,  formerly  considered  a 
bleak,  waste  territory,  has  become  an  important  producer  of  meat, 
principally  mutton,  the  packing  houses  for  which  are  located  at 
Punta  Arenas,  Chile. 

The  exports  of  "  pastoral  products,"  comprising  frozen  and 
chilled  beef,  frozen  mutton,  sundry  frozen  meats,  preserved  meats, 
extract  of  beef,  powder  of  meat,  preserved  tongues,  live  stock  — 
cattle  and  sheep  —  condensed  soup,  and  jerked  beef  —  "tasajo," 
according  to  the  figures  of  the  Direccion  General  de  Comercio  y 
Industria,  at  five  year  periods  from  1885  to  1913,  are  as  follows : 
1885,  $6,684,945;  1890,  $9,971,249;  1895,  $14,768,972;  1900, 
$13,894,206;  1905,  $33,170,104;  1910,  $43,440,235;  1911,  $53,167,086; 
1912,  $56,502,816;  and  1913,  $53,486,761.  Under  the  general  head- 
ing "pastoral  products,"  the  United  States  Consul  at  Buenos 
Aires  states  the  exports  for  1914  as  $146,389,581 ;  for  1915,  $211,- 
057,640.  These  last  two  years  doubtless  include  hides,  an 
important  item  of  export,  the  total  of  cattle  hides,  in  pounds,  for 
the  year  1914  being  122,552,518  (of  which  102,541,570  to  the 
United  States) ;  and  1915,  182,848,061  (of  which  142,564,077  to  the 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  719 

United  States).  Of  the  beef  exported,  the  United  States  bought, 
in  pounds,  in  1914,  115,784,599;  United  Kingdom,  604,866,777; 
1915,  United  States,  84,077,633;  United  Kingdom,  637,903,108;  the 
other  large  purchaser  being  France,  1915,  46,626,817  pounds. 

Bolivia 
Bolivia  is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  mining  and  rubber 
industries.  Wliile  stock  raising  might  be  successfully  carried  on 
in  manj^  portions  of  the  country,  it  has,  despite  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  govenment,  been  neglected  except  for  local  needs. 
While  there  are  sufficient  cattle  for  domestic  purposes,  and  many 
thousands  running  wild,  the  export  of  meat  will  probably  be 
delayed  many  years,  as  the  grazing  lands  are  located  far  in  the 
interior  of  the  continent  and  the  means  of  transportation  to  the 
sea  coast  are  difficult  and  costly.  In  that  part  of  the  Andes 
occupied  by  Bolivia  and  Peru  are  found  the  llama,  alpaca,  vicuna, 
and  the  domestic  sheep,  all  producing  meat  for  local  demands, 
besides  a  very  fine  quality  of  wool  for  export.  In  1913,  465 
metric  tons  (2,205  pounds)  of  cattle  hides  were  exported;  in  1914, 
374;  and  in  1915,  613.  In  addition,  6,558  head  of  cattle  on  hoof 
were  exported  to  Brazil  and  Argentina.  In  view  of  this 
threatened  depletion  of  the  herds,  the  government  is  at  present 
considering  the  prohibition  of  shipments  of  live  stock,  at  the 
same  time  having  already  authorized  the  free  importation  of 
cattle,  with  a  view  of  introducing  the  better  breeds. 

Brazil 
Brazil  has  devoted  her  greatest  attention  to  the  coffee  and 
rubber  industries,  her  exports  in  1915  of  these  products  being 
respectively  60  per  cent  and  131/3  per  cent  of  all  products  sent 
abroad.  (See  articles  Coffee;  Rubber.)  The  attention  paid  to 
this  source  of  wealth  has,  consequently,  resulted  in  the  neglect  of 
other  industries,  except  such  as  have  been  required  for  home 
needs.  Stock  raising  has  only  recently  been  attempted  with  a 
view  to  export.  It  is  true  that  Brazil  has  long  been  a  great 
source  of  cattle  hides,  but  their  number  has  been  measured  by  the 
domestic  consumption  of  meats.  It  is  only  since  the  outbreak  of 
the  present  European  War  that  serious  attention  has  been  paid 
to  a  diversification  of  industries,  particularly  meat.  The  increas- 
ing home  demand  for  coffee,  due  to  the  increase  of  population  — 
threatening  a  curtailment  of  exports  —  and  the  competition  of 
cultivated  Oriental  rubber  plantations,  has  aroused  the  govern- 
ment officials  and  economists,  and  late  in  1916,  the  preliminary 
47 


720  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

session  of  the  Sociedade  Nacional  de  Agricultura  (National 
Agricultural  Society)  was  held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  called  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  the  Brazilian  live  stock  situation,  partic- 
ularly as  regards  cattle.  Among  other  phases  considered  were: 
domestic  breeds,  their  degeneration  and  means  for  their  improve- 
ment; relative  productive  capacity;  world  supply  and  demand; 
possible  federal,  state,  and  municipal  assistance.  Plans  were 
formulated  for  special  courses  in  all  subjects  related  to  the  cattle 
and  meat  industries,  and  the  formation  of  an  efficient  corps  of 
veterinarians  and  bacteriological  experts  to  uniformly  control 
cattle  rearing  and  meat  sanitation,  with  the  establishment  of 
zootechnic  stations  and  model  farms.  In  addition  consideration 
was  given  in  detail  to  the  transportation  of  stock,  packing  and 
refrigeration,  domestic  and  oversea  freights,  and  the  question  of 
direct  government  supervision  over  same.  As  a  result  of  this 
meeting,  a  Cattle  Exposition  was  held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  13-28 
May  1917,  cash  prizes  and  diplomas  being  provided  by  the  society, 
and  Armour  &  Co.  and  Swift  &  Co.,  Chicago  packing  concerns, 
contributing  handsome  cups. 

The  number  of  cattle  in  Brazil  at  the  present  time  is  conser- 
vatively estimated  at  30,705,400  — 1.222  per  capita,  and  9.03  per 
sq.  mile  —  the  greater  number  being  found  in  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  country.  Of  the  States,  Sao  Paulo  has 
1,312,000,  Piauhy,  1,163,000,  Ceara,  1,162,000,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
7,249,000,  Minas  Geraes,  6,861,000,  Bahfa,  2,683,000,  Matto  Grosso, 
2,050,000,  and  Goyas,  1,873,000.  In  addition,  the  estimate  of  sheep 
is  11,000,000;  goats,  10,000,000;  and  swine,  20,000,000.  AVith  the 
exception  of  the  southern  part  of  Parana,  frosts  are  unknown, 
and  the  native  pasturage,  known  as  ' '  caipam  gordura  ' '  —  fat- 
tening grass  —  is  abundant  the  year  around.  In  addition,  water 
is  plentiful  and  shade  trees,  necessary  in  the  more  tropic  portions, 
are  abundant.  It  is  generally  reckoned  that  in  the  cattle  states, 
four  acres  of  grass  is  required  for  each  animal.  Certain  parts  of 
the  country,  in  the  northeni  and  eastern  portions,  are  totally 
unfitted  to  cattle  raising,  and  other  portions  are  occupied  with 
agriculture,  mining,  and  rubber,  and  these  must  be  served  by 
the  meat  producing  states.  Besides  the  newly  organized  Soci- 
edade Nacional  de  Agricultura,  many  of  the  individual  states  have 
their  local  cattle  fostering  organizations,  under  whose  auspices 
fairs  and  expositions  are  held  annually.  In  Rio  Grande  do  Sul 
a  State  union  —  the  Uniao  dos  Criadores  —  was  organized  in 
1915  with  the  purpose  of  inducing  the  government  to  promote 
rural  development,  including  improved  transportation  facilities, 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  721 

co-operation  in  the  purchase  of  necessities  required  in  the  cattle 
industry,  particularly  cattle  for  breeding,  barbed  wire,  salt,  wind- 
mills, etc.  In  two  years  the  Union  enrolled  1,600  members,  being- 
to-day  in  a  flourishing  condition,  i^^'rom  its  headquarters  at  Porto 
Alegre  a  monthly  magazine  is  issued,  for  the  use  of  its  members, 
the  public,  and  for  exchange  purposes  with  like  organizations 
throughout  the  world.  The  president  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Minas  Geraes,  the  fifth  state  in  size  in  the  country,  in  his  last 
annual  message  (1916)  called  particular  attention  to  the  lack  of 
transportation  facilities,  a  general  need  throughout  the  Republic, 
and  proposed  a  concerted  effort  to  increase^  the  frozen  meat 
industry  in  that  particular  state.  He  mentioned  in  particular 
the  shipments  of  this  product  from  Santos,  beginning  in  Septem- 
ber 1914,  with  3,100  kilos,  valued  at  $270,  and  increasing  during 
the  calendar  year  1915  to  nearly  $1,500,000,  and  during  the  first 
four  months  of  1916  to  $1,177,000,  the  bulk  of  this  being  raised 
in  Minas  Geraes.  Government  aid  has  been  given  in  this 
Commonwealth  with  good  results,  cattle  fairs  having  been  estab- 
lished at  Tres  Cora§6es,  Sitio,  Bemfica,  Lavras,  and  Campo 
Bello,  at  which  192,336  head  were  sold  in  1913. 

The  native  live  stock  of  Brazil  — '■  of  Portuguese  origin  —  is 
well  suited  to  the  climate  and  pasturage  of  the  country,  and  has 
recently  been  successfully  crossed  with  foreign  breeds.  While 
small,  the  domestic  animal,  known  as  the  '*  gado  crioulo " 
(creole),  is  not  unsuited  to  beef  purposes,  and  by  selective  breed- 
ing has  attained  an  excellence  that  fits  it  for  exhibition  purposes 
in  competition  with  foreign  breeds,  or  with  the  ''  mestico,"  the 
native  crossed  with  imported  sire.  Of  the  domestic  strain,  the 
most  desirable  are  of  the  four  types  known  as  ' '  caracu, "  ' '  cur- 
raleiro,"  *'  cortaleiro,"  and  "  mocha."  Of  the  foreign  breeds 
introduced,  the  Polled  Angus  is  considered  the  best,  the  Hereford 
and  Shorthorn  being  second  and  third  choice.  Some  attempt 
has  been  made  to  cross  the  Zebu,  from  India,  with  domestic  stock, 
as  being  adapted  in  certain  parts  of  the  country  to  withstand  the 
intense  tropic  heat  and  insect  pests. 

As  regards  meat  production,  Brazil  has  long  supplied  her 
domestic  needs,  in  addition  to  exporting  quantities  of  dried  beef, 
known  as  ''  xarque,"  ''  charquai, "  ''  tasajo  "  and  ''  biltong." 
In  the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  alone  31,150,020  pounds  were  con- 
sumed in  1916,  and  9,912,056  pounds  re-exported,  principally  to 
the  Amazon  ports.  Of  these  amounts,  the  states  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul  supplied  2,843,302  pounds,  Matto  Grosso,  5,044,930,  and 


722  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Minas  Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo,  22,806,366  pounds,  figures  that 
indicate  the  extent  of  local  production.  The  dried  beef  industry 
continues  as  an  important  branch  of  Brazilian  commerce,  as  well 
as  that  of  other  South  American  states  —  the  product  is  cheap, 
wholesome,  may  be  produced  without  expensive  equipment,  requir- 
ing no  coal  or  ice,  both  extremely  expensive,  and  is  easily  trans- 
ported. However,  coincident  with  the  European  embroglio,  the 
country  awoke  to  the  fact  that  a  handsome  profit  was  in  store  for 
foodstuffs,  particularly  meat,  with  the  warring  nations,  and  during 
the  period  following  1914  rapid  strides  have  been  made  in  the 
installation  of  frozen  and  chilled  beef  packing  plants.  Under 
date  of  4  Jan.  1917,  Consul  General  Gottschalk  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
gives  the  following  list  of  established  and  proposed  refrigerating 
packing  houses  in  Brazil:  At  Osasco,  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  the 
Continental  Products  Company,  of  Wilson  &  Co.  and  the  Brazil 
Railway,  (United  States),  ultimate  capacity  daily  800  head  of 
cattle,  1,500  sheep,  and  400  hogs ;  at  Barretos,  State  of  Sao  Paulo, 
Senhor  Conselheiro  and  associates  (Brazilian) ;  at  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  Swift  &  Co.  (United  States),  now  under  construction;  at 
Pelotas,  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Uniao  dos  Criadores  (Stock- 
men's Union),  under  construction;  at  Santa  Anna,  State  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  (near  Uruguayan  boundary),  proposed  location  of 
Armour  &  Co.  (United  States) ;  at  Mendes,  State  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  plant  under  construction  (United  States  and  English) ; 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  modern  freezing  plant,  subsidiary  of  Brazil 
Railway  Co.,  which  merely  prepares  for  export  the  meats  of  the 
municipal  slaughter  house  at  Santa  Cruz,  near  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  exportation  of  refrigerated  meat,  in  consideration  of  the 
short  time  that  it  has  been  a  subject  of  Brazilian  trade,  has  been 
important.  The  first  shipment  was  made  from  Santos,  consigned 
to  New  York,  in  July  1915,  amounting  to  205,350  pounds,  the 
whole  amount  exported  from  that  port  during  the  same  year 
amounting  to  17,482,839  pounds;  from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1,239,992 
pounds;  and  from  Para,  7,902  pounds,  a  total  for  the  six  months 
of  18,730,733  pounds,  valued  at  $1,530,399.  Of  this  quantity,  the 
United  States  received  4,393,287  pounds;  Prance,  222,910  pounds; 
United  Kingdom,  9,592,626  pounds;  and  Italy,  4,521,910  pounds. 
During  the  first  11  months  of  1915,  14,686,386  pounds  were 
exported,  and  in  a  like  period  of  1916  the  number  was  70,268,566 
pounds,  an  increase  of  approximately  400  per  cent,  a  ratio  that 
is  maintained  in  the  shipments  during  the  early  months  of  1917, 
with  Rio  de  Janeiro,  however,  leading  Santos  in  the  quantity 
shipped. 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  723 

At  present,  shipping  facilities  are  being  created  to  handle 
the  export  meat  trade,  the  regular  steamship  lines  calling  at 
Brazilian  ports  adapting  themselves  to  the  new  requirements. 
The  steamship  Rio  de  Janeiro  of  the  Lloyd-Brasileiro  Line  — 
owned  by  the  Brazilian  government  —  made  its  first  trip  with 
refrigerating  installation  leaving  Santos  for  New  York  4  July 
1915,  with  205,350  pounds  of  beef.  Other  boats  of  the  same  line, 
the  Minas  Geraes,  the  Acre,  and  the  Sao  Paulo,  have  since  been 
fitted  with  cold  storage  holds  for  the  same  trade.  In  addition, 
the  English  and  French  lines  making  Brazil  have  every  facility 
for  handling  meats.  On  15  Sept.  1916,  the  HighloAid  Harris 
(English)  carried  a  cargo  of  6,398,000  pounds  from  the  packing 
house  at  Vera  Cruz  (Rio  de  Janeiro) ;  and  on  19  Nov.  1916,  the 
Cravonshire  (English)  carried  8,132,500  pounds,  in  addition  to 
1,100  cases  of  camied  meats  from  the  packing  plants  at  Barretos 
and  Osasco.  Thus  far,  the  greater  quantity  of  refrigerated  meats 
has  gone  to  Europe.  While  a  large  quantity  has  been  cleared  for 
the  United  States,  the  Summary  of  Commerce  makes  no  mention 
of  imports  from  Brazil,  the  quantity  shipped  here  doubtless  hav- 
ing been  transshipped. 

Of  the  by-products  of  the  meat  industry,  hides  have  been  the 
most  important.  In  1913,  the  total  exports  were  35,075  metric 
tons  (2,204.6  pounds),  of  which  the  United  States  received  1,122, 
Germany,  9,823,  France,  9,892,  and  Great  Britain,  1,585;  for  1914, 
the  total  was  31,434  metric  tons,  of  which  the  United  States 
received  5,617,  Germany,  8,964,  France,  5,432,  and  Great  Britain, 
1,845;  for  1915,  the  total  was  37,080  metric  tons,  of  which  the 
United  States  received  19,796,  Germany,  no*ie,  France,  2,701,  and 
Great  Britain,  3,386  —  the  exports  of  the  United  States  approxi- 
mating 54  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  addition,  the  exports  of  sheep 
and  goat  skins  for  the  years  1913-1^15  amounted  to  3,232,  2,487, 
and  4,573  metric  tons  respectively,  the  United  States  buying  from 
75  per  cent  of  the  total  in  1913  to  98  per  cent  in  1915. 

Chile 

Chile,  mth  her  mineral  and  chemical  industries  and  shortage 
of  grazing  lands,  has  been  unable  to  produce  sufficient  beef  for  her 
own  consumption.  In  1914,  animal  products  to  the  amount  of 
four  and  one-half  million  dollars  were  imported.  The  number  of 
honied  cattle  in  the  country  in  1915,  according  to  the  official 
estimate,  was  2,083,997.  Besides,  there  are  about  4,600,000  sheep, 
and   221,000   hogs    in   the    country.     With    the    opening   up    for 


724  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP'  LATIN  AMERICA 

settlement  of  the  six  southerly  states  of  Chile  for  agriculture  and 
stock  raising,  there  is  a  probability  of  the  country  excelling  in  the 
packing  and  export  of  meats,  particularly  mutton  and  sheep 
products.  The  great  centre  for  live  stock  production  extends 
southward  from  Llanquihue  to  Cape  Horn,  the  commercial  centre 
being  Punta  Arenas,  on  the  Continent  side  of  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan. A  city  of  17,000  inhabitants,  it  has  grown  up  during  the  past 
decade  as  the  packing  centre  of  Chile  and  Argentine  Patagonia. 
In  1914,  the  shipment  of  animal  products,  chiefly  to  Europe, 
amounted  to  $5,405,120;  in  1915,  $6,853,229.  Although  Punta 
Arenas  is  in  Chilean  territory,  there  is  no  indication  in  the 
statistics  of  the  country  as  to  what  part  of  these  exports  is  to 
be  credited  to  the  nation,  and  in  fact  a  great  proportion  should 
be  credited  to  Argentina.  The  cattle  and  sheep  and  packing 
interests  in  and  around  the  city  of  Punta  Arenas  represent  a 
capitalization  of  approximately  $8,000,000. 

Colombia 

Colombia  has  thousands  of  acres  of  fine  grazing  lands  open 
the  year  around,  principally  in  the  Magdalena  and  Sinu  valleys, 
on  the  Pacific  highlands,  and  the  Caribbean  coast.  The  number 
of  cattle  is  estimated  at  5,000,000  —  1  per  capita.  Locally,  the 
cattle  industry  is  of  importance  for  the  domestic  supply  of  meat 
afforded,  and  for  the  quantity  of  hides  exported.  Some  few  cattle 
are  sold  abroad.  In  1914,  400  head  of  beef  steers  were  shipped 
to  Panama;  in  1915  the  number  was  850,  increasing  in  1916  to  an 
estimated  1,000  per  month.  During  the  same  year  (1915)  41,255 
head  of  cattle  were  shipped  to  the  United  States,  which  fact 
vouches  for  their  sanitary  excellence,  in  striking  contrast  to  for- 
mer conditions  that  kept  Colombian  live  stock  off  the  United  States 
and  Cuban  markets.  Lately  the  government  has  taken  strong 
measures  to  assist  the  cattle  industry,  one  being  the  law  of  1915 
providing  for  the  establishment  of  packing  plants  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  the  products  of  which  may  only  be  exported,  under  govern- 
ment inspection  and  supervision.  In  March  1917,  announcement 
was  made  of  the  goverimient  contract  with  Evaristo  Rivas  Groot 
for  the  erection  of  a  plant  on  the  Gulf  of  Morrosquillo.  The 
shipment  of  hides  is  an  important  source  of  income,  those  sent 
abroad  in  1912  amounting  to  $2,661,721.50;  1913,  $3,180,781.68,  of 
which  the  United  States  received  $1,024,955  (1912)  and  $966,759 
(1913).  The  exports  of  hides  to  the  United  States  in  1914  were 
$1,042,174;  in  1915,  $1,904,558;  and  in  1916,  $2,978,761. 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  725 

Costa  Rica 

Costa  Rica  had,  in  1905,  304,662  head  of  cattle,  and  79,730 
hogs;  1910,  333,417  head  of  cattle,  and  69,712  head  of  hogs;  and 
1915,  347,475  head  of  cattle,  and  76,198  head  of  hogs  —  .845  head  of 
cattle  per  capita,  and  18.54  per  sq.  mile.  According  to  the  report 
of  the  United  States  Consul,  Costa  Rica  offers  rich  possibilities 
for  the  cattle  industry,  there  being  large  tracts  of  suitable  grazing 
land  procurable  in  fee  at  from  $0.50  to  $1.00  per  acre,  or  on  lease 
for  about  one-tenth  of  these  sums.  In  addition,  cattle  are  easily 
moved,  no  great  distances  having  to  be  travelled,  and  the  climate 
being  favorable,  no  shelter  is  required.  The  most  available  cattle 
lands  are  situated  in  the  Provinces  of  Alajuela,  Cartago,  and 
Guanacaste.  The  present  stock  of  cattle  consists  of  the  native 
breeds  crossed  with  the  Holstein,  Guernsey,  and  Durham.  There 
is  no  refrigerating  packing  house  in  the  country,  but  a  considerable 
number  of  cattle  on  the  hoof  are  shipped  to  the  Canal  Zone.  The 
number  of  cattle  slaughtered  in  1905  was  34,081 ;  1910,  48,371 ;  and 
1915,  50,111.  From  these,  hides  were  exported  in  1905  to  the 
value  of  $108,810;  1910,  $125,419;  and  1915,  $160,124.  Exports 
of  cattle  and  calf  hides  to  the  United  States  amounted  in  1911  to 
$63,853;  1912,  $39,392;  1913,  $49,906;  1914,  $50,634;  1915,  $87,749; 
and  1916,  $96,595. 

Cuba 

In  Cuba,  according  to  the  registrations  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  the  number  of  cattle  (1914,  3,395,000  —  official)  (1916) 
is  4,000,000  —  87  per  sq.  mile  and  1.62  per  capita.  {Commerce 
Rr ports,  20  Sept.  1916,  p.  1079.)  The  Republic,  due  to  the  diver- 
sity of  its  particular  tropical  productions,  tobacco  and  sugar,  and 
the  high  price  of  land,  has  not  paid  uniform  attention  to  the 
cattle  industry.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  War  for  Independence 
there  were  few  cattle  left  on  the  Island,  and  importations  were 
made  from  Porto  Rico,  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  South 
America  in  1899  of  range  cattle  to  be  fattened  on  the  domc^stic 
pastures.  At  the  same  time,  and  since,  breeding  animals  have 
been  imported,  principally  from  the  United  States,  with  the  result 
that  in  the  provinces  of  Camagiiey,  Oriente,  and  Santa  Clara 
many  fine  ranches  are  found.  In  these  provinces  land  is  reason- 
ably cheap,  grazing  is  good,  and  water  is  plentiful.  Most  of  the 
grazing  land  is  fenced,  and  from  two  to  three  acres  of  native 
grass  —  either  Guiena  or  Parana  —  is  sufficient  for  each  animal 
the  year  around,  with  necessity  for  extra  feeding  during  the  fre- 
quent droughts.     The  favorable  natural   conditions  resulted  in  a 


726  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  cattle,  and  in  1905  the  Island  was 
considered  as  being  overstocked,  from  the  fact  that  the  supply 
was  too  limited  to  warrant  important  refrigerating  plants  and 
shipping  facilities  for  dressed  meats,  and,  being  grass  fed,  the 
cattle  could  not  be  exported  on  the  hoof  successfully.  Since 
1905,  the  number  of  cattle  has  increased  with  the  population, 
while  a  steady  improvement  has  been  shown  in  their  breed  and 
weight,  and  a  marked  improvement  in  their  sanitary  condition. 

Within  the  past  10  years  cattle  men  have  recognized  the 
advantage  of  proper  facilities  on  their  ranches,  and  numerous 
extensive  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  matter  of  conven- 
iences, such  as  wind  mills,  tanks,  ponds,  and  silos,  and  in  some 
rare  cases  efforts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the  by-products  of  the 
sugar  industry  in  the  fattening  of  cattle.  Alfalfa  has,  likewise, 
been  introduced,  and,  when  the  soil  is  inoculated  with  the  alfalfa 
bacteria,  it  has  proven  of  great  utility  in  supplementing  the 
native  feedstuffs. '  At  present  there  are  no  packing  houses  in 
Cuba.  There  is,  however,  at  Habana  a  refrigerating  establish- 
ment of  limited  capacity  for  supplying  the  local  hotels  and  steam- 
ship companies  with  frozen  meat.  Due  to  this  fact,  the  general 
method  of  meat  preservation  is  that  of  dried  beef,  large  quanti- 
ties of  which  are  consumed  in  the  Republic,  the  domestic  supply 
being  at  present  insufficient. 

The  exports  of  live  cattle  in  1914  amounted  to  $14,925;  1915, 
$7,715;  hides  and  skins,  1914,  $2,365,498;  1915,  $3,038,429;  other 
animal  products,  1914,  $148,901 ;  1915,  $76,653.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  part,  all  these  exports  were  made  to  the  United 
States.  During  the  same  years  there  were  imported,  1914, 
22,808,429  pounds  of  salt,  fresh,  canned,  and  jerked  beef,  valued 
at  $2,746,485;  in  1915,  the  amount  was  15,498,600  pounds,  valued 
at  $2,137,642,  nearly  all  (jerked  beef)  coming  from  Argentina; 
1914,  6,829,067  pounds;  1915,  3,744,766  pounds;  and  Uruguav, 
1914,  14,426,820  pounds;  and  1915,  11,617,423  pounds. 

Ecuador 

Ecuador  is  mountainous  over  much  of  its  area,  and  is  indus- 
trially concerned  with  the  production  of  cocoa  and  other  tropical 
products,  to  the  neglect  of  the  cattle  industry^  There  is,  however, 
much  available  land  suited  to  live  stock,  particularly  on  the 
Esmeraldas  and  Santiago  rivers  and  on  the  table-lands  to  the  east 
of  the  Andes.  The  entire  stock  of  cattle,  nearly  all  of  native 
breed,  is  consumed  at  home,  the  hides  alone  being  exported. 
These  latter  amounted  in  1909  to  $220,600;  in  1910,  $257,252;  in 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  727 

1911,  $210,428;  and  in  1912,  $294,898.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  by  large  landholders  and  corporations  doing  business  in  the 
country  to  encourage  the  industry  of  cattle  raising,  and  annual 
fairs  are  held  at  Quito,  prizes  being  awarded  for  the  best  animals 
exhibited. 

Guatemala 

Guatemala  has,  according  to  official  estimates  (1915)  655,386 
head  of  cattle  — 13.57  head  per  sq.  mile,  and  .309  per  capita. 
The  great  majority  are  of  the  native  strain,  weighing  on  an 
average  850  pounds,  imported  breeding  stock  has  lately  been 
introduced,  among  which  were  400  bulls  from  the  United  States, 
in  1915.  For  crossing  purposes  the  Hereford  and  Little  Holsteiii 
are  the  favorites,  the  animal  produced  by  the  crossing  weighing 
from  1,100  to  1,200  pounds. 

All  sections  of  the  Republic  are  suitable  for  cattle,  but  the 
favorite  portion  for  fattening  purposes  is  the  Pacific  Coast  slope, 
where  on  an  acre  and  a  half  of  Guinea  or  pampas  grass  per  animal 
they  are  prepared  for  market.  The  advantages  of  this  particular 
section  have  attracted  cattle  from  the  other  parts  of  Guatemala,  as 
w^ell  as  Honduras.  The  drive  from  the  latter  country  is  esti- 
mated at  40,000  head  annually.  Meat  being  abundant  and 
cheap  its  consumption  is  verj^  high.  The  late  ruling  price  of 
beef  cattle  on  hoof  at  the  principal  market,  Guatemala  City, 
is  $0.04  per  pound.  In  1914  the  prices  for  122,000  head  of 
cattle  slaughtered  ranged  from  $0.0075  to  $0.03  per  pound.  In 
1915,  under  a .  special  concession,  three  shipments  of  cattle  — 
amounting  to  2,198  head  —  were  made  to  the  United  States  through 
the  port  of  New  Orleans.  They  were  sold  to  the  packing  houses 
at  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  for  $0,065  per  pound.  As  evidence  of 
tick  infection  was  found,  further  shipments  were  prohibited  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  A  recent  conces- 
sion for  a  packing  plant  near  Quiriga,  Guatemala,  on  which 
construction  has  commenced,  promises  to  give  an  increased 
impetus  to  the  cattle  industry  in  both  Republics.  Arrangements 
have  also  been  made  for  the  shipment  of  the  prepared  beef  direct 
to  the  United  States.  The  exports  of  cattle  and  calf  hides  to  the 
United  States  amounted  in  1911  to  $11,852;  1912,  $2,093;  1913, 
$12,605;  1914,  $6,871;  1915,  $210,805;  and  1916,  $197,107. 

Honduras 

Honduras  has,  according  to  conservative  estimates,  489,000 
(1914)  head  of  cattle  — 10.57  per  sq.  mile  and  1.78  per  capita  —  with 
a  present  annual  increase  of  from  12, per  cent  to  15  per  cent.    It 


728  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

was  recently  the  subject  of  a  special  investigation  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  with  regard  to  its  live  stock 
prospects,  and  a  very  flattering  report  was  made.  The  greater 
number  of  cattle  is  found  in  the  Departments  of  Olancho  and 
Choluteca,  with  numerous  herds  in  the  Departments  of  Cortes, 
Colon,  Atlantida,  and  Yoro.  Water  and  shade  are  abundant,  and 
the  Guinea  and  Para  grass  is  at  times  so  rank  that  it  hides  the 
cattle  that  graze  in  it.  Formerly  many  cattle  were  shipped 
annually  to  Cuba,  and  at  present  large  numbers  are  being  sent  to 
Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  British  Honduras.  At  the  present 
time  construction  is  under  way  on  a  large  beef  packing  plant 
near  the  town  of  Quiriga,  Guatemala,  on  the  Honduras  side  of  the 
boundary,  the  initial  unit  to  have  a  capacity  of  50  head  per  day. 
The  particular  concession  concerned  in  this  project  controls 
100,000  acres  of  land  in  Honduras  alone,  well  stocked.  In  addi- 
tion, according  to  the  statement  of  the  United  States  Consul  at 
Ceiba  (5  April  1916),  plans  are  on  foot  for  making  regular  ship- 
ments to  the  United  States  through  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  to 
which  end  every  effort  is  being  made  to  comply  with  the  sanitary 
requirements  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  it  being  planned 
to  eventually  send  50,000  annually.  The  exports  of  hides  to  the 
United  States  in  1911  amounted  to  $35,563;  1912,  $52,214;  1913, 
$73,006;  1914,  $82,332;  1915,  $137,773;  and  1916,  $325,460. 

Mexico 

Due  to  the  recent  disturbances  in  Mexico,  it  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate the  extent  of  the  cattle  industry  to-day.  In  1902  the  number 
of  cattle  was  reckoned  at  5,142,457  head,  a  low  estimate.  At  pres- 
ent, the  supply  of  cattle  for  the  meat  demands  of  the  country  is 
inadequate,  so  much  so  that  in  October  1916,  a  partial  embargo 
was  placed  upon  their  export,  which  embargo  was  in  May  1917, 
made  complete.  As  showing  the  present  condition,  the  statement 
of  Consul  Philip  C.  Hanna  at  Monterey,  made  to  Washington 
(Consular  Reports,  9  Aug.  1916),  is  generally  true  for  the  whole 
Republic:  "  Large  areas  .  .  .  over  which  large  herds  of 
cattle  roamed,  are  to-day  empty  pastures.  A  large  sum  in  export 
duties  was  collected,  but  the  meat  supply  .  .  .  has  been 
greatly  reduced.  .  .  .  The  declared  export  value  of  hides  and 
bones  from  this  consular  district  for  the  year,  as  compared  with 
1914,  reveals  the  fact  that  there  was  a  falling  off  of  10  per  cent 
in  dry  cattle  hides,  72  per  cent  in  green  (or  butcher)  cattle  hides, 
54  per  cent  in  goat  skins,  80  per  cent  in  pig  skins,  and  36  per  cent 
in  crude  bones.     One  of  the  many  serious  problems  confronting 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  729 

the  nation  at  present  is  the  replenishing  of  its  meat  supply  and  at 
prices  within  the  purchasing  power  of  the  poor."  Supplementing 
this,  Consul  Frederick  Simpich,  of  Nogales,  reports  (1916) : 
'^  Heavy  exports  of  cattle  have  greatly  depleted  the  herds,  but 
owners  were  compelled  to  sell,  in  many  cases,  in  order  to  protect 
themselves.  The  wholesale  stripping  of  the  ranches,  wherein 
cows,  heifers,  and  all  w^ere  sold,  has  discounted  the  future  for 
several  seasons  ahead."  In  1915,  the  exports  from  Mexico  of 
cattle  amounted  to  13,907  head,  valued  at  $332,699;  1916,  24,919 
head,  valued  at  $556,540.  Of  cattle  and  calf  hides  exported  to  the 
United  States  the  number  of  pounds  was :  1911,  22,871,509,  valued 
at  $2,796,652;  1912,  28,264,745,  valued  at  $3,583,851;  1913, 
29,559,779,  valued  at  $4,230,382 ;  1914,  37,750,732,  valued  at 
$6,367,721;  1915,  50,808,523,  valued  at  $8,357,078;  and  1916, 
44,101,773,  valued  at  $7,661,104.  The  exports  of  fresh  beef  and 
veal  to  the  United  States  in  1914  amounted  to  212,865  pounds, 
valued  at  $14,114;  1915,  3,941,131  pounds,  valued  at  $384,497;  and 
1916,  1,316,698  pounds,  valued  at  $127,800. 

Nicaragua 

Nicaragua  has  about  500,000  (estimated)  head  of  cattle — ■ 
10.1  per  sq.  mile,  and  .833  per  capita.  Cattle  raising  has  been  up 
to  the  present  one  of  the  greatest  industries  in  the  Republic,  there 
being  produced  sufficient  for  domestic  demands  and  a  surplus 
available  for  shipment  to  Costa  Rica,  Salvador,  Honduras,  and 
Nicaragua.  The  number  exported  annually  is  on  an  average 
50,000  head.  The  Departments  of  Chonales,  Leon  and  Segovia  in 
the  western  part  of  the  country  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
industrj^,  and  recently  (1916)  the  United  States  Consul  at  Blue- 
fields  in  a  report  to  Washington  recommended  very  highly  the 
territory  in  his  district  for  cattle  raising,  mentioning  it  as  the  only 
industry  within  the  country  wherein  the  producer  was  inde- 
pendent of  the  middleman,  the  demand  for  beef  being  so  great 
that  buyers  were  constantly  scouring  the  country  for  live  stock. 
The  principal  cattle  market  is  Tipitapa,  Department  of  Managua. 
Good  grazing  land  is  obtainable  at  from  $0.75  to  $1  per  acre.  The 
exports  of  cattle  and  calf  hides  to  the  United  States  in  1911 
amounted  to  $142,589;  1912,  $124,403;  1913,  $205,817;  1914, 
$173,281;  1915,  $358,642;  and  1916,  $454,648. 

Panama 

Panama  has,  according  to  the  Bulletin  of  the  Pan  American 
TJnion,  166,937  head  of  cattle  —  5.15  per  sq.  mile,  and  .49  per 


730  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

capita  —  with  estimated  facilities  for  caring  for  5,000,000.  One- 
third  of  the  cattle  in  the  country'-  are  in  the  Province  of  Chiriqui, 
the  other  cattle  producing  provinces  being  Code,  Veraguas, 
Los  Santos,  and  Panama.  The  exports  of  hides  to  the  United 
States  in  1911  amounted  to  $102,502;  1912,  $112,480;  1913, 
$118,380;  1914,  $172,443;  1915,  $264,244;  and  1916,  $301,633. 

Paraguay 

Paraguay  ranks  her  cattle  industry  as  her  chief  resource.  In 
1877  there  were  200,525  head  of  cattle  in  the  Eepublic;  in  1886, 
729,796;  in  1899,  2,283,039;  in  1902,  2,460,960;  and  in  1915, 
5,249,043,  the  rapid  increase  being  due  to  the  lack  of  market,  in 
addition  to  the  large  number  brought  in  from  Argentina  and 
Brazil  to  occupy  the  cheap  grazing  lands.  The  natural  increase, 
above  those  slaughtered,  is  reckoned  at  6  per  cent  annually.  The 
number  per  capita  is  5.249,  second  only  to  Uruguay  with  6.518 
per  capita,  and  8.8  times  that  of  the  United  States  with  .59  per 
capita.  Due  to  its  importance  as  a  national  asset,  the  government 
has  been  very  liberal  in  the  matter  of  granting  concessions  for 
stock  raising  and  in  the  elaboration  of  meat  and  its  allied  indus- 
tries. As  a  result,  at  the  present  time  most  of  the  available 
grazing  land  is  taken  up  by  settlers  or  large  cattle  companies,  even 
in  the  Chaco,  the  extensive  prairie  territory  lying  west  of  the 
Paraguay  River.  The  existence  of  cheap  land  has  attracted  many 
stockmen  from  Argentina,  excellent  pasturage  being  purchasable 
at  from  less  than  $1  up  to  $4  per  acre.  Land  values  are  reckoned 
according  to  their  access  to  transportation,  rather  than  according 
to  their  availability  for  stock  raising.  A  thoroughly  regulated 
department  of  animal  industry  is  maintained  by  the  government, 
and  sanitary  regulations  are  enforced  against  the  introduction  or 
spread  of  the  foot-and-mouth  disease  or  other  plagues.  The 
experts  and  veterinarians  in  charge  are  chiefly  men  that  have  been 
educated  at  government  expense  in  the  technical  schools  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe.  In  addition,  the  Sociedad  Ganadera 
del  Paraguay  (Live  Stock  Association  of  Paraguay),  an  organiza- 
tion of  stockmen  and  business  men,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
banks  of  the  country,  has  been  an  important  factor. 

The  native,  or  ''  criollo  "  ( Creole)  breed  is  a  small  animal, 
weighing  from  850  to  1,000  pounds,  incapable  of  putting  on  much 
fat.  When  crossed  with  European  stock  it  is  Imown  as  "  mes- 
tiza,"  and  compares  favorably  with  ordinary  unpedigreed  stock, 
and  thrives  and  fattens  on  the  luxuriant  pasturage  afforded  the 
year  around.     Efforts  have  been  successfully  made  to  cross  the 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  781 

''  criollo  "  with  Zebu  stock  from  India,  and  in  addition  at  the 
present  time  many  bulls  of  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Holstein,  and 
Polled  Angus  breeds  are  being  introduced.  Of  all  the  stock  in  the 
country,  it  is  estimated  that  80  per  cent  is  native,  and  20  per  cent 
mixed  with  European  breeds. 

The  abundance  of  pasturage,  supporting  from  25  to  40 
animals  per  100  acres,  with  fattening  herbs  indigenous  to  the 
countries,  and,  with  the  introduction  of  more  adequate  transporta- 
upkeep  of  a  cattle  ranch  very  low  as  compared  mth  neighboring 
countries,  and,  with  the  introduction  of  more  adequate  transporta- 
tion facilities,  along  ^\-itli  refrigerating  plants,  Paraguay  promises 
to  be  the  great  live  stock  region  of  South  America.  AVpresen^jio^ 
freshmeat  is  exported.  In  dried  beef,  or  ''  tasajo,"  however,  the 
^Irade~has  always  been  considerable,  the  amount  exported  in  1913 
being  3,771,625  pounds;  1914, 1,638,232  pounds;  and  1915,  2,363,905 
pounds.  The  first  shipment  of  this  product  made  to  the  United 
States  —  4,500  pounds  —  was  made  in  April  1917.  It  is  expected 
that  within  a  year  regular  shipments  of  refrigerated  beef  will  be 
made,  one  packing  plant,  or  **  frigorifico,"  at  Trinidad  being  just 
completed,  and  the  materials  for  the  erection  of  another  at 
Asuncion  being  now  on  the  ground. 

An  increasing  number  of  fat  steers  is  exported  annually,  most 
of  them  being  purchased  by  the  Buenos  Aires  packers.  The 
number  for  1910  was  11 ;  1911,  137;  1912,  4,661;  1913,  36,564;  1914, 
24,385;  and  1915,  29,509.  During  the  same  period  the  number  of 
cattle  slaughtered  for  local  consumption,  representing  also  the 
number  of  hides  produced  —  of  which  90  per  cent  were  exported  — 
was:  1910,  343,447;  1911,  302,375;  1912,  238,042;  1913,  362,484; 
1914,  318,397;  and  1915,  340,692.  The  market  price  for  steers  for 
local  slaughter  during  1915  averaged  $20  per  head;  for  export, 
$25 ;  and  cows,  $14. 

Peru 

Peru  is  not  a  cattle  country,  other  than  for  local  needs.  The 
mountainous  nature  of  the  country  and  the  profits  arising  from 
certain  minerals  and  special  products  of  the  country  have  rele- 
gated the  live  stock  industry  to  a  minor  position.  The  llama, 
alpaca,  and  vicufia,  all  native  to  the  region,  furnish  wool  and  meat 
in  small  quantities,  domestic  sheep  raising  being  in  addition  an 
industry  of  some  importance.  As  concerns  beef  and  cattle 
products,  a  considerable  quantity  is  imported,  the  figures  for  1912 
being  $206,706;  for  1913,  $118,864;  and  for  1915,  $113,193.  In 
addition,  in  1913,  there  were  imported  from  Chile  cattle  to  the  value 
of  $46,834,  and  from  the  United  States  $7,991,  the  former  being 


732  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

chiefly  for  slaughter,  and  the  latter  for  breeding.  Of  exports,  live 
cattle  valued  at  $9,811  were  sold  in  1912,  the  amount  in  1913  being 
$177,832.  Hides  of  all  kinds  of  live  stock  exported  in  1912 
amounted  to  $617,410;  in  1913,  $930,629.  Of  this  last,  cattle  hides 
comprised  $641,624,  the  same  item  amounting  in  1914  to  $521,947. 

Salvador 

Salvador  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  coffee,  sugar 
and  rice  being  the  great  staples.  The  result  is  that  the  cattle  indus- 
try, other  than  for  dairying  and  domestic  consumption,  has  been 
neglected,  despite  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  foster  it.  The 
number  of  cattle  in  1906  was  284,000,  later  estimates  indicating  a 
small  increase.  So  small  is  it  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the 
country  and  the  population  that  during  the  year  1914  the  total 
exports  of  hides  amounted,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  Salva- 
dor government,  to  only  $48,669,  of  which  $31,313  went  to  Ger- 
many, and  $14,906  to  the  United  States.  Evidently  on  a  different 
basis  of  valuation,  the  United  States  figures  regarding  imports  of 
hides  from  Salvador,  are  as  follows:    1911,  $32^^248;  1912,  $45,393; 

1913,  $69,960;  1914,  $78,650;  1915,  $135,799;  and  1916,  $149,517. 

Uruguay 

Uruguay  partakes  of  the  advantages  afforded  to  the  cattle 
industry  by  its  geographical  location,  being  of  that  group  com- 
prising southwestern  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Paraguay,  the  natural 
pasture  of  live  stock.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the  country  (1916) 
was  8,192,602  —  6.518  per  capita,  the  highest  in  South  America, 
and  approximately  17  head  per  sq.  mile.  This  branch  of  industry 
has  been  the  main  resource  of  the  country,  formerly  in  the  shipment 
of  cattle  on  the  hoof,  the  export  of  dried  beef,  or  ''  tasajo,"  hides, 
beef  extracts,  and  in  addition,  its  sheep  products,  its  sale  of  wool 
alone  for  1909  being  $18,682,112;  1910,  $15,036,977;  1911,  $19,491,- 
761 ;  and  the  first  six  months  of  1913,  $18,740,037.  Meat  and  meat 
extracts  (including  mutton)  were  exported  in  1909  to  the  amount 
of  $6,190,979;  1910,  $7,571,611;  1911,  $7,017,944;  and  in  the  first 
six  months  of  1913,  $1,083,900;  during  this  last  period  slaughter 
house  products  and  frozen  and  chilled  beef  were  classified 
separately,  the  former  amounting  to  $8,404,900,  and  the  latter  to 
$3,868,995,  a  total  of  $13,358,795  for  the  half  year,  the  quantity 
exported  since  that  time  being  greater  per  annum,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  imports  into  the  United  States  of  fresh  beef  and  veal  — 

1914,  38,712,846  pounds,   valued  at  $3,313,618;   1915,   13,802,565 


CATTLE  AND  MEAT  733 

pounds,  valued  at  $1,175,293 ;  and  1916,  116,549  pounds,  valued  at 
$10,486.  The  sharp  decrease  for  1916  is  explained  by  the  great 
European  demand,  a  demand  that  also  called  for  the  re-export  of 
18,000,000  pounds  of  the  quantity  imported  in  1914. 

There  are  three  large  packing  houses  at  Montevideo,  one  of 
which  is  idle,  due  to  the  high  price  of  coal.  The  two  that  are  in  /  y 
operation  are :  the  Frigorifico  Montevideo,  owned  by  Swift  &  Co.  ^^^ 
(United  States),  and  the  Frigorifico  Uruguaya  (British).  In 
January  1917,  Morris  &  Co.,  of  Chicago,  purchased  208  acres  in 
Montevideo,  valued  at  $155,000,  and  have  planned  to  begin  con- 
struction immediately.  The  investment  will  represent  a  total  of 
$2,500,000,  and  a  plant  having  a  capacity  of  1,200  cattle,  1,500  to 
2,000  hogs,  and  the  same  of  sheep  is  in  contemplation. 

Realizing  the  importance  of  the  meat  industry,  the  govern- 
ment of  Uruguay  has  devoted  the  greatest  attention  to  measures 
for  its  encouragement,  promoting  exhibitions  of  live  stock  and 
establishing  experiment  stations,  decreeing  sanitary  regulations 
with  regard  to  the  cattle  plague,  quarantines,  abattoirs,  certifica- 
tion of  meat,  etc.  In  October  1916,  the  President  recommended 
to  the  General  Assembly  the  creation  of  a  Department  of  Live 
Stock  to  operate  under  the  Ministry  of  Industries,  at  the  same 
time  outlining  the  need  for  a  central  organization  to  direct  the 
industry,  to  combine  in  one  department  the  various  offices  in 
charge  of  inspection,  animal  diseases,  marks  and  brands,  and 
import  and  export  requirements. 

Venezuela 

Venezuela,  formerly  the  home  of  great  herds,  has  to-day 
about  3,500,000  head  of  cattle,  although  estimates  have  given  as 
high  as  9,000,000.  About  500,000  are  slaughtered  annually,  the 
great  majority  for  domestic  consumption.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  more  than  100,000  sq.  miles  available  for  stock  raising. 
On  12  March  1917,  a  presidential  decree  was  issued  establishing  an 
experiment  station  near  Caracas,  to  take  up  the  problems  of 
intensifying  the  industries  of  the  Republic,  including  live  stock. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco,  and  particularly  along  the  Colombian 
boundary  in  the  state  of  Tachira,  are  splendid  pastures,  well 
watered  and  of  uniform  climate,  where  the  cattle  industry  flour- 
ishes. The  exports  of  hides  (principally  to  the  United  States)  in 
1913  amounted  in  round  numbers  to  $1,492,000;  in  1914,  $1,390,000; 
and  the  first  six  months  of  1915,  $845,000.  Of  cattle  exported  in 
1913,  the  valuation  was  $625,000;  in  1914,  $285,000;  and  the  first 
six  months  of  1915,  $138,000,  In  addition,  a  small  quantity  of 
dried,  salted  and  frozen  meat  was  exported. 


Hides  and  Leather  in  Latin  America 

By  W.  B.  Graham 

Chancellor  of  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

DUE  to  war  conditions,  the  price  of  hides  and  leather  to-day 
is  unprecedented.  But  aside  from  the  war,  the  natural 
world  demand  is  increasing  faster  than  the  production. 
During  the  decade,  1890-1899,  inclusive,  the  average  price  of  hem- 
lock tanned  sole  leather  was  $0.1939  per  pound.  At  the  beginning 
of  1916,  it  sold  for  $0.3250,  an  advance  of  67  per  cent.  Oak  tanned 
sole  leather  in  the  same  period  advanced  57.6  per  cent;  calf-skin, 
58.8  per  cent ;  and  oak  tanned  harness,  49.9  per  cent.  During  1916 
and  1917  a  more  than  appreciable  advance  has  again  been  made, 
and  leather  manufacturers  protest  their  inability  to  secure  the 
raw  stock  of  hides.  This  upward  movement  has  been  reflected 
strongly  in  the  great  cattle  states  of  Latin  America,  and  in  some 
it  was  the  temporary  financial  salvation  during  the  early  commer- 
cial depression  following  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  —  as 
being  a  staple  of  immediate  and  cash  demand. 

Despite  increasing  production,  little  attempt  has  been  made 
to  use  hides  industrially  in  their  respective  countries.  The 
great  bulk  is  exported  in  its  raw  state,  despite  the  fact  of  the 
vast  quantities  of  tanning  materials  available  throughout  Latin 
America  —  quebracho,  mangrove,  divi  divi,  and  innumerable 
others.  These  tanning  materials  are,  in  their  turn,  particularly 
during  the  past  decade,  an  important  export  item,  many  ship- 
ments abroad  being  carried  by  the  same  bottoms  that  transport 
the  hides  for  which  they  are  intended. 

As  the  greatest  cattle  country  of  South  America,  Argentina  is 
the  gr(^atest  producer  of  hides.  Exports  in  1885  amounted 
to  $12,040,113;  1890,  $10,931,216;  1885,  $15,273,154;  1900,  $13,- 
436,361;  1905,  $19,076,544;  1910,  $30,711,408;  1911,  $34,440,015; 
1912,  $42,129,576;  1913,  $38,532,700;  1914,  124,552,518  pounds;  aiid 
1915,  182,879,061  pounds.  Of  this  number  46.5  per  cent  was  wet 
and  53.5  per  cent  dry.  In  this  connection,  it  may  be  stated  that  all 
packing  house  and  most  of  the  metropolitan  butchers'  hides  are 
wet,  while  the  hides  of  beeves  killed  for  individual  consumption 
are  usually  dry,  the  former  commanding  a  uniformly  higher  price, 
as  their  texture  is  devoid  of  the  unevenness  caused  by  unequal 

[734] 


HIDES  AND  LEATHER  735 

drying,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  the  dry  hides,  these  latter 
also  frequently  showing  the  knife  marks  of  the  unpracticed  skin- 
ner's knife.  Exports  to  the  United  States  during  the  fiscal  year 
ending  30  June  1912,  amounted  to  $15,220,904;  and  1916,  $32,754,- 
929,  in  addition  to  goat,  sheep,  and  other  skins.  The  United 
States  is  the  greatest  buyer. 

Bolivia  has  many  cattle,  the  greater  number  on  ranches,  but 
many  running  wild.  The  exports  of  hides  in  1913  amounted  to  465 
metric  tons  (2204.6  pounds),  valued  at  $143,916;  1914,  374  metric 
tons,  valued  at  $104,666:  and  1915,  613  metric  tons,  value  not 
stated.    Only  a  small  part  was  consigned  to  the  United  States. 

Brazil,  according  to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Consul  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro  (Commerce  Reports,  26  May  1917),  concerning  the 
market  for  shoes,  states  that  local  industry  in  the  manufacture  of 
this  article  is  increasing.  Other  reports  also  indicate  that  leather 
is  being  prepared  from  domestic  hides  in  increasing  quantities,  due 
to  the  availability  of  so  many '  excellent  tanning  materials,  not, 
however,  on  an  export  scale.  Cattle  hides  to  the  amount  of  35,- 
075  metric  tons  (2204.6  pounds),  were  exported  in  1913;  1914, 
31,434  metric  tons;  and  1915,  37,080  metric  tons.  The  destination, 
of  these  is  noted  elsewhere  in  this  w^ork,  under  the  article  Cattle 
AND  Meat  Industry  in  Latin  Amkuica.  During  the  fiscal  year 
ending  30  June  1916,  the  exports  of  cattle  hides  to  the  United 
States  amounted  to  59,729,930  pounds,  valued  at  $12,282,472. 

Chile,  in  1913,  exported  hides  to  the  value  of  $1,537,850;  1914, 
$918,260;  and  1915,  $1,670,750;  the  exports  of  leather  during  these 
last  two  years  being  $225,627  and  $261,342  respectively.  No 
exports  of  consequence  have  been  made  to  the  United  States  until 
recently,  the  amount  in  1915  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June)  being 
802,585  pounds,  valued  at  $122,152;  and  1916,  6,887,970  pounds, 
valued  at  $1,091,343.  Leather  to  the  value  of  $49  was  exported 
to  the  United  States  in  1915  (fiscal  year) ;  and  $2,555  in  1916. 

Ecuador  exported  hides  in  1912  to  the  value  of  $29,839;  1913, 
$5,604;  1914,  $120,730;  1915,  $66,459;  1916,  $148,864.  In  a  state^ 
ment  from  the  United  States  Consul  at  Guayaquil  (Commerce 
Reports,  13  Jan.  1917),  it  is  said  that  the  total  for  the  year  1916 
was  shipped  to  the  United  States.  Evidently  on  a  different  valu- 
ation, the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce  give  the  amounts  purchased  from  Ecuador 
as  follows :  1915,  1,074,410  pounds,  valued  at  $186,941 ;  and  1916, 
2,059,616  pounds,  valued  at  $409,047. 

Paraguay,  during  its  entire  history,  has  recognized  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  for  their  hides  as  one  of  its  most  important  resources, 

48 


736  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

and  at  the  present  time  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion and  export  of  this  staple.  The  number  exported,  in  1910, 
was  343,447;  1911,  302,375;  1912,  238,042;  1913,  362,484;  1914, 
318,397;  and  1915,  340,692.  In  1915  the  greatest  number  sent  to 
any  one  country  was  75,175  hides,  to  the  United  States,  the  other 
large  purchasers  being  Holland,  Great  Britain,  Argentina,  and 
Uruguay.  Evidently  a  part  was  credited  to  some  of  the  trans- 
shipping countries,  as  the  statistics  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  credit  Paraguay  with  hides  as  follows:  1915 
(fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  129  pieces  (8,531  pounds),  valued 
at  $933;  and  1916,  141  pieces  (8,632  pounds),  valued  at  $1,733. 
These  are  the  only  exports  to  the  United  States  noted  within  recent 
years. 

Peru  exported  hides,  in  1912,  to  the  value  of  $617,410 ;  1913, 
$930,629;  1913,  $641,624;  and  1915,  $521,947.  United  States  gov- 
ernment statistics  specify  imports  of  hides  from  Peru,  in  the 
fiscal  year  1915,  at  1,003,134  pounds,  valued  at  $174,375 ;  and  1916, 
3,263,109  pounds,  valued  at  $584,542. 

Uruguay,  during  the  year  1909,  exported  hides  to  the  value 
of  $11,165,155;  1910,  $11,147,242;  1911,  $9,976,291;  and  in  1914, 
2,079,514  pounds,  valued  at  $8,015,476.  Exports  to  the  United 
States  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1915  amounted  to 
21,875,639  pounds,  valued  at  $4,117,359;  and  1916,  44,254,341 
pounds,  valued  at  $9,275,658. 

Venezuela  exported  hides,  in  1913,  to  the  value  of  $1,492,000; 
1914,  $1,390,000;  and  the  first  half  of  1915,  $845,000.  Her  princi- 
pal market  is  the  United  States.  On  an  apparently  different  valu- 
ation, the  statistics  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  state  the 
imports  of  hides  from  Venezuela,  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
30  June  1915,  as  7,033,382  pounds,  valued  at  $1,639,456;  and  1916, 
7,530,524  pounds,  valued  at  $1,901,421. 

Regarding  the  northern  group  of  Latin  Ajnerican  states, 
comprising  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Dominican  Republic,  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  and  Salvador,  refer- 
ence is  made  elsewhere  in  this  work  (see  article  on  Cattle  and 
Meat  Industry  of  Latin  America).  Of  exports  to  the  United 
States  in  1916,  Central  America  contributed  $1,523,209  worth  of 
hides,  with  the  greatest  proportion  coming  from  Nicaragua, 
Panama  and  Honduras.  During  the  same  year,  Mexico  exported 
to  the  United  States  hides  to  the  value  of  $7^661,104;  and  the  West 
Indies,  including  foreign  possessions,  $3,433,804,  of  which  Cuba 
contributed  $2,922,298. 


The  Tobacco  Industry  of  Latin  America 

By  W.  B.  Graham 
Chancellor,  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

Argentina 

THE  domestic  production  of  tobacco  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic is  used  exclusively  in  the  domestic  cigar  and  cigarette 
factories.  Due  to  its  medium  and  inferior  quality  it  is 
used  for  the  cheaper  grades  of  consumption,  either  by  itself  or 
mixed  in  proportions  of  50  per  cent  or  55  per  cent  with  the 
imported  leaf.  In  1895  the  numbei*  of  acres  under  tobacco  cultiva- 
tion was  39,030,  and'in  1912,  23,860,  a  decrease  attributed  to  the 
high  internal  revenue  taxes  and  the  low  import  duties  for  the 
imported  product.  In  view  of  this  phase  of  the  Argentine  tobacco 
situation,  the  Section  of  Tobacco  of  the  Argentine  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  July  1916,  issued  a  report  on  the  subject,  in  which 
it  was  stated  that,  despite  the  inferior  quality  of  the  product,  it 
was  of  domestic  importance,  and  recommendations  were  made  to 
increase  both  the  acreage  and  quality,  the  latter  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  approved  scientific  methods  of  cultivation  and  handling, 
as  otherwise  the  domestic  leaf  will  continue  selling  in  the  market 
for  a  third  of  the  price  of  the  imported  leaf.  The  production 
for  the  decade,  1903-13,  in  pounds,  was  149,995,150.8,  the  indi- 
vidual years  being  as  follows :  1903,  8,382,675.4;  1904,  17,749,214.4; 
1905,  18,417,847.8;  1906,  8,312,191.8;  1907,  10,051,960.6;  1908, 
13,750,024.2;  1909,  21,829,029.2;  1910,  15,146,760.2;  1911,  12,825,- 
696.4;  1912,  12,241,435.8;  and  1913,  11,238,315,  showing  a  wide 
variation  in  the  amount  raised,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  culti- 
vated i^  the  provinces  of  Corrientes,  Salta,  and  Tucuman,  all 
situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Republic. 

The  principal  tobacco  consumption  of  the  country  is  of  cigar- 
ettes, most  of  which  -are  of  domestic  manufacture,  and  retail,  per 
box  of  14,  for  from  414  to  17  cents,  the  demand  for  foreign  cigar- 
ettes being  supplied  chiefly  by  the  foreign  element.  Of  cigars, 
the  ''  Toscano,"  an  Italian  imported  cigar  is  the  most  popular, 
retailing  for  414  cents,  and  an  Argentine  imitation  known  as  the 
^'Avanti,"  retailing  at  2tV  cents.  The  well-to-do  Argentinian 
smokes  Habanas  exclusively ;  in  addition,  there  are  various  Brazil- 
ian, Dutch  and  German  brands  that  have  a  considerable  sale. 

[737] 


738  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Very  little  tobacco  is  chewed.  The  imports  during  the  five  year 
period,  1908-12,  were  as  follows :  Habaiia  leaf,  1,587,344  pounds ; 
Paraguayan,  2,554,665  pounds;  others  10,604,643  pounds  of 
which  about  70  per  cent  came  from  Brazil  and  18  per  cent  from 
the  United  States.  Of  manufactured  tobacco  during  the  same 
period,  74,097  pounds  from  Uruguay,  United  Kingdom,  Cuba, 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  Egypt,  etc.;  Habana  cigars  in  boxes, 
87,989  pounds ;  other  cigars  in  boxes,  2,044,902  pounds  —  three- 
fourths  from  Italy  and  the  remainder  largely  from  Switzerland 
and  The  Netherlands;  other  cigars,  not  in  boxes,  55,193  pounds 
—  Switzerland  and  Italy;  cut  tobacco  (*' picadura  "),  Paraguay, 
7,738  pounds,  and  other,  chiefly  United  Kingdom,  4,969  pounds; 
and  snuff,  6,534  pounds,  Italy  and  France. 

Brazil 

Brazil,  of  the  Latin  American  countries,  is  the  greatest  pro- 
ducer of  tobacco,  an  industry  that  has  been  carried  on  since  the 
days  of  the  colonial  governments.  In  1796  the  exportation  of 
tobacco  to  Portugal  amounted  to  more  than  18,000,000  pounds,  an 
amount  that  has  steadily  increased  since  that  time  until  the 
formation  of  the  Republic,  since  which  time,  due  to  labor  condi- 
tions, the  production  has  changed  but  little,  being  conservatively 
estimated  at  77,640,000  pounds  annually.  In  1912  the  exports 
amounted  to  54,449,820  pounds;  in  1913,  64,771,152  pounds. 
Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  exports  are  made  from  Bahia,  the  chief 
port  of  the  tobacco  district,  and  the  greatest  amount  is  sent  to 
Europe.  Taken  in  its  entirety  tobacco  is  the  sixth  in  size  of  all 
Brazilian  exports,  the  Republic,  besides  supplying  her  own  domes- 
tic needs,  supplying  the  greater  part  of  the  requirements  of  her 
neighboring  countries.  Besides  the  State  of  Bahia,  the  entire  east 
coast  is  interested  in  tobacco  cultivation,  particularly  the  State  of 
Maranhao,  and  lately  it  has  become  an  industry  of  future  promise 
in  the  States  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Santa  Catharina,  Minas  Geraes, 
and  Pernambuco.  The  average  exports  from  Bahia  to  the  other 
non-producing  parts  of  Brazil  is  about  6,600,000  pounds  annually, 
in  addition  to  about  $500,000  w^orth  of  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  other 
elaborated  tobaccos.  In  1915  these  last  amounted  to  37,000,000 
cigars  and- 17,000,000  cigarettes. 

Prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  European  war  40  per  cent  of  the 
exports  went  to  Hamburg,  40  per  cent  to  Bremen,  and  17  per  cent 
to  Argentina,  with  practically  none  to  the  United  States,  the 
figures  being  as  follows:  1913,  total,  29,388  metric  tons  (2204.6 
pomids),   of  which   to   the   United   States,   6;    Germany,   24,473; 


TOBACCO 


739 


Argentina,  4,359;  Uruguay,  343;  1914,  total  26,980,  of  which  to  the 
United  States,  192;  Germany,  22,133;  Argentina,  2,873;  Uruguay, 
664;  1915,  total  27,096,  of  which  to  the  United  States,  1,953; 
Germany,  1;  Argentina,  7,302;  Uruguay,  866;  The  Netherlands, 
3,980;  and  France,  6,581.  The  shipments  made  to  the  United 
States  were  largely  for  re-export  and  for  temporary  storage  to 
avoid  the  tobacco  worm  prevalent  in  Brazil.  Imports  of  tobacco 
leaf,  for  blending  with  the  domestic  leaf,  were,  1914,  total, 
$386,069,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  $100,136;  Holland, 
$60,805;  Turkey  in  Europe,  $30,818;  China,  $40,202;  and  Cuba, 
$16,012. 

Cuba 

While  Cuba  is  not  as  great  a  producer  of  tobacco  as  certain 
other  countries,  the  reputation  that  its  raw  and  manufactured 
product  has  achieved  has  made  the  name  Habana  synonymous  for 
excellence  of  tobacco,  a  reputation  that  the  island  has  held  since 
its  first  discovery.  Next  to  sugar,  it  is  Cuba's  most  important 
crop.  The  manufactures  of  this  staple,  amounted  in  1913  to 
$29,014,114,  of  which  387,376,230  cigars  were  valued  at  $22,055,008; 
289,334,064  packages  of  16  cigarettes  valued  at  $6,516,344; 
918,590  pounds  of  cut  tobacco,  valued  at  $442,762.  In  1914,  the 
total  was  $23,564,686,  of  which  312,767,343  cigars  were  valued 
at  $17,626,391 ;  cigarettes,  247,872,578  packages  of  16,  valued  at 
$5,574,887;  770,829  pounds  of  cut  tobacco,  valued  at  $363,408,  a 
general  decrease  in  every  class.  In  addition  there  remained  leaf 
to   the   amount   of  $18,093,754  unmanufactured.     Of   the   cigars 


Copyright,    Brown   &  Dawson,    N.    Y. 
Picking  Tobacco  in   Cuba 
(Plants  grown  under  cheese-cloth  shelter) 


740  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

manufactured  in  1914,  188,816,225  were  consumed  in  Cuba,  and 
123,951,118  exported.  The  exports  for  the  year  1914  amounted  to 
$26,353,170,  divided  as  follows:  Leaf,  $16,584,078;  cigars, 
$9,129,661;  cigarettes,  $429,147;  and  cut  tobacco,  $210,284.  Of 
the  leaf  tobacco  the  number  of  bales  exported  in  1913  was  322,121 ; 
in  1914,  314,732.  Of  these  amounts  the  greatest  buyer  was  the 
United  States,  1913,  259,758;  1914,  239,922;  followed  by  Germany, 

1913,  20,572;  1914,  18,838;  Canada,  1913,  16,880;  1914,  7,861; 
Spain,  1913,  4,518;  1914,  25,802;   and  Argentina,  1913,  12,102; 

1914,  10,281.  Of  cigars  exported  in  1913,  the  number  was 
183,226,330,  the  nine  countries  buying  more  than  1,000,000  each 
being:  England,  66,842,801;  United  States,  53,577,563;  Germany, 
14,028,326;  Canada,  13,319,147;  France,  9,362,492;  Australia, 
6,316,505;  Spain,  5,428,515;  Argentina,  3,928,061;  and  Chile, 
3,488,234.  Of  the  123,951,118  cigars  exported  in  1914,  the  nine 
countries  buying  more  than  1,000,000  were:  England,  43,951,994; 
United  States,  37,732,728;  Spain,  8,274,730;  Canada,  8,229,412; 
France,  7,230,825;  Germany,  5,187,946;  Australia,  5,121,363;  Chile, 
1,730,502;  and  Argentina,  1,146,432.  In  1915  the  total  exports  of 
leaf  and  manufactured  tobacco  amounted  to  $24,413,778,  a 
decrease  of  $1,854,815  in  leaf  and  $1,218,112  in  manufactured 
tobacco,  caused  in  part  by  the  European  war  and  in  part  by  the 
excessive  rains  of  the  winter  of  1915.  This  resulted  in  a  depres- 
sion among  tobacco  growers  and  a  disorganization  among  labor, 
the  result  being  that  many  of  the  plantations  have  temporarily 
been  planted  with  sugar  cane,  due  to  the  great  demand  for  this 
commodity. 

In  Cuba  the  greatest  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  scientific 
raising  of  tobacco,  so  that  the  product  of  each  locality  has  its 
special  characteristic,  it  being  said  that  the  poorest  tobacco  grown 
on  the  island  is  equal  to  the  best  grown  elsewhere.  The  highest 
prized,  as  being  the  choicest  cigar  leaf  in  the  world,  is  the 
''  Vuelta  Abajo,"  grown  in  the  Province  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  near 
the  w^estern  end  of  the  island.  It  in  turn  is  divided  into  other 
classes  known  as  ''  Mantua,"  "  Remates,"  "  Guane,"  and 
''  Vinales,"  all  of  the  heavier  type,  used  in  blending,  "  San  Luis  " 
and  ''  San  Juan  y  Martinez,"  superior  wrapping  leaves,  ''  Rio 
Hondo,"  aromatic,  '' Consolacion  del  Sur,"  ''Pinar  del  Rio," 
and  the  less  desirable  grades  known  as  ''  Bajas,"  "  Consolacipn 
del  Norte,"  and  "  Parti  Sur."  The  annual  production  of  these  is 
about  250,000  bales.  Likewise  in  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio 
is  the  "  Simi- Vuelta, "  heavy  and  aromatic,  a  favorite  with 
smokers  in  the  United  States,  and  produced  to  the  amount  of 


TOBACCO  741 

about  20,000  bales  annually.  In  the  province  of  Habana,  with  an 
annual  yield  of  about  80,000  bales  is  the  ''  Partidos,"  lighter  in 
quality  than  the  ''  Vuelta  Abajo,"  and  producing  a  desirable 
wrapper  leaf.  Of  its  subdivisions,  the  * '  Tumbadero  ' '  is  the  most 
prized,  followed  by  "  La  Salud,"  "Artemisa,"  a  filler,  "  Govea," 
supplying  wrappers,  "  Bejucal,"  and  its  three  ordinary  classes, 
''  La  Seiba,"  '^  Wajai  Caimito,"  and  "  San  Jose  de  las  Lajas." 
The  province  of  Santa  Clara  is  noted  for  its  "  Remedios,"  a 
name  that  is  erroneously  applied  also  to  tobaccos  grown  in  the 
province  of  Camagiiey.  Santa  Clara  produced  also  another 
excellent  leaf,  the  ''  Santa  Clara,"  in  addition  to  other  classes, 
less  known,  called  '*  Cienfuegos,"  "  Colonia,"  ''Santo  Domingo," 
**  Sagua,"  and  "  Trinidad,"  all  of  the  last  four  named  being 
substituted  at  times  for  "  Remedios."  Another,  and  a  medium 
grade,  is  the  "  Sancti  Spiritus,"  also  of  Santa  Clara.  The 
province  of  Oriente  produces  the  "  Yara,"  the  least  desirable 
of  all  Cuban  tobaccos,  subdivided  into  "  Mayri  "  and  "  Gibari." 
The  annual  yield  of  "Yara"  is  about  12,000  bales,  exported 
chiefly  to  Germany,  Canada,  and  Central  America.  Its  leaves  are 
heavy  and  coarse,  and  being  totally  unlike  the  other  grades,  is 
unsuitable  for  use  in  cigars  for  export. 

For  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  reputation  of  tobaccos  and 
cigars  produced  in  Cuba,  a  law  was  passed  on  16  July  1912, 
providing  for  a  national  collective  trade  mark  on  the  containers 
of  all  tobaccos  and  tobacco  products  intended  for  export,  under 
heavy  penalties,  and  in  consequence  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture, 
Commerce,  and  Labor  has  recently  had  registered  a  distinctive 
mark  for  each,  "  tobaccos  and  cut  tobacco  "  and  "  cigars 
manufactured  in  Cuba." 

Paraguay 

The  most  widely  cultivated,  although  not  the  most  important, 
crop  in  Paraguay  is  tobacco.  Its  production  was  formerly 
carried  on  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  a  ready  market  was  found 
in  Europe,  particularly  in  Germany,  but  due  to  internal  troubles 
its  acreage  decreased  and  until  recently  it  was  practically  unknown 
beyond  the  Paraguayan  borders.  It  is  now  under  the  special 
patronage  of  the  Banco  Agricola,  the  government  institu- 
tion concerned  with  betterment  of  agricultural  matters.  Soils 
have  been  analyzed,  seeds  from  Cuba  introduced,-  and  scientific 
instruction  given  as  to  the  cultivation  and  handling  to  meet  the 
demands  of  export  buyers.  In  1910  a  regulation  was  passed  pro- 
viding for  the  classification  under  the  Tobacco  Revision  Office 


742  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

(Oficiiia  Revisadora  de  Tabacos)  as  follows:  "  Pito,"  "  Media," 
"  Regular,"  ''  Buena,"  ''  Doble,"  "  Para  la,"  "  Para  2a,"  and 
*'  Fuerte,"  the  ''  Pito  "  to  ''  Buena  "  being  mild,  and  ''  Doble  " 
to  **  Para  "  strong,  to  standardize  the  production  and  prevent 
fraud,  unclassified  exports  being  subject  to  a  special  export  tax. 
The  exports  in  1900  amounted  in  pounds  to  6,590,644;  1901, 
5,103,265;  1902,  6,200,014;  1903,  7,012,870;  1904,  9,997,724;  1905, 
7,980,119;  1906,  5,076,104;  1907,  3,391,762;  1908,  10,977,164;  1909, 
10,580,998;  1910,  11,259,230;  1911,  14,219,781;  1912,  8,842,216; 
1913,  11,897,609;  1914,  9,908,921;  and  1915,  15,675,610.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  lighter  grades  is  exported  to  Europe,  more  than  half 
going  to  Amsterdam.  Of  the  heavier  grades  Argentina  is  the 
greatest  buyer. 

Chile 

In  the  year  1913  there  were  under  cultivation  in  Chile  3,430 
acres  of  tobacco,  producing  8,523,645  pounds.  For  1914,  with  a 
slightly  smaller  acreage,  the  production  was  6,282,228  pounds. 
All  of  this  was  consumed  in  the  Republic.  In  addition  there  were 
imported  in  1913,  411,031  pounds  of  tobacco,  valued  at  $456,384,  of 
which  115,181  pounds  were  cigarettes,  valued  at  $229,032;  67,623 
pounds  cigars,  valued  at  $111,943;  156,762  pounds,  leaf  tobacco, 
valued  at  $77,913;  and  71,465  pounds  cuti  tobacco,  valued  at 
$41,406.  The  cigarettes  were  imported  from  16  countries,  of 
which  France  supplied  27,119  pounds,  Belgium,  25,097  pounds, 
Cuba,  24,286  pounds.  Great  Britain,  19,923  pounds,  Germany, 
9,217  pounds,  the  remainder  by  other  countries,  the  United 
States  being  credited  with  888  pounds.  Of  the  cigars,  Cuba 
supplied  36,854  pounds,  Italy,  7,553  pounds,  Germany,  8,305 
pounds,  France,  3,640  pounds,  Panama,  3,494  pounds.  Great 
Britain,  3,225  pounds,  and  Belgium,  3,045  pounds,  the  remainder 
being  distributed  among  seven  other  countries,  the  United  States 
supplying  547  pounds.  Of  the  leaf  tobacco,  Cuba  supplied  131,548 
pounds,  Germany,  11,224  pounds,  the  United  States  standing  third 
with  3,741  pounds,  the  remainder  being  distributed  among  eight 
other  countries.  Of  the  cut  tobacco,  Cuba  supplied  22,297  pounds, 
France,  14,850  pounds,  Belgium,  11,173  pounds.  Great  Britain, 
11,164  pounds,  the  United  States  standing  fifth  with  6,292  pounds, 
the  remainder  being  distributed  among  six  other  countries. 
According  to  the  United  States  Commerce  Reports,  the  imports 
m  1914  of  leaf  tobacco  amounted  to  $66,135,  cut  tobacco,  $40,369, 
cigars,  $78,876,  and  cigarettes,  $157,106,  a  total  of  $342,486;  and 
Jn  1915,  the  imports  of  leaf  and  cut  tobacco  amounted  to  $129,377. 


TOBACCO  743 

In  1913  there  were  192  tobacco  factories  in  Chile,  of  which 
59  were  located  in  Valparaiso  and  61  in  Santiago,  129  being  of 
Chilean  ownership  and  63  belonging  to  foreigners.  The  number 
of  persons  employed  was  1,960,  and  the  value  of  their  production, 
from  foreign  and  domestic  leaf,  was  $3,338,807.  The  greater  part 
of  the  manufactures  was  of  cigars,  with  a  small  proportion  of 
cigarettes,  and  a  still  smaller  one  of  smoking  tobacco.  The  favorite 
form  of  tobacco  is  the  cigarette,  the  domestic  being  the  cheapest. 
Of  the  foreign  brands,  nearly  all  the  well  known  English  cigarettes 
are  sold,  as  well  as  the  French,  Italian,  Cuban,  Turkish,  and 
Egj'ptian,  the  black  Cuban  type  being  a  favorite  with  a  large 
percentage.  Of  cigars,  the  Cuban  and  Mexican  are  most  popular. 
At  the  present  time  many  of  the  lighter  brands  of  European 
cigars  and  cigarettes  are  unobtainable  on  account  of  the  war,  a 
deficiency  that  is  beginning  to  be  supplied  by  the  United  States. 

Colombia 

With  proper  encouragement,  Colombia  promises  to  be  one 
of  the  important  tobacco  producing  countries  of  America,  as  the 
plant  thrives  in  almost  every  portion  of  the  country.  It  is  even 
claimed  that  certain  small  sections  produce  a  quality  rivaling  the 
Cuban  tobacco.  Due,  however,  to  the  failure  to  adopt  approved 
scientific  methods  of  raising,  handling,  and  grading,  the  qualities 
of  the  better  grades  are  not  uniform  from  year  to  year,  and  for 
export  purposes  the  whole  crop  is  considered  under  one  standard 
—  a  leaf  of  average  quality,  largely  used  as  filler.  The  country 
produces  more  than  sufficient  for  domestic  consumption,  quan- 
tities being  raised  near  the  coast  and  in  the  Department  of 
Santander,  while  the  leaf  of  the  best  quality  comes  from  the 
district  of  Ambalema,  where  also  the  greatest  quantity  of  tobacco 
is  found. 

The  exports  of  tobacco  (mostly  leaf)  in  1913  amounted  to 
13,811,000  pounds  (estimated) ;  and  in  1914,  to  5,806,737  pounds, 
valued  at  $393,096;  1915,  4,562,122  pounds,  valued  at  $334,642. 
Of  the  total  amount,  5,089,342  pounds,  exported  in  1914,  from  the 
port  of  Barranquilla,  5,089,893  pounds  were  consigned  to  Europe, 
and  15,449  pounds  to  the  United  States.  Of  the  amounts  shipped 
from  the  port  of  Cartagena  in  1914  and  1915,  the  respective 
figures  are  as  follows:  France,  $378  and  $52,476;  Germany  (1914 
only),  $149,371;  Great  Britain  (1915  only),  $29,583 ;  United  States, 
$3,051  and  $31,810;  other  countries,  $26,100  and  $25,404.  During 
the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1916  the  amount  exported  to  the 
United  States  was  $35,325,  of  which  $1,013  was  cigar  wrappers 
and  $34,325  leaf.    " 


744  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA     ' 

The  decline  of  exports  following  1913  is  indicative  also  of  the 
reduction  of  the  quantity  raised,  the  reduced  demand  by  Germany 
—  the  greatest  customer  —  being  discounted  by  the  utilization  of 
much  of  the  former  tobacco  acreage  for  other  purposes.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  immediate  result  of  the  European  w^ar  was 
the  sharp  breaking  in  prices,  in  June  1915,  being  as  low  as  $0.06  per 
pound,  a  fact  that  has  been  discouraging  to  the  industry.  Some 
relief  is  afforded,  however,  to  the  native  industry  by  the  increase 
(1915)  of  duties  on"  imported  tobaccos,  leaf  and  manufactured, 
from  80  cents  to  $1  per  kilo  (2.2046  pounds),  in  connection  with 
the  high  internal  revenue  taxes.  There  is  necessarily  a  demand 
for  foreign  tobaccos  for  blending  purposes,  in  addition  to  special 
demands  for  the  manufactured  product.  Of  manufactured  and 
leaf  tobacco  imported  in  1915,  amounting  to  $148,433,  the  United 
States  furnished  a  large  percentage. 

Costa  Rica 

The  importance  of  the  banana  and  coffee  industries  in  Costa 
Rica  has  made  of  tobacco  growing  a  lesser  industry  serving  at 
present  for  domestic  demands.  This  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  its  production  is  a  success,  the  climate  and  soil  being  favor- 
able. In  1914  the  number  of  acres  under  tobacco  cultivation  was 
2,734.  Partly  as  a  means  of  revenue,  and  partly  to  protect  the 
domestic  tobacco  interests,  the  Government  has  levied  a  very  high 
duty  on  the  imported  product  —  about  $0.85  per  pound,  plus  a 
surtax  of  five  per  cent  on  imports  for  consumption  at  Port  Limon. 
The  result  has  been  that,  due  to  the  high  prices  necessarily 
demanded  for  imported  tobaccos  and  cigars,  local  factories  have 
been  lately  established  throughout  the  Republic,  a  very  large  one 
being  located  at  San  Jose.  This  local  demand  has  encouraged  the 
growing  of  the  native  leaf,  with  a  result  that  imports  have 
decreased  by  half,  the  imports  being  largely  of  foreign  cigars  and 
cigarettes  for  which  there  is  a  special  demand.  The  quantity  of 
tobaccos  exported  is  negligible.  The  imports  through  Port  Limon, 
in  1914  amounted  to  $124,000  of  which  the  United  States  supplied 
$52,000,  Germany,  $15,000,  Great  Britain,  $18,000,  and  France, 
etc.,  $39,000.  For  1915,  the  imports  at  the  same  port  amounted 
to  $37,100,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  $31,200,  Great 
Britain,  $10,100;  and  France,  etc.,  $5,900. 

Dominican  Republic 

Of  all  the  Latin  American  countries,  the  Dominican  Republic 
at  present,  ranks  third  in  the  raising  of  tobacco,  the  production 


TOBACCO  745 

for  1913  being  28,000,000  pounds,  and  the  normal  yield  annually 
being  17,250,000  to  23,000,000  pounds.  Due,  however,  to  internal 
troubles,  the  production  decreased  somewhat  in  1914  and  1915, 
the  >deld  for  the  latter  year  being  between  6,900,000  and  8,050,000 
pounds,  which  was  increased  in  1916  to  (estimated)  between 
23,000,000  and  $25,000,000  pounds.  For  1917  the  acreage  has  been 
increased,  but,  due  to  a  season  of  drought,  it  is  estimated  that  the 
yield  will  not  exceed  that  of  1916. 

The  exports  of  tobacco  leaf  from  the  country  in  1913  amounted 
to  21,539,876  pounds,  valued  at  $1,121,775,  of  which  Germany 
received  20,099,803;  the  United  States,  285,412;  France,  355,400; 
and  other  countries,  788,260.  In  1914  the  amount  exported  was 
8,152,208  pounds,  valued  at  $394,224,  of  which  Germany  received 
7,286,382;  the  United  States,  128,953;  France,  78,492;  and  other 
countries,  653,981.  In  1915,  13,717,900  pounds,  valued  at  $972,896, 
of  which  the  United  States  received  7,624,839;  France,  1,944,872; 
and  other  countries,  4,146,188.  In  1916,  17,438,332  pound's, 
valued  at  $1,433,323,  of  which  the  United  States  received  6,825,584; 
France,  1,278,746;  and  other  countries  (unspecified),  9,334,002. 

Ecuador 

Ecuador  produces  some  excellent  qualities  of  tobacco,  it  being 
claimed  that  for  delicacy  of  flavor  they  are  the  equal  of  the  best 
Cuban.  The  acreage,  is  scarcely  more  than  enough  for  domestic 
requirements,  and  the  methods  of  raising  and  handling  are  not 
such  as  bring  out  its  best  qualities.  The  greatest  quantity  is 
raised  in  the  Guayas  fluvial  region  and  in  the  Province  of 
Esmeraldas. 

In  1914,  107,616  pounds  of  leaf  tobacco,  valued  at  $19,922, 
were  exported,  the  amount  for  1915  being  596,445  pounds  (to 
Peru),  valued  at  $89,825,  an  increase  that  is  due  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  government. 

In  October  1915,  a  law  was  passed,  effective  1  Jan.  1917,  for 
the  government  control  of  the  tobacco  industry,  raising,  manu- 
facturing, and  selling,  on  the  basis  of  concessions  to  producers 
and  selling  agencies.  By  its  provisions,  the  production  and 
manufacture  are  exempt  from  all  fiscal  taxes;  written  notice  to 
the  competent  authority  is  required  of  all  persons  desiring  to 
raise  tobacco,  and  license  is  given  without  charge.  Subject  to 
confiscation,  tobaccos  and  products  may  not  be  transported  from 
one  place  to  another,  even  in  the  same  town,  without  a  permit. 
Taxes  were  provided  for  all  tobaccos  on  hand  on  1  Jan.  1917, 
and  in  the  future  the  privilege  of  selling  tobaccos  is  to  be  auctioned 


746  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

annually,  for  the  various  districts  or  Provinces,  or  for  the  whole 
Republic,  fiscal  taxes  being  likewise  imposed  upon  the  concessions, 
varying  from  $87.60  to  $4,672. 

Guatemala 

In  quality,  Guatemalan  tobacco  ranks  high.  Due,  however,  to 
antiquated  methods  of  handling  it,  it  has  not  acquired  the  com- 
mercial value  that  its  qualities  merit.  It  is  raised  throughout  the 
Republic,  but  the  favorite  leaf  is  produced  in  the  vicinity  of 
Zacapa,  at  Barberina  and  vicinity,  and  also  at  Chiqumulilla  on  the 
west  coast.  The  quantity  raised  in  1903  was  1,065,000  pounds. 
The  total  annual  production  has  recently  been  estimated  (1916)  at 
from  250,000  to  300,000  pounds,  when,  judging  by  the  quantity 
manufactured,  it  should  be  five  times  this.  Due  to  the  high  duties 
on  imported  tobacco  and  its  products,  the  domestic  leaf  is  largely 
used  in  the  local  factories,  although  a  very  large  quantity  is 
imported  from  Honduras,  which  is  incorporated  with  the  native 
leaf  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars  and  cigarettes  for  export. 
Rapid  progress  has  been  made  during  recent  years  in  the  manu- 
facturing of  tobacco,  both  as  to  the  quantity  worked  and  the 
methods  employed.  While  the  small  factory  predominates,  there 
being  hundreds  of  shops  producing  hundreds  of  thousands  of  fine 
and  ordinary  cigarettes,  there  are  also  4  machine-made  factories 
in  the  country,  producing  an  aggregate  of  640,000  cigarettes  per 
day.  To  protect  the  small  shop,  the  Government  on  23  Nov.  1916, 
issued  a  notice  requiring  the  payment  of  a  tax  of  one  centavo  on 
each  box  of  machine  made  cigarettes. 

All  domestic  cigars  are  made  by  hand,  the  industry  being  an 
important  one.  Guatemala  and  Honduras  tobacco  are  generally 
used,  with  a  Sumatra  wrapper  bought  in  the  United  States.  Most 
of  the  ordinary  cigars  are  made  by  Indian  women  and  children, 
whose  labor  is  cheap,  some  of  the  cigars  selling  as  low  as  $2  per 
thousand;  those  of  better  quality  sell  for  from  $0,021/2  to  $0.05 
each.  The  cheapest  machine  made  cigarettes  sell  for  about  $1  per 
thousand.  The  domestic  consumption  of  both  cigars  and  cigarettes 
is  large. 

In  1915  Guatemala  imported  leaf  tobacco  to  the  value  of 
$2,575 ;  manufactured,  $10,398.  Of  the  leaf  tobacco,  $2,205  worth 
came  from  the  United  States,  the  remainder  from  Holland.  Of 
the  tobacco  manufactures,  the  United  States  supplied  $4,265; 
Cuba,^  $3,262;  Germany,  $950;  Mexico,  $760;  England,  $827; 
Jamaica,  $163;  and  the  remainder  from  Holland,  France,  Japan, 
and  China.    As   showing  the   consumption   of   cigarettes   in   the 


TOBACCO  747 

country,  the  imports  of  cigarette  paper  for  1915  amounted  to 
$29,666,  of  which  Spain  supplied  $26,311  worth;  the  United  States, 
$1,637 ;  the  remainder  coming  from  Germany,  England,  and  Den- 
mark. During  the  same  year  exports  amounting  to  $18,954  were 
made  to  the  United  States,  Colombia,  Honduras,  and  British 
Honduras.  Of  this,  $13,054  was  manufactures,  and  $5,900  leaf 
tobacco. 

Honduras 

Statistics  regarding  the  production  of  and  trade  in  tobacco 
in  Honduras  are  lacking,  but  from  the  reports  of  the  United  States 
consular  agents  in  that  country  and  Guatemala  (see  elsewhere  in 
this  article),  it  is  apparent  that  tobacco  of  a  commercially  fine 
quality  grows  in  the  country,  but  that  through  poor  methods  of 
curing  it  has  not  generally  become  an  article  of  world  export,  but 
is  sufficient  for  domestic  needs.  A  large  quantity  is  shipped  to 
Guatemala,  where  it  is  manufactured,  some  of  it  being  returned 
and  some  re-exported,  and  Peru.  In  1913-14  there  were  imported 
tobacco  and  tobacco  manufactures  to  the  value  of  $17,146,  of  which 
the  United  States  contributed  $10,386;  1914-15,  $20,520,  of 
which  the  United  States  contributed  $13,436. 

Mexico 

The  revenues  derived  from  the  profits  of  the  tobacco 
monopoly  in  Mexico  amounted,  in  1783,  to  $777,651;  and  in 
1801-02,  to  $4,000,000  silver,  the  monopoly  of  the  tobacco  indus- 
try ha\4ng  been  a  prerogative  of  the  Crown  from  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest.  Witli  independence,  the  industry  languished 
until  1868,  from  which  time  it  has  gradually  increased.  In  1889, 
Mexican  tobacco  obtained  the  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  medals  at 
the  Paris  Exposition,  being  adjudged  superior  to  the  best  Cuban 
leaf.  Later,  the  French  government  gave  official  notice  through 
"  la  Regie,"  the  special  Department  concerned  with  the  monopoly, 
that  Mexican  tobacco  was  acceptable  for  its  uses. 

In  Mexico  the  use  of  tobacco  is  universal,  and  its  consumption 
large,  mth  the  result  that  large  quantities  are  raised  of  which  no 
estimates  are  given.  Being  of  universal  use,  it  is  gro\\Ti  every- 
where. Experts  credit  the  District  of  San  Andres  Tuxla,  in  the 
State  of  Vera  Cruz,  with  the  leaf  of  the  choicest  quality.  The  soil 
here  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  in  Cuba.  In  the  Tuxla 
section,  however,  the  same  care  has  not  been  shown  in  the  cultiva- 
tion and  handling  of  the  leaf,  for  which  reason  it  has  failed  of 
general   commercial    demand.      Despite    the   fact   of   cheap    and 


748  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

unscientific  labor  and  methods,  Mexican  tobacco  for  years  has 
been  an  article  of  export  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  Until  the  present  troubles  in  Europe  and  domestic  politi- 
cal dissensions,  the  chief  European  markets  were  Hamburg  and 
Havre,  with  a  growing  demand  in  England.  At  Hamburg,  the 
Valle  Nacional  leaf,  selected,  grown  by  Government  convict  labor, 
sold  for  $0.18  per  pound,  at  which  figure  it  was  in  great  demand. 
Recent  figures  as  to  the  yield  and  export  are  not  obtainable. 
In  1906,  the  estimated  crop  of  the  chief  tobacco  districts  amounted 
to  26,180,000  pounds,  divided  among  the  following  districts :  San 
Andres  Tuxla,  3,300,000  pounds;  Aca;>Tican  Talixpam,  759,000 
pounds;  Cordoba,  7,700,000  pounds;  Tlapacoyan,  3,795,000 
pounds;  Tepee,  3,795,000  pounds;  Ojitlan,  Valle  Nacional,  3,530,000 
pounds;  Playa  Vicente,  3,530,000  pounds;  other  districts  of 
Oaxaca  and  Chiapas,  1,265,000  pounds ;  and  districts  of  San  Luis 
Potosi,  506,000  pounds.  The  foregoing  was  but  a  small  part  of 
the  crop  for  the  year,  as  figures  are  not  given  for  the  remainder 
of  the  Republic.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  1911,  the  exports 
of  tobacco  (leaf  and  manufactured)  to  the  United  States  amounted 
to  $14,011;  1912,  $31,039;  1913,  $43,331;  1914,  $58,941;  1915, 
$77,003;  and  1916,  $142,383. 

Peru 

The  tobacco  industry  in  Peru  is  a  government  monopoly,  the 
special  department  having  charge  of  same  being  known  as  the 
Estanco  del  Tobaco,  founded  in  1904.  Since  1909  it  has  been 
administered  by  the  Compaiiia  Recaudadora  de  Impuestos 
(National  Tax  Collecting  Company)  under  contract  for  a  term  of 
years.  The  territory  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  is 
designated  by  law,  and  the  importation,  manufacture,  and  sale  of 
all  forms  of  tobacco  are  in  the  hands  of  this  company.  In  addition 
to  this  control,  the  government  is  otherwise,  encouraging  the 
tobacco  industry.  In  the  latter  part  of  1916,  the  government 
issued  an  order  through  the  Department  of  Fomento  (National 
Industry)  commissioning  two  Peruvian  graduate  students  to 
spend  a  year  in  Cuba  to  study  the  practical  cultivation  and 
handling  of  tobacco,  to  the  end  of  introducing  the  approved 
scientific  methods  of  carrying  on  the  industry  in  Peru. 

The  prices  for  tobaccos  of  all  kinds  are  fixed  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  greatest  and  best  quality  of  leaf  is  grown  in  the  Prov- 
inces of  Huancavelica  and  Tumbes,  the  former  supplying  the 
government  in  1915  with  619,490  pounds,  and  the  latter  mth 
421,600  pounds.     In  addition  there  was  imported  from  Ecuador 


TOBACCO 


749 


596,445  pounds  and  82,895  pounds  from  Honduras.  In  1914,  the 
quantity  of  domestic  leaf  used  was  798,659  pounds,  there  being 
imported  in  addition  65,714  pounds  from  Ecuador  and  101,707 
pounds  from  Honduras.  Of  cigarettes,  the  domestic  manufacture 
in  1914  amounted  to  404,429,700;  cigars,  175,400.  In  1915  the 
respective  numbers  were  369,299,052  and  152,100.  The  average 
cost  of  the  domestic  cigarettes  was  $0.74  per  thousand.  During 
1914,  there  were  imported  38,825,232  cigarettes;  1915,  (estimated) 
8,800,000;  cigars,  1914,  245,814;  1915,  31,099,  the  great  bulk  of 
each  coming  from  Cuba,  most  of  the  remainder  from  England. 

Venezuela 

The  production  of  tobacco  for  domestic  consumption  is  car- 
ried on  throughout  Venezuela,  in  addition  to  which  an  export  of 
more  than  200,000  pounds  is  made  annually,  the  greater  part,  until 
the  European  war,  to  Germany.  The  tobacco  of  Capadare,  a 
special  district,  is  noted  for  its  strength  and  aroma,  and  by  some 
is  preferred  to  Habana  tobacco.  Besides  Capadare,  tobaccos  of 
excellent  quality  are  raised  in  the  districts  of  Yaritagua,  Merida, 
Cumanacoa,  Guanape,  Maturin,  Upata,  Aragua,  Carabobo, 
Barinas,  Rio  Negro,  Caripe,  and  the  Federal  District.  The 
greater  part  used  in  the  country  is  of  domestic  manufacture, 
Cuban  and  Virginia  leaf  being  imported  for  blending.  The 
imports  of  leaf  and  manufactured  tobacco  in  1914  amounted  to 
$10,912;  1915,  $3,643. 


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Tobacco   Fields  in  Porto  Rico 
(The  Wliite  Surfaces  are  the  Coverings  of  Cheese-cioth) 


The  Coffee   Industry  in   Latin  America 

THE  coft'ee  crop  of  the  world,  according  to  the  New  York 
Coffee  Exchange,  amounts  to  about  2,403,324,000  pounds, 
or  18,207,000  bags  of  132  pounds  each  annually.  The 
crop  of  1915-16  w^as  above  the  average  and  is  estimated  at 
2,487,792,000  pounds,  or  19,756,000  bags.  Of  the  total  world's 
crop  marketed  in  1915-16  (19,192,317  bags)  the  United  States 
took  47  per  cent  and  Europe  53  per  cent.  And  of  the  total  taken 
by  the  United  States  (9,099,276  bags)  8,973,863  bags,  or  98.6  per 
cent,  were  the  growth  of  Latin  American  countries,  while  we 
received  only  125,413  bags  or  1.4  per  cent  from  all  other  countries. 
The  following  will  show  the  amount  of  coffee  in  bags  of  132 
pounds  imported  into  the  United  States  from  Latin  America, 
and  all  other  countries  during  the  past  five  years : 

/o 
Total 
Yea-  All  Kinda 

1915-16   9,099,276 

1914-15   8,474,928 

1913-14  7,587,336 

1912-13   6,538,869 

1911-12   6,706,070 

Brazil 

Coffee  is  by  far  the  most  important  product  of  Brazil,  and 
constitutes  fully  60  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  all  exports. 
Not  only  is  coffee  the  leading  product,  but  Brazil  leads  the  world 
in  the  production  of  this  staple,  its  average  crop  the  past  five 
years  being  72  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop  for  the  same  period. 

The  States  producing  the  bulk  of  the  coffee  crop  are  Sao 
Paulo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minas  Geraes,  and  Bahia.  Of  the  total 
crop  the  Sao  Paulo  district  produces  about  80  per  cent,  the  Rio 
de  Janeiro  district  151/2  per  cent,  and  the  Bahia  and  Victoria 
districts  41/0  per  cent.  Thus,  in  1915  it  is  estimated  that  the  crop 
of  the  Sao  Paulo  district  amounted  to  14,000,000  bags  (132 
pounds  each),  that  of  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  district  to  2,750,000 
bags;  and  that  of  the  Bahia  and  Victoria  districts  to  750,000 
bags. 

The  largest  crop  ever  produced  in  Brazil  was  that  of  190()-07 
amounting  to  19,654,000  bags,   or   2,594,328,000   pounds,   but   in 

[750] 


From  Latin 

From  other 

Latin 

America 

Co  iniries 

Americi 

8,973,863 

125,413 

98.6 

8,328,331 

146,597 

98.3 

7,415,975 

171,361 

97.7 

6,366,861 

172,008 

97.4 

6,249,218 

456,852 

93.2 

COFFEE  751 

recent  years  the  crops  have  averaged  much  less  than  this,  the 
average  production  for  the  past  five  years  being  about  13,125,- 
000  bags,  or  1,732,500,000  pounds. 

The  importance  of  the  coffee  crop  as  a  source  of  wealth  to 
Brazil  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follomng  tabular  statement 
showing  the  value  of  coffee  exported  as  compared  with  that  of 
other  exports: 

Value  of  Coffee  Value  of  other       Coffee's  Per- 

Exports  Exports  centage  to 

Year  Total 

1910  $127,212,875  $182,793,563  41.0 

1912  225,992,915  136,253,036  62.4 

1913  197,936,296  115,691,782  63.1 

1914  129,713,673  91,825,356  58.5 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  coffee  (in  bags  of 
132  pounds  each)  from  Brazil  to  the  various  countries  named 
during  the  years  ended  31  July  1914,  and  31  July  1915.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  changes  in  the  markets  brought  about  by  the 
European  war: 

Country  Exported  to  1914  bags  1915  bags 

United  States  5,817,628  5,880,619 

France    1,902,647  1,808,815 

Sweden 245,851  1,346,839 

Italy    240,844  688,252 

Great  Britain   272,493  479,701 

Noi-way 36,375  306,669 

Denmark    45,413  279,865 

Argentina    240,932  261,457 

British  S.  Africa  123,690  183,457 

Greece    7,500  117,800 

Spain    106,475  111,843 

Egypt   51,820  85,310 

Uruguay  35,654  52,763 

Algeria 72,758  49,425 

Chile   26,684  39,692 

Gibraltar    .* 12,200  14,100 

Turkey  in  Asia 64,682  2,550 

Rumania    11,813  2,220 

Turkey  in  Europe 70,122  2,000 

Russia    18,913  800 

Germany 1,876,138       

Austria    1,033,1  /  3       

Belgium    • 522,195       

All  others 53,352  56,170 


Total 14,533,581       13,401,515 

49 


752 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


A  comparison  of  the  exports  for  1915  with  those  of  1914, 
the  year  immediately  preceding-  the  war,  shows  a  decrease  of 
only  1,132,066  bags,  or  7.7  per  cent.  The  increase  of  1,605,334 
bags  exported  to  Scandinavian  countries  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  cessation  of  any  direct  exports  in  1914  to  Germany  and 
Austria.  The  United  States  continues  to  be  the  largest  pur- 
chaser of  Brazilian  coffee,  the  average  imports  from  that  coun- 
try the  past  five  years  amounting  to  5,646,000  bags,  or  nearly  45 
per  cent  of  the  entire  crop,  while  it  is  75  per  cent  of  the  7,496,000 
bags  the  average  imported  into  the  United  States  from  all 
sources  the  past  five  years. 


Colombia 

Of  all  the  Latin  American  Republics,  Colombia  ranks  next 
to  Brazil  both  in  the  production  and  exportation  of  coffee.  Of 
the  average  value  of  all  exports  from  1911  to  1914,  inclusive, 
amounting  to  $24,309,000,  the  average  value  of  coffee  for  the 
same  period  was  $12,144,000,  or  50  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

The  coffee  crop  of  the  Republic  averages  about  126,450,000 
pounds,  or  958,000  bags  (132  pounds  each)  annually.  About 
25,000  bags  are  retained  for  home  consumption,  the  remainder 
being  shipped  to  the  United  States  and  to  European  countries. 
The  United  States  is  Colombia's  best  customer  for  its  coffee 
crop,  its  imports  from  that  country  averaging  more  than  70  per 
cent  of  the  annual  production.  The  imports  in  1915-16  amounted 
to  109,363,456  pounds  and  in  1914-15  to  111,077,449  pounds. 


Copyright,    Newman   Travellalks   and   Brown   &   Uawson,    N.    Y. 

A   Steamship  of  the  American   Line  Taking  on  Cargo  of  Coffee  at  Santos,   Brazil 


COFFEE  753 

The  principal  coffee  producing  districts  are  the  Department 
of  Cundinamarca,  which  produces  the  renowned  Bogota  brand; 
the  Ocana,  Cucuta,  and  Bucaramanga  districts,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Santander,  and  in  the  Tolima  and  smaller  valleys  of  the 
Cordilleras.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  125,000,000  coffee 
plants  in  these  districts,  and  as  they  are  valued  at  30  cents  each, 
they  represent  an  investment  of  $37,500,000. 

Guatemala 

Coffee  is  the  principal  crop  of  Guatemala.  The  districts 
best  suited  to  its  culture  are  Antigua,  Barbereno,  Costa  Chuva, 
Alta  Verapaz,  Costa  Cuca,  Costa  Grande,  Pochuta,  and  Tumba- 
dor.  In  some  of  the  districts  coffee  of  very  fine  quality  is  grown 
at  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet,  but  the  yield  of  the  trees  is  compar- 
atively light.  The  total  area  under  cultivation  is  about  98,800 
acres.  Germans  own  and  control  between  50  and  60  per  cent  of 
the  plantations.  The  best  coffee  is  grown  in  the  Department  of 
Alta  Verapaz. 

The  total  production  of  coffee  in  Guatemala  in  1913  amounted 
to  104,623,600  pounds,  hnd  in  1914  to  91,852,200  pounds.  Prior 
to  the  European  war  about  three-fourths  of  the  crop  was 
marketed  in  Europe,  Germany,  as  might  be  expected,  taking  much 
the  largest  share.  The  following  statement  shows  the  exports 
to  the  various  countries  just  prior  to  the  war,  1913: 

Exported  to  Pounds  Bags 

Germany    53,765,128  407,311 

United  States  21,400,385  162,124 

Great  Britain  10,773,165  81,615 

Austria-Hungary    4,247,353  32,17? 

South  America  1,824,060  13,819 

Netherlands 412,484  3,125 

France 143,723  1,089 

Total 92,566,298  701,260 


During  the  past  two  years  special  efforts  have  been  made  to 
create  a  greater  demand  for  Guatemalan  coffee  in  the  United 
States,  which  have  met  with  marked  encouragement.  In  1915  the 
United  States  imported  from  that  country  60,363,716  pounds  of 
coffee,  which  was  an  increase  of  15,758,677  pounds,  or  35  per 
cent  over  the  previous  year,  and  was  66  per  cent  of  the  entire 
crop.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  1916  the  United  States  took 
from  75  to  80  per  cent  of  the  coffee  produced  that  year. 


754 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Costa  Rica 

Coffee  planting  lias  been  carried  on  in  Costa  Rica  for  many 
years,  and  until  banana  culture  assumed  its  present  proportions 
was  the  leading  industry.  At  one  time  as  much  as  45,000,000 
pounds  were  produced,  but  the  crops  now  aA^erage  much  less, 
due  to  the  enormous  crops  of  other  Latin  American  countries  and 
the  consequent  fall  in  value.  But  Costa  Rican  coft'ee  is  still  highly 
prized  in  Europe,  especially  in  England  where,  on  account  of  its 
exceptional  quality  and  flavor,  it  commands  a  good  price. 
According  to  a  recent  official  publication  the  total  exports  from 
all  Costa  Rica  from  August  1915  to  April  1916  amounted  to 
37,134,182  pounds.  The  exports  for  the  years  1911-12  to  1915-16, 
inclusive,  were  as  follows: 

Year  Pounds  Bags  (132  lbs 

1911-12    26,979,893  204,393 

1912-13    28,702,108  217,440 

1913-14    39,058,444  295,897 

1914-15    26,910,407  203,867 

1915-16    37,134,182  281,320 


Copyright,   Brown  &   1i.i«>mii.    x.   Y. 


Coffee   Drying   in   Costa   Rica 


Of  the  amount  exported  in  1915-16  Great  Britain  took  50 
per  cent,  the  United  States  42  per  cent,  the  remainder  going  to 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  Panama  and  Chile.  Prior  to  the  European 
war  (1913)  Germany  was  the  second  best  market  for  Costa  Rican 
coffee ;  but  the  United  States  has  now  taken  this  rank,  its  imports 
in  1915-16  having  reached  13,292,365  pounds,  which  is  6,521,400 
pounds,  or  92  per  cent  greater  than  the  imports  in  1914-15,  and 


COFFEE  755 

9,269,000  pounds  or  230  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  imports  in 
1913-14.  Almost  one-half  of  the  coffe  crop  of  Costa  Rica  is  raised 
in  the  Province  of  San  Jose  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Nicaragua 

The  value  of  coffee  production  in  Nicaragua,  as  compared 
with  other  products,  is  indicated  by  the  export  statistics  for  the 
past  five  years  which  show  that  of  the  total  average  value  of  all 
exports  coffee  represents  55  per  cent.  The  following  tabular 
statement  gives  the  quantity  and  value  of  coffee  exported  to  differ 
ent  countries  in  1913  and  1915,  and  indicates  the  changes  that 
have  resulted  from  the  European  war: 

/-.       *  '  Bags 

Country  Pounds  (132  lbs)  Value 

France   (1913) 10,293,437  77,981  $1,715,186 

"        (1915)    4,382,319  33,199  607,737 

Germany  (1913)  7,653,182  57,979  1,844,262 

(1915) 

Great  Britain   ( 1913)    3,321,692  25,164  595,613 

"           "        (1915)    4,068,766  30,824  409,171 

United  States  ( 1913)    3,715,012  28,144  615,644 

(1915)    6,303,693  47,755  668,393 

Italy   (1913) 621,667  4,711  97,445 

"       (1915)    3,045,698  23,074  258,166 

Other  Countries  (1913)    662,028  5,015  122,845 

"              "          (1915) 626,626  4,747  64,317 

Total  (1913)   26,267,018       198,994      $4,990,993 

"       (1915)   18,427,102       139,599        2,007,784 


Nicaragua's  coffee  trade  witii  the  United  States  has  grown 
immensely  within  the  past  five  years,  the  imports  having  increased 
from  1,144,182  pounds  in  1911-12  to  9,074,757  in  1915-16,  or  693 
per  cent  in  the  five  years.  The  United  States  has  meanwhile 
become  Nicaragua's  best  customer  for  her  chief  staple, 

Venezuela 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  in  recent  years  to  increase  the 
coffee  bearing  area  of  Venezuela.  The  crop  of  1910  amounted  to 
about  440,920  bags.  Of  this  about  160,000  bags  were  expected  to 
be  received  at  the  ports  of  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Guantu 
and  Sucre,  and  the  balance  from  Maracaibo,  Vel  de  Coro,  etc.  The 
exports  from  Maracaibo  in  1911  were  54,716,265  pounds,  of  which 
37,062,068  pounds  were  sent  to  the  United  States.     In  1912  the 


756 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


exports  were  71,457,942  pounds,  of  which  the  United  States  took 
50,273,888  pounds.  The  average  exports  for  the  preceding  10 
years,  1902-11  was  53,130,326  pounds.  The  imports  of  coffee 
from  Venezuela  since  1911-12  into  the  United  States  are  as  fol- 
lows, in  bags  of  132  pounds  each:  1911-12,  356,890;  1912-13, 
376,296;  1913-14,  378,435;  1914-15,  548,963;  1915-16,  556,101  bags, 
the  increase  in  the  five  years  amounting  to  199,211  bags  or  nearly 
56  per  cent. 

Ecuador 

While  the  quantity  of  coffee  produced  in  Ecuador  does  not 
compare  with  that  of  most  other  South  American  countries,  it  is 
still  one  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural  products  of  the  Repub- 
lic. Considerably  more  than  half  of  the  crop  is  sent  to  Chile. 
The  following  shows  the  distribution  of  the  crop  to  various 
countries  in  1914  and  1915 : 


County  1914 

Chile   2,768,317  lbs 

France    1,323,725 


United  States 

Spain    

Great  Britain 

Panama    

Germany    ... 

Italy    

Peru    


808,815 
767,298 
466,979 
193,536 
146,260 


1915 

2,528,834  lbs. 
599,938     '' 
175,143     " 
558,956     " 


Total  6,474,930 


478,077 

287,833 
16,437 

4,645,218 


Mexico 

The  coffee  crop  of  Mexico,  which  may  be  produced  in  the 
highland  regions  throughout  the  Republic,  varies  from  77,000,000 
to  110,000,000  pounds  annually,  about  40,000,000  pounds,  or  43 
per  cent,  being  exported,  and  the  remainder  held  for  home  con- 
sumption. Of  course  the  amount  of  the  latter  is  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  market  price  of  the  product,  Mexican  coffee  of  the 
best  brands  being  highly  esteemed.  The  imports  of  coffee  from 
Mexico  into  the  United  States  since  1911-12  is  as  follows  in  bags 
of  132  pounds  each:  1911-12,  258,758;  1912-13,  197,890;  1913-14, 
374,133;  1914-15,  399,289;  1915-16,  377,521  bags.  This  shows  an 
increase  in  the  five-year  period  of  118,763  bags,  or  about  46 
per  cent. 


COFFEE  757 

Salvador 

The  coffee  crop  of  Salvador,  as  represented  by  its  exports,  in 
1910-11  amounted  to  74,000,000  pounds,  of  which  64,000,000  were 
exported  and  10,000,000  retained  for  home  consumption.  The  crop 
of  1911-12  is  estimated  at  approximately  70,000,000,  of  which 
60,000,000  were  exported  and  10,000,000  held  for  home  consump- 
tion. According  to  government  statistics  the  average  exportation 
of  coffee  for  the  past  10  years  is  60,553,377  pounds,  and  the  aver- 
age production  70,533,377  pounds,  or  534,344  bags  of  132  pounds 
each.  The  imports  of  coffee  into  the  United  States  from  Salvador 
since  1911  in  bags  of  132  pounds  are  as  follows:  1911-12,  86,466; 
1912-13,  66,335;  1913-14,  66,353;  1914-15,  119,874;  1915-16, 
88,298. 

Haiti 

The  coffee  industry  of  Haiti  has  been  seriously  affected  by 
the  continuous  political  upheavals  of  recent  years.  Only  10  years 
ago  nearly  60,000,000  pounds  of  coffee  were  exported  to  the 
United  States,  whereas  we  received  from  that  Republic  last  year 
only  3,320,000  pounds,  and  an  average  of  only  3,585,000  pounds 
the  past  five  years. 

Other  Countries  of  Latin  America 

The  coffee  crops  of  the  other  and  lesser  producing  countries 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  exports  from  each  to  the  United  States 
during  the  past  three  years,  as  follows  (in  bags  of  132  pounds 
each) : 

Country  19in-16  1914-15  1912-14 

Dominican  Republic   26,785  27,048  8,130 

Panama 4,959  7,659  2,337 

Honduras  3,974-  5,045  5,037 

Cuba  82  2,151  108 

Chile   190  1,921  1 

Peru    2  537  1 

Argentina HI     650 


Sugar  Industry  in  Latin  America 


By  James  L.  Watkins 


THE  cane  sugar  production  of  the  world  for  the  past  few- 
years  has  averaged  approximately  10,280,000  tons  or 
22,670,400,000  pounds.  Of  this  quantity  the  countries  of 
Latin  America  —  not  including  any  foreign  possessions  in 
America  —  produce  about  4,138,000  tons  or  9,124,290,000  pounds, 
which  is  equivalent  to  more  than  40  per  cent  of  the  world's  total 
crop  of  cane  sugar.  The  following  tabular  statement  fairly  repre- 
sents the  cane  crops  of  the  countries  named  (in  tons) : 

Cuba   3,000,000      Mexico  89,000 

Argentina 336,000      Central  America 35,000 

Peru   263,000      Venezuela 20,000 

Brazil    240,000      Paraguay   2,821 

Dominican  Republic 150,000      Colombia   1,667 

The  United  States,  the  largest  consumer  of  sugar  per  capita 
of  all  other  countries,  in  1915-16  imported  from  all  sources 
2,455,366  tons  or  5,414,081,941  pounds  of  cane  sugar,  and  of  this 
quantity  2,451,329  tons  or  5,405,180,430  pounds  were  imported  from 
Latin  America,  leaving  only  4,037  tons  or  8,901,585  pounds 
brought  in  from  all  other  countries.  Our  imports  from  Latin 
America  have  increased  from  1,963,485  tons  in  1912-13  to  2,451,329 
tons  in  1915-16,  or  25  per  cent. 

Cuba 

The  Republic  of  Cuba  is  noW'  the  largest  cane-sugar-producing 
country  in  the  world.  For  a  long  time  it  ranked  next  to  British 
India,  but  since  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  it  has  risen  to 
the  first  rank.  These  two  countries  together  furnish  approxi- 
mately one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of  cane  sugar,  each 
producing  from  two  to  more  than  three  million  tons. 

Climatic  conditions  and  the  soil  of  Cuba  are  so  well  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  sugar  cane,  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  tillable 
area  of  the  island  is  devoted  to  this  crop.  The  cane  matures  in 
from  12  to  18  months,  but  the  crop  is  so  planted  that  it  is  har- 
vested more  or  less  throughout  the  year,  though  the  principal 
harvest  season  is  from  December  to  June.  The  lands  in  the  West- 
(M-n  Provinces  have  been  planted  in  cane  so  many  years  and  have 

1758] 


SUGAR 


759 


become  so  impoverished  that  not  more  than  four  to  seven  crops  can 
be  har\'ested  without  replanting.  In  the  newer  and  richer  lands  of 
the  Eastern  Provinces  10  or  12  crops  and  sometimes  twice  as 
many  may  be  harvested  without  replanting. 

Recent  statistics  show  that  the  yield  of  sugar  per  acre  was 
4,900  pounds  harvested  from  1,384,812  acres.  The  Cuban  sugar 
factories  have  been  greatly  improved  within  the  past  few  years. 
Keen  competition  has  forced  Cuba  to  adopt  more  economical 
methods  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  and  this  has  resulted  in  an 
almost  constant  decline  in  the  number  of  factories,  but  an  increase 
in  their  size  and  capacity.  Some  years  ago  there  were  473  fac- 
tories but  now  there  are  only  190  to  200.  The  plantations  are 
equipped  with  private  railway  lines  to  transport  the  cane  from 
the  fields  to  the  factories.  There  are  approximately  3,000  miles 
of  these  railwavs. 


ISZ 

''^ 

A'l 

1    •^'a^ttSasL^j*  T  "*_;^.    -\mMJt^fffJM 

iS/^^w^ 

^^^^ 

Copyright,    Brown  &  Dawson.    N.   Y. 
Cuban   "  Central  "   or  Sugar    Mill 


Recent  statistics  show  that  of  the  total  area  under  cane  about 
56  per  cent  was  either  cultivated  or  controlled  by  the  factory 
owners,  while  44  per  cent  was  cultivated  by  independent  farmers 
w^ho  sold  their  cane  to  the  factories.  As  an  incentive  to  produce 
high  grade  cane  it  is  paid  for  according  to  the  sugar  content  and 
not  the  gross  weight. 

During  the  10  years  ending  with  1912-13  there  was  an 
average  of  175  factories  in  operation,  which  ground  an  aver- 
age of  15,925,000  tons  of  cane  annually  and  produced  1,687,000 
tons  of  sugar,  or  3,778,880,000  pounds  annually.  The  production 
since   1912-13    in   tons    is    as    follows:    1916-17,   3,000,000    tons; 


760  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

1915-16,  3,007,915  tons;  1914-15,  2,592,667  tons;  1913-14,  2,597,732 
tons. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  Cuban  crop  of  sugar  is  exported, 
the  average  the  past  20  years  being  about  95  per  cent,  of  which 
the  United  States  has  taken  about  90  per  cent.  In  1913  the  United 
States  took  2,129,748  tons  valued  at  $107,975,360,  and  2,164,621 
tons  valued  at  $116,479,869  in  1914.  Great  Britain  took  240,870 
tons,  valued  at  $12,598,817  in  1913,  and  231,541  tons  valued  at 
$10,910,416  in  1914.  The  total  exports  in  those  years  were 
2,411,188  tons  valued  at  $122,388,062  in  1913,  and  2,454,334  tons 
valued  at  $130,413,769  in  1914.  In  1915  the  United  States  imported 
2,136,110  long  tons  of  sugar  from  Cuba,  and  2,299,488  long  tons  in 
1916. 

The  following  values  of  the  sugar  crops  since  1910  will  serve 
to  indicate  the  remarkable  growth  of  this  industry,  as  well  as  how 
prosperity  has  come  to  Cuba  in  recent  years : 

1910-11 $84,000,000     1913-14 $130,424,000 

1911-12 121,468,000     1914-15 205,000,000 

1912-13 115,395,000     1915-16 250,000,000 

Dominican  Republic 

The  sugar  plantations  of  the  Republic  are  located  on  the 
Southern  Coast.  In  the  adjoining  hinterland  are  many  of  the, 
most  important  sugar  centres  of  the  island,  namely,  Angelina,' 
Consuelo,  Porvenir,  Cristobal,  Colon,  Santa  Fe  and  Quisqueya,' 
and  the  value  of  the  sugar  exported  through  the  chief  sugar  port, 
San  Pedro  de  Macoris  in  1915  amomited  to  over  $3,000,000. 

The  sugar  land  extends  along  the  coast,  and  going  westward 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  City  of  Santo  Domingo  are  to  be  found  the 
centrals  Italia,  San  Isidro  and  San  Louis,  and  toward  the  western 
border  of  the  Republic  in  the  Azua  and  Barahona  district  Azana, 
Ocoa  and  Ansonia  estates.  Nearly  all  of  these  sugar  estates  have 
prospered  greatly  in  recent  years.  The  sugar  acreage  is  increas- 
ing annually  and  new  centrals  are  in  process  of  construction. 

The  soil  is  well  adapted  for  sugar  cultivation,  and  produces 
on  an  average  25  years  of  ratoon  crops  with  an  output  of  70  tons 
of  cane  per  acre  from  virgin  land  during  the  first  year.  The  sugar 
season  extends  from  December  to  June  or  July.  The  local  labor 
supply  is  limited,  and  in  normal  times  is  increased  by  importations 
from  the  nearby  British  West  Indies. 

The  estimates  in  tons  of  the  sugar  crops  of  the  past  three 
seasons  are  as  follows: 


SUGAR 


761 


DISTRICT 

1914-15 

1915-16 

1916-17 

Macoris 

75,970 

20,205 

3,472 

91,738 

21,925 

5,071 

112,273 

Santo  Domingo 

33,906 

Azua 

5,812 

Total 

99,647 

118,734 

151,991 

The  imports  of  raw  sugar  into  the  United  States  from  the 
Dominican  Republic  were  1,927  tons  in  1914,  34,012  tons  in  1915 
and  47,992  tons  in  1916. 

Peru 

The  area  suitable  for  growing  sugar  cane  on  the  west  coast 
of  Peru  is  limited  only  by  the  available  supply  of  water  for  irri- 
gation. There  is  also  a  small  area  east  of  the  Andes  planted  in 
cane,  but  at  least  97i/2  per  cent  of  the  crop  is  gro^vn  in  the  rich 
valleys  along  the  coast.  The  crop  is  planted  and  harvested 
throughout  the  year,  but  the  principal  harvest  season  is  from 
October  to  February.  The  cane  in  the  coast  region  requires  18 
to  20  months  to  mature  and  from  8  to  12  crops  may  be  har- 
v^ested  from  one  planting.  The  area  of  cane  under  cultivation  is 
about  101,000  acres.  The  number  of  laborers  employed  in  the 
industry  is  estimated  at  21,881.  The  average  production  per 
hectare  of  2.471  acres  is  a  little  over  10  metric  tons  (equal  to  about 
41/^  short  tons  per  acre).  In  the  Chicama  Valley  where  there  are 
a  number  of  fine  modern  mills  the  production  runs  as  high  as 
133/2  metric  tons  per  hectare  (equal  to  a  little  more  than  six  short 
tons  per  acre). 

The  growth  of  the  sugar  industry  of  Peru  may  be  seen  from 
the  following,  showing  the  yield  in  metric  tons  for  the  years  speci- 
fied of  white  and  granulated,  muscovado  and  Chancaca  sugar. 
The  exports  for  the  same  years  are  given  as  an  indication  of  the 
growth  of  this  branch  of  the  industry : 

Production,       Exports, 
Year  tons.  tons. 

1912  ' 192,754  147,410 

1913  183,954  142,901 

1914  228,054  176,670 

1915 262,840  220,257 

The  disposition  of  the  crop  of  1915  to  the  various  countries 
was  in  the  following  proportions:  Chile,  39.93  per  cent;  United 
States,  21.69  per  cent;  Great  Britain,  17.80  per  cent;  Spain,  4.17 
per  cent;  Bolivia,  1.68  per  cent;  consumed  locally  or  stored,  18.73 
per  cent. 


762  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

During  the  past  five  years  the  United  States  has  imported 
the  following  amounts  of  raw  sugar  from  Peru,  the  imports  in  the 
past  two  years  being  remarkable  as  compared  with  former  years : 
1911-12,  5,917  tons;  1912-13,  6,201  tons;  1913-14,  3,126  tons; 
1914-15,  32,252  tons;  1915-16,  37,549  tons. 

Mexico 

Almost  the  whole  of  the  lowland  region  of  Mexico  is  adapted 
to  growth  of  sugar  cane,  and  it  is  grown  in  18  of  the  27  States,  but 
approximately  one-half  of  the  crop  is  produced  in  the  two  States  — 
Morelos  and  Vera  Cruz.  The  two  other  States  of  most  importance 
are  Puebla  and  Sinaloa.  In  the  lowlands  along  the  coast  as  many 
as  10  crops  may  be  harvested  from  one  planting.  In  this  region 
very  little  cultivation  is  needed,  and  the  jdeld  has  been  as  high  as 
35  tons  to  the  acre.  Owing  to  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  coun- 
try the  sugar  industry  has  not  made  the  progress  that  may  be 
noted  in  other  Latin  American  countries  and  very  little  modern 
machinery  is  in  use.  The  old  open-kettle  process  being  still  mostly 
in  use,  which  extracts  only  about  6  per  cent  of  sugar  per  weight 
of  cane. 

Notwithstanding  the  continuous  revolutions  of  recent  years 
the  quantity  of  sugar  produced  in  Mexico  increased  considerably, 
until  the  past  two  seasons.  The  crop  of  1903-04  decreased  from 
112,930  to  102,931  in  1905-06,  increased  to  178,134  in  1910-11, 
decreased  to  167,258  in  1911-12,  to  143,000  in  1913-14,  and  to 
121,000  in  1914-15.  But  the  crops  of  the  last  two  seasons  are 
estimated  at  only  65,000  tons  for  1914^15,  and  50,000  tons  for 
1916-17.  The  quantity  of  sugar,  in  tons  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  Mexico  in  recent  years  is  as  follows:  1913-14,  922 
tons;  1914-15,  34,371  tons;  1915-16,  6,636  tons. 

Brazil 

The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane,  one  of  the  oldest  industries  of 
Brazil,  owing  to  increased  demand  for  sugar,  has  again  been 
revived  and  promises  to  assume  much  greater  importance.  It  is 
now  grown  in  more  than  half  the  States,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  down  to  the  Laguna  Mirim.  The  most  flourishing  centres 
of  sugar  production  are  in  the  State  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where 
Campos  is  the  focus  of  sugar  deliveries,  and  Pernambuco,  a  thou- 
sand miles  farther  north;  Sao  Paulo  has  also  an  increasing  sugar 
industry  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  list  of  large  sugar 
mills  in  each  State:  Alagoas,  9;  Bahia,  7;.Maranhao,  3;  Minas 
({<Ma("S,   7;   Parahyba,   2;   Pernambuco,   46;   Kio   de   Janeiro,  31; 


SUGAR  763 

Santa  Catharina,  2 ;  Sao  Paulo,  20 ;  Sergipe,  15 ;  Piauhy,  1 ;  Rio 
Grande  do  Norte,  3;  total,  139. 

The  cane  is  planted  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  and 
is  harvested  from  12  to  18  months  later  in  the  Southern  States  and 
from  11  to  14  months  in  the  Northern  States.  From  4  to  6  crops 
are  cut  f ri)m  one  planting.  The  yield  of  cane  per  acre  varies  from 
15VL'  to  161/^  tons,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and 
season.  The  sugar  extraction  is  low  compared  with  other  cane 
growing  countries  and  ranges  from  4  to  9  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  cane.  The  low  yield  is  due  mainly  to  continuous  planting 
in  the  same  soil  for  many  years.  The  sugar  production  in  recent 
years  is  as  follows:  1912-13,  343,000  tons;  1913-14,  203,394  tons; 
1914-15,  240,000  tons;  1915-16,  194,000  tons. 

The  i3rincipal  markets  for  Brazilian  sugars  are  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  Uruguay,  Bolivia,  Chile,  Peru,  Cape 
Verde  and  France.  The  exports  to  the  United  States  increased 
from  312  tons  in  1910-11  to  14,937  tons  in  1914-15  and  to  9,095 
tons  in  1915-16. 

Colombia 

Sugar  cane  grows  in  the  rich  valleys  of  Colombia  year  after 
year  without  replanting,  and  it  is  said  that  there  are  fields  in  the 
Valley  of  Cauca  that  have  been  harvested  every  year  for  nearly 
a  century  without  renewal,  although  in  Cuba  the  cane  yields  only 
from  5  to  10  crops,  and  in  many  sugar-producing  countries  it  must 
be  set  out  every  year.  The  yield  of  each  hectare  (2.47  acres)  is 
also  very  high,  being  800  to  1,000  quintals  (112  pounds),  in  com- 
parison with  600  to  800  in  Cuba,  and  900  to  950  in  Hawaii;  and 
with  irrigation  which  is  available  without  much  difficulty  on 
account  of  the  nature  of  the  land,  the  yield  would  be  still  higher. 

There  are  no  statistics  available,  other  than  the  exports  to 
the  United  States,  that  would  indicate  the  production  of  sugar  in 
Colombia,  though  it  is  well  known  that  the  industry  has  shown  a 
rapid  development  in  recent  j'-ears.  The  imports  into  the  United 
States  in  1910-11  amounted  to  2,447,314  pounds,  but  for  some 
unaccountable  reason  there  appears  to  have  been  no  receipts  from 
that  country  either  in  1911-12,  1912-13  or  1913-14.  In  1914-15 
the  imports  reached  3,675,812  pounds,  and  in  1915-16,  3,376,700 
pounds. 

Guatemala 

Next  to  coffee,  sugar  is  the  most  important  crop  of  Guate- 
mala. While  the  cane  flourishes  in  almost  every  region  from  the 
level  of  the  sea  to  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet,  the  chief  sugar  dis- 
tricts are  in  the  Provinces  of  Escuintla,  Mazatenango,  and  Solola, 


7G4  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

all  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  principal  variety  cultivated,  known 
as  ''  Jamaiquina, "  was  brought  into  the  Republic  from  Jamaica. 
The  area  devoted  to  sugar  in  1916  was  76,352  acres.  The  average 
production  is  about  4,200  pounds  per  acre.  In  the  Pacific  coast 
region  there  are  20  sugar  mills.  The  grades  of  sugar  manufac- 
tured are  86  to  89  brown  sugar,  and  from  96  to  99  white  sugar. 
The  quality  is  said  to  be  excellent  and  there  is  a  large  local 
demand  for  the  product.  The  sugar  exported  is  principally  the 
raw  product  knoAvn  as  "  moscabado."  The  following  are  the 
estimates  of  the  production  of  sugar  in  tons  for  the  years  named : 
1913,  10,884  tons;  1914,  11,338  tons;  1915,  13,605  tons.  In  1915 
10,918,800  pounds,  equal  to  4,952  tons  were  exported,  all  of 
which  w^as  sent  to  the  United  States  and  Central  American 
countries.  The  exports  to  the  United  States  for  the  years  named 
are  as  follows:  1913-14,  1,258,202  pounds;  191^15,  3,193,297 
pounds ;  1915-16,  3,459,144  pounds. 

Costa  Rica 

The  cane  sugar  lands  of  Costa  Rica  are  located  in  the  central 
and  Pacific  coast  regions.  About  two-thirds  of  the  cane  area  is 
in  San  Jose  and  Alajuela,  and  one-third  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
area  devoted  to  cane  increased  from  25,590  acres  in  1905  to  27,636 
in  1907-08,  to  32,331  in  1910,  but  decreased  to  29,474  in  1914.  The 
high  prices  and  great  demand  for  sugar  has,  how^ever,  undoubtedly 
resulted  in  a  considerable  addition  to  the  area  since  1914.  This  is 
plainly  evident  from  the  fact  that  Costa  Rica  exported  to  the 
United  States  1,598,737  pounds  of  raw  sugar  in  1915  and  4,947,289 
pounds  in  1916,  whereas  previous  to  these  dates  the  crops  did  not 
meet  the  local  demand  and  sugar  had  to  be  imported  every  year. 
The  cane  grown  along  the  coast  ripens  in  about  18  months,  while 
that  grown  in  the  more  elevated  regions  of  the  interior  requires 
24  months  to  ripen. 

Venezuela 

The  high  prices  and  great  demand  for  sugar  have  resulted 
in  plans  being  consummated  for  its  manufacture  on  a  large  scale 
in  Venezuela.  The  progress  already  made  is  evidenced  from  the 
large  increase  in  the  exports  of  raw  sugar  the  past  two  years. 
The  sugar  plantations  in  the  vicinity  of  Caracas  are  all  under 
irrigation,  and  the  same  is  true  in  lesser  degree  of  the  plantations 
in  the  States  of  Aragua  and  Carabobo.  The  most  remarkable 
cane  in  the  Republic  grows  around,  and  especially  at  the  south 
end  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  where  4  big  centrals  are  in  operation.  It 
is  said  that  the  cane  at  the  south  end  of  this  lake  produces  readily 
for  25  vears. 


SUGAR.  765 

The  exports  of  cane  sugar  from  Venezuela  to  the  United 
States  in  1910-11  amounted  to  653,077  pounds  and  in  1911-12  to 
269,530  pounds.  There  were  no  exports  worth  mentioning  in 
either  1912-13,  or  1913-14.  In  1914-15  there  was  a  revival  of  this 
trade  and  330,789  pounds  were  sent  to  the  United  States  and  the 
year  following  8,293,531  pounds. 

Argentina 

The  cane  sugar  lands  of  Argentina  are  located  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Republic,  chiefly  in  the  Province  of  Tucuman,  which 
comprises  about  80  per  cent  of  the  total  area  planted.  In  1912-13 
this  province  contained  72  per  cent  of  the  sugar  mills,  and  pro- 
duced 84  per  cent  of  the  cane  and  83  per  cent  of  the  sugar.  The 
principal  harvest  season  is  from  1  June  to  31  October.  The  yield 
per  acre  is  estimated  at  from  10  to  20  tons.  The  production  of 
sugar  increased  from  157,513  tons  in  1903-04  to  304,389  tons  in 
1913-14.  The  domestic  supply  of  sugar  in  Argentina  is  approxi- 
mately equal  to  the  demand.  Some  years  the  production  exceeds 
the  home  demand  and  the  surplus  is  exported.  At  other  times  the 
short  crops  necessitate  the  importation  of  a  considerable  quantity, 
as  was  the  case  in  1913  when  83,289  tons  were  imported,  and  again 
in  1916  w^hen  75,000  tons  were  imported.  But  meanwhile 
(1914)  71,308  tons  were  exported.  The  government,  to  encourage 
the  industry,  pays  a  bounty  on  all  sugar  exported.  A  maximum 
price  has  been  fixed  by  law  vdiich  is  equal  to  the  import  duty; 
when  the  price  of  domestic  sugar  exceeds  the  price  fixed  by  law, 
sugar  is  imported  to  equalize  prices. 

The  production  of  cane  sugar  the  past  5  years  is  estimated  as 
follows:  1912-13,  221,004  tons;  1913-14,  280,319  tons;  1914-15, 
335,833  tons;  1915-16,  152,301  tons. 

There  are  37  mills  in  the  Republic,  with  an  estimated  capital 
of  $31,594,882.  The  annual  sales  of  these  mills  is  put  at  $19,841,- 
855,  and  the  raw  material  employed  is  valued  at  $7,820,907. 

Other  Latin  American  Countries 

There  are  no  available  data  or  statistics  for  other  Latin 
American  countries  producing  cajie  sugar,  but  in  addition  to  the 
countries  already  reviewed  (and  excluding  European  colonies) 
considerable  quantities  of  sugar  are  produced  in  Salvador,  Nicara- 
gua, Panama,  Haiti,  Honduras,  and  smaller  quantities  in  Bolivia, 
Ecuador,  Paraguay  and  Chile.  The  imports  from  these  countries 
into  the  United  States  are  given  in  the  introductory  table,  which 
will  in  some  degree  indicate  the  production  of  those  countries. 


The  Rubber  Industry  of  Latin  America 

By  Richard  Ferris 

1ATIN  AMERICA  holds  the  cradle  of  the  rubber  industries 
of  the  world,  in  the  southwestern  section  of  the  great 
basin  of  the  Amazon,  where  the  ' '  black  hevea  "  is  at  its 
best,  and  Brazil,  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Ecuador  share  in  providing  its 
most  favored  habitat.  It  was  from  this  region  that  the  first 
specimens  of  rubber  were  sent  to  Paris  by  a  scientific  expedition 
in  1736.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  historical  men- 
tion of  the  use  of  rubber  among  the  native  Indians  of  that 
country  had  been  made  200  years  before,  but  without  attracting 
serious  attention. 

Although  the  rubber  production  of  the  Amazon  basin  has  been 
for  the  last  few  years  overshadowed  by  the  yield  of  the  great 
rubber  plantations  of  the  East,  the  seeds,  plants  and  stumps  with 
which  those  plantations  were  established  came  from  the  Amazon, 
and  to-day  the  Amazonian  hevea  {Hevea  Brasiliensis)  occupies 
1,500,000  acres  in  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Java,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Southern  India,  Borneo  and  Burma. 

Notwithstanding  even  these  widespread  enterprises  in  culti- 
vated rubber,  the  fact  remains  that  the  most  remarkable  rubber 
producing  region  of  the  world  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon. 
It  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east  to  the  southern 
boundary  of  Colombia  on  the  west,  a  distance  of  3,000  miles.  This 
valley,  perhaps  200  miles  across  at  the  Atlantic  end,  broadens 
toward  the  south  until  it  is  1,500  miles  across,  comprising  a  total 
area  of  about  2,400,000  square  miles.  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
this  territory  lies  in  Brazil,  but  parts  of  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador 
and  Colombia  are  included. .  Practically  the  whole  region  is  covered 
with  forests,  and  it  is  estimated  that  hardly  more  than  5  per  cent 
of  this  vast  area  has  been  exploited  by  the  rubber  gatherers. 

In  the  larger  survey,  however,  Latin  America  contributes  to 
the  markets  of  the  world  six  different  kinds  of  rubber  from  as 
many  different  species  of  plants.  Their  market  names  and 
sources  are  as  follows: 

Para  rubber  —  obtained  from  several  varieties  of  Hevea, 
chiefly  H.  Brasiliensis,  though  usually  a  mixture,  sometimes 
containing  rubber  from  Sapium  Taburu,  and,  separately, 
that  from  Micrandia  siphonioides;  produced  in  the  states  of 

[766] 


RUBBER  767 

Para  and  Amazoiias,  the  Government  province  of  Acre,  and 
the  states  of  Maranhao  and  the  northern  parts  of  Matto- 
Grosso  and  Goyaz,  of  Brazil;  and  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
and  southeastern  Colombia. 

Ceara,  or  Manitoba  rubber,  also  Ceara  scrap  —  obtained 
from  several  species  of  Maniliot,  mainly  M.  Glaziovii  and 
M.  dichotoma;  produced  in  northeastern  Brazil,  chiefly  in  the 
state  of  Ceara. 

Colombia  Virgen,  or  Cartagena  scrap  —  obtained  from 
several  species  of  Sapium,  mainly  8.  Tolimense  and  8.  vermn; 
produced  in  Peru,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  British  Guiana,  and 
localities  in  Central  America. 

Mangabeira,  or  Bahia  rubber,  and  Matto-Grosso  sheets  — 
obtained  from  Hancornia  speclosa;  widely  distributed 
throughout  Brazil,  but  collected  chiefly  in  the  states  of  Bahia, 
Pernambuco,  and  Matto-Grosso,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Minas  Geraes,  Goyaz,  and  Sao  Paulo. 

Caucho  rubber,  Mexican  strips,  Centrals,  etc. —  from  species 
of  Castilloa,  principally  C.  Ulei  in  Peru  and  Ecuador,  and 
C.  elastica  in  Southern  Mexico,  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua,  Hon- 
duras, Salvador,  and  Guatemala,  and  in  Trinidad  and 
Tobago. 

Guayule  rubber  —  obtained  from  the  shrub  Parthenium 
argentatmn;  produced  in  northern  Mexico. 

In  the  Amazonian  basin,  where  Para  rubber  originates,  there 
are  three  districts  in  which  rubber  gathering  is  active,  all  lying 
south  of  the  River  and  along  its  southern  tributaries:  (1)  the 
island  section,  including  the  numerous  islands  forming  the 
Amazonian  delta,  and  yielding  what  is  commonly  termed  ''  island 
rubber;"  (2)  a  district  in  the  neighborhood  of  Manaos,  including 
the  lower  reaches  of  the  Rio  Purus  and  the  Rio  Jurua,  and  a  part 
of  the  Rio  Negro;  (3)  the  upland  districts  of  Bolivia,  Peru  and 
Ecuador.  The  product  of  all  these  districts  is  knov/n  as  wild  Para 
rubber,  that  of  the  ''  Up-river  "  country  (above  Manaos)  being 
generally  "  hard  cure,"  and  that  from  the  more  easterly  sections, 
*'  soft  cure."  The  wild  Para  rubber  of  the  Amazon  valley  is 
regarded  as  the  best  raw  rubber  supplied  to  the  world's  markets. 
Its  excellence  is  attributed  by  some  authorities  to  a  probable  mix- 
ing of  the  saps  of  several  different  trees,  but  by  the  resident  rub- 
ber gatherers  the  superior  quality  is  declared  to  be  due  to  the  soil 
and  climate  of  the  region,  which  are  not  duplicated  in  any  of  the 
sections  where  the  same  varieties  of  rubber-producing  trees  are 
50 


768 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


cultivated  in  plantations.  Whatever  the  true  reason,  the  indus- 
trial fact  is  that  manufacturers  hold  that  the  wild  Para  rubber  of 
the  Amazon  is  absolutely  dependable  as  to  quality,  while  ' '  planta- 
tion Para  "  needs  a  certain  amount  of  manipulation  before  it  can 
be  worked  through  the  processes  commonly  employed  with  unvary- 
ing success  for  wild  Para. 

The  production  of  Para  rubber  is  largest  in  the  island  district, 
extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  about  500  miles  up  the 
river,  and  comprising  a  multitude  of  low,  tide-flooded  islands  and 
the  low  alluvial  shores  of  the  main  stream  and  its  affluents  from 
the  south.  Here  the  principal  rubber-yielding  tree  is  the  "  wiiite 
hevea,"  a  variation  of  Hevea  BrasUieusis,  regarded  by  botanists 
as  having  "  migrated  "  down  the  River  from  its  original  habitat 


Copyright,    Brown   &   Dawson,    N.    Y. 

Cargoes  of  "  Para  "    Rubber   are   Conveyed    by   These    Boats  to   Steamers    Lying    out   in 

the   Harbor  of   Para,    Brazil 

in  the  upland  region  near  the  headwaters  toward  the  southwest. 
Its  white  color  is  attributed  to  the  peculiar  whitish  lichens  which 
grow  upon  its  trunk  in  the  down-river  country.  On  the  higher 
lands  the  lichens  are  dark  gray  or  black,  giving  rise  to  the  title 
"  black  hevea."  This  explanation,  however,  does  not  account  for 
Ihe  decided  difference  in  the  cortex  of  the  two  trees  even  when 
found  growing  close  together,  nor  for  the  ' '  red  hevea  ' '  growing  in 
both  districts.  The  trees  are  scattered  through  the  forest,  gener- 
ally from  200  to  300  feet  apart,  although  occasionally  in  groups  of 
two  to  six.  A  trail  is  laid  out  to  cover  from  130  to  150  trees,  a 
distance  of  about  six  miles.  The  Hevea  sap  flows  very  slowly, 
and  requires  from  100  to  150  tappings  a  season.  In  some  sections 
a  now  tapping  is  made  every  day,  in  others  every  other  day.    At 


RUBBER  769 

the  camps  the  rubber  is  separated  from  the  sap  by  drying  out 
the  moisture  over  a  smoky  fire  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  smoke 
contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  acetic  acid  and  creosote  — 
a  slow  process.  A  great  saving  of  time  in  this  coagulation  proc- 
ess has  been  accomplished  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  treat- 
ment of  the  raw  sap  with  a  mixture  of  benzine  and  wood  alcohol. 

The  output  of  Amazonian  rubber  is  controlled  primarily  by 
the  cost  of  getting  the  rubber  to  navigable  water,  and  also  to  a 
large  degree  by  the  reluctance  of  laborers  to  go  far  into  the  for- 
ests. The  population  which  is  depended  upon  for  laborers  is 
apathetic,  due  to  an  anaemic  condition  of  health,  this  in  turn  being 
the  result  chiefly  of  climatic  conditions.  The  rainy  season  begins 
in  November,  and  from  March  to  May  the  entire  river  country  is 
subject  to  flooding,  in  some  localities  the  waters  rising  as  much  as 
50  feet.  Owing  to  the  low  gradient  the  water  is  very  slow  in  run- 
ning off.  The  impossibility  of  maintaining  roads  under  such  con- 
ditions operates  oppressively  against  development  of  the  indus- 
try. Whatever  rubber  collecting  is  done  must  begin  not  earlier 
than  May  and  be  completed  by  the  end  of  October.  On  the  higher 
lands  toward  the  western  and  southwestern  part  of  the  basin  the 
rainfall  is  less,  and  the  floods  run  off  more  rapidly,  and  the  rub- 
ber season  is  longer.  Complaint  is  made  that  the  average  laborer 
works  but  100  days  in  the  season,  and  that  in  a  large  part  of  the 
rubber-producing  region  the  work  could  be  and  should  be  carried 
on  for  200  days,  adding  from  50  to  60  per  cent  to  the  annual 
output. 

The  figures  for  the  1916  output  of  wild  rubber  in  the  Ama- 
zonian region  are  only  partially  complete.  They  show  that  in  that 
year  17,747  tons  were  shipped  from  Manaos  to  New  York  and 
European  ports,  and  that  38,682  tons  were  shipped  from  Para  to 
the  same  destinations,  a  total  from  these  two  principal  ports  of 
56,329  tons.  Of  the  whole,  20,334  tons  went  to  Europe  (26,792 
tons  in  1915),  and  35,995  tons  to  New  York  (33,597  tons  in  1915). 
The  world's  yield  of  plantation  (cultivated)  rubber  for  1916  is 
officially  estimated  at  160,000  tons.  The  latest  available  complete 
figures  are  those  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June  1913 :  they  are 
quoted  here  for  purposes  of  comparison.  The  output  of  the 
Amazon  valley  in  that  year  was  43,362  tons.  Of  this  31,362  tons 
were  produced  in  the  upper  rivers  section,  including  parts  of  the 
Bolivia  and  Peru  rubber  districts,  and  12,000  tons  in  the  lower 
Amazon  country.  As  classified,  this  output  consisted  of  16,971 
tons  (39.12  per  cent)  of  "  Fine  Hard  Para  ";  8,860  tons  (20.44 


770  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

per  cent)  of  ''  Eiitre-fine  "  and  "  Fraca  "  (medium-fine  and  weak) ; 
7,400  tons  (17.07  per  cent)  of  ''  Sernamby  "  (scraps  and  nigger- 
heads) ;  and  10,131  tons  (23.37  per  cent)  of  ''  Caucho."  Outside 
of  this  yield,  other  Brazilian  states  shipped  about  4,000  tons, 
mostly  Ceara  rubber.  The  total  Brazilian  output  for  that  year 
was  therefore  about  47,000  tons,  or  about  40  per  cent  of  the 
world's  production. 

The  territory  which  produces  Ceara  rubber  includes  the 
Brazilian  states  of  Ceara,  Piauhy,  and  Bahia.  The  ManiJiot  trees 
from  which  this  kind  of  rubber  is  collected  thrives  on  compara- 
tively poor  soil,  on  desert  plains,  and  dry  hillsides  up  to  an  ele- 
vation of  3,500  feet  above  the  sea.  It  withstands  the  long  drought 
from  May  to  November,  and  is  indifferent  to  occasional  hoar 
frosts.  There  are  some  plantations  of  the  Manihot  in  Brazil,  and 
tapping  is  begun  as  early  as  the  second  year.  The  yield  of  this 
district  is  about  4,000  tons  annually. 

North  of  the  Amazon  the  Hevea  Brasiliensis  does  not  grow  in 
commercial  quantity  but  the  Hevea  Benthamiana  is  plentiful,  and 
yields  an  excellent  rubber.  As  a  rubber  district,  however,  this 
territory  has  not  been  seriously  exploited,  except  in  the  Rio  Ara- 
guaya district  near  the  Atlantic  coast.  //.  Benthamiana  is  plenti- 
ful also  along  the  river  Tocantins,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon.  J 

In  Colombia  there  are  three  rubber-producing  districts:  in  ^ 
the  southern  and  southeastern  section,  along  the  valleys  of  the 
elapura  and  lea  Rivers,  and  the  Rio  Negro ;  in  the  north,  along  the 
valleys  of  the  river  Magdalena  and  its  tributaries;  and  in  the 
northwest,  in  the  basin  of  the  river  Atrato.  The  production  is 
chiefly  ''  caucho  "  although  a  considerable  quantity  of  fine  Para 
is  collected  from  the  ''  black  hevea  "  of  that  section.  Heretofore 
the  system  of  collecting  the  ''  caucho  "  sap  has  included  cutting 
down  the  trees,  so  that  the  productive  area  has  been  constantly 
diminished.  This  practice  is  being  regulated  by  law,  and  even-  \ 
tually  will  be  abolished.  The  exports  of  all  rubber  from  Colombia 
in  1915  amounted  to  a  value  of  $91,953. 

In  Peru  the  rubber  district  embraces  the  Departments  of 
Loreto  and  San  Martin,  and  parts  of  Junin,  Huanaco,  and  Cuzco,  \ 
including  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  Huallaga,  Maranon,  Ucayali, 
and  Putumayo.  This  region  yields  some  of  the  finest  Para,  and  a 
much  larger  quantity  of  the  best  caucho.  In  this  country  there  is 
a  dependable  supply  of  laborers  — native  Indians  —  to  be  had  at 
no  other  locality  in  the  Amazonian  basin. 


RUBBER  771 

Bolivia's  rubber-yielding  territory  covers  the  northern  part 
of  that  countrj'^,  including  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Beni,  Rio  Mamore, 
Rio  Madre  de  Dios,  and  other  headwater  affluents  of  the  Rio 
Madeira. 

The  eastern  part  of  Ecuador  lies  in  the  most  favored  section 
of  the  Amazonian  basin,  and  produces  both  fine  Para  and  caucho. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast  near  Guayaquil  some  plantations  have  been 
started. 

In  Venezuela  the  rubber  country  lies  along  the  southern  bor- 
der, and  along  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco.  The  available  sources 
are  Hevea  Benthamiana  and  Hevea  Guyanensis.  Large  planta- 
tions have  been  made  in  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  but  with  indiffer- 
ent results.    Other  varieties  will  be  tried. 

In  Panama  rubber-gathering  is  one  of  the  native  occupations. 
The  source  is  a  variety  of  Castilloa,  In  1915  the  exports  amounted 
to  70,604  pounds,  valued  at  $18,874. 

In  Central  America  various  species  of  Castilloa  flourish  on 
both  sides,  of  the  mountain  chain,  and  small  plantations  have  been 
established  in  most  of  the  countries.  For  some  years  the  collect- 
ing of  wdld  rubber  was  the  chief  industry  of  Eastern  Nicaragua, 
but  the  increasing  supply  of  East  Indian  plantation  rubber  in  the 
market  has  so  lowered  the  price  that  the  pursuit  has  become 
unprofitable.  The  same  conditions  exist  in  Honduras,  the  dealers 
being  unable  to  pay  living  wages  to  the  laborers.  As  a  conse- 
quence, rubber-gathering  has  nearly  ceased. 

In  British  Honduras  the  rabber  industry  is  carried  on  along 
the  banks  of  the  Mullins  River,  and  in  the  valleys  of  its  tributa- 
ries, along  the  Sittee  River  and  the  Rio  Grande  in  the  south, 
and  the  Sibun  River  and  the  upper  Belize  River  in  the  west.  There 
are  also  several  plantations  in  the  country. 

In  Mexico,  south  of  the  parallel  of  22°  north  latitude,  there 
are  no  less  than  nine  species  of  rubber-yielding  Castilloas,  C.  lacti- 
flua  being  the  most  productive.  Some  of  these  Castilloas  flourish 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  some  in  the  semi-arid  regions,  and  others  on 
the  humid  Atlantic  coast  lands.  The  rubber  area  includes  the 
States  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oaxaca,  Chiapas,  Tabasco,  and  Campeche, 
and  the  Territory  of  Tepic.  In  recent  years  there  have  been  very 
large  plantations  of  Castilloas  set  out  in  the  Soconusco  and 
Palenque  districts  in  the  state  of  Chiapas.  The  "  guayule  "  rubber 
country  lies  in  the  northern  part  of  Mexico  in  what  is  known  as 
the  Chihuahua  desert  on  the  great  central  plateau.  It  covers  an 
area  of  about  125,000  square  miles,  though  actually  occupying  only 


772  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

about  one-tenth  of  the  acreage.  In  general  its  habitat  may  be 
delimited  as  the  Texas  boundary  on  the  north,  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  Mexican  state  of  Durango  on  the  south,  the  meridian 
of  Santa  Barbara,  Chihuahua,  on  the  west,  and  the  meridian 
of  San  Luis  Potosi  on  the  east.  The  plant  grows  most  freely 
along  the  lower  portions  of  the  slopes  and  on  low  ridges,  but  not 
on  the  alluvial  bottom  lands.  As  to  elevation,  it  is  found  on  levels 
from  2,000  feet  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  is  most  plentiful 
at  6,000  to  6,500  feet ;  and  where  the  rainfall  is  from  7  to  10  inches 
annually.  The  average  stand  is  about  one  plant  to  each  square 
yard.  The  full-grown  plant  is  30  to  36  inches  high,  and  40  inches  in 
diameter,  and  weighs  from  8  to  10  pounds.  The  yield  of  rubber  is 
from  7  to  8  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  plant.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  guayule  growth  amounts  to  500,000  tons,  with  the  total 
possible  yield  of  35,000  to  40,000  tons  of  rubber.  The  annual  out- 
put is  about  5,000  tons.  Formerly,  and  in  some  sections  to-day, 
the  guayule  plants  were  torn  up  bodily  with  the  roots.  This  had 
the  effect  of  extirpating  the  plant  in  those  localities.  The  con- 
servative practice  is  to  cut  the  plant  above  the  root-stock  which 
sends  up  new  branches,  and  is  ready  to  be  cut  again  in  three  or 
four  years.  The  guayule  rubber  is  of  superior  quality  when  a 
part  of  its  large  content  (30  per  cent)  of  resin  is  removed. 

The  rubber  industry  of  Latin  America  has  had  to  meet  the 
momentous  industrial  fact  of  the  rapid  increase  in  recent  years  of 
cultivated  rubber  raised  on  plantations  where  labor  is  plentiful 
and  cheap.  This  supply  has  doubled  the  market  offerings  in  the 
last  eight  years,  during  which  the  cost  of  collecting  wild  rubber 
has  been  continually  increasing.  To  meet  the  new  conditions  which 
still  larger  yields  of  plantation  rubber  will  bring  into  the  market 
situation  a  reorganization  of  the  labor  system  and  a  great  improve- 
ment in  transportation  facilities  seem  imperative,  if  the  wild-rub- 
ber industry  is  to  continue  prosperous. 


The  Fruit  Trade  of  Latin  America 

By  Marriox  Wilcox 

THE  most  impressive  fact  in  the  recent  history  of  the  culti- 
vation of  valuable  fruits  in  the  Latin  American  tropics  is 
not  that  so  much  has  been  accomplished  but  that  so  much 
still  remains  to  be  achieved.  The  past  success  in  this  attractive 
field,  however,  amply  justifies  a  confident  outlook  for  the  future 
in  this  great  industry. 

The  true  proportions  of  the  opportunity  presented  are 
brought  out  more  clearly  when  we  reverse  the  ordinary  arrange- 
ment of  statistics,  and  begin  with  the  smaller  items.  Thus,  a 
study  of  imports  into  the  United  States  during  the  fiscal  year 
ending  30  June  1916  shows; 

Value  of  oranges  imported  from  Costa  Rica  $4,343;  from 
Honduras  $1,495;  from  Panama  $914;  from  Jamaica  $43,843; 
from  Cuba  $9,826. 

Value  of  lemons  imported  from  Mexico  $239;  from  Cuba 
$1,800;  from  Brazil  $33. 

Value  of  pineapples  imported  from  Cuba  $960,832;  and  of 
preserv^ed  pineapples  from  Cuba  $35,867;  from  Haiti  $300';  from 
Guatemala  $1,901. 

Value  of  all  other  fruits  (with  the  exception  of  bananas) 
imported  from  tropical  or  sub-tropical  America:  Costa  Rica 
$810,  dutiable ;  Guatemala  $240,  free ;  Honduras  $5,142,  free,  and 
$48,  dutiable;  Mexico  $3,113,  free,  and  $16,532  dutiable;  Jamaica 
$1,301,  free,  and  $29,272,  dutiable ;  Cuba  $63,614,  free,  and  $404,- 
701,  dutiable;  Dominican  Republic  $127,  free;  Haiti,  $644,  free, 
and  $280,  dutiable;  Brazil  $272,  dutiable;  Colombia,  $4,122  free; 
Venezuela  $75,  free. 

But  the  quantities  and  values  of  the  bananas  imported  during 
the  same  period  of  12  months  into  the  United  States  from  the 
new  world's  tropics  were  given  as  follows  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce  of  the  government  of  the  United  States :  From  Costa 
Rica  4,058,000  bunches,  valued  at  $2,268,844;  from  Guatemala 
3,811,750  bunches,  valued  at  $958,189;  from  Honduras  9,702,791 
bunches,  valued  at  $1,964,822;  from  Nicaragua  1,548,500  bunches, 
valued  at  $250,883;  from  Panama  4,516,307  bunches,  valued  at 
$2,113,855;  from  Mexico  1,527,025  bunches,  valued  at  $424,631; 
from  Jamaica  4,926,944  bunches,  valued  at  $1,445,392 ;  from  Cuba 

[773] 


774 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


2,859,021  bunches,  valued  at  $1,072,035;  from  the  Dominican 
Republic  289,091  bunches,  valued  at  $140,264;  from  Colombia, 
2,710,047  bunches,  valued  at  $1,264,992.  And  in  the  short  month 
of  February,  1917,  imports  of  bananas  into  the  United  States 
were:  1,527,620  bunches,  valued  at  $519,489,  from  the  Central 
American  states  and  British  Honduras ;  48,017  bunches,  valued  at 
$18,026  from  Cuba;  and  from  South  America  226,000  bunches, 
valued  at  $113,000. 

Now,  in  Porto  Rico  (which  we  include  in  the  present  survey, 
although  that  island  can  no  longer  be  called  strictly  *'  Latin 
iVmeriean  ")  the  successful  cultivation  of  grapefruit,  oranges, 
and  pineapples  attracts  attention.  For  example,  in  the  year  1916 
shipments  from  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States  included  296,613 


Packing   Grapefruit  in   Porto   Rico 


Copyright,    Brown   &  Dawson. 


boxes  of  grapefruit,  valued  at  $836,932,  and  404,367  boxes  of 
oranges,  valued  at  $790,667;  pineapples  valued  at  $1,176,319  and 
canned  pineapples  $122,858,  etc.  Porto  Rico's  experience 
demonstrates  the  possibility  of  expanding  the  fruit  industry  by 
diversifying  the  products;  there  is  no  practical  limit  to  the 
varieties  of  valuable  fruits  that  the  Latin  American  tropics  can 
produce;  and,  as  a  thoughtful  writer  has  recently  observed: 
"  In  the  Caribbean  fruit  trade  the  United  States'  market  is, 
with  a  trifling  exception,  the  only  profitable  one."  (Consult 
Jones,  C.  L.,  Caribbean  Interests  of  the  United  States,  New 
York  1916.) 

The  records  of  achievement  to  which  we  have  referred  in 
the  first  paragraph  as  ''justifying  a  confident  outlook"  relate 


FEUIT  775 

principally  to  a  single  species,  the  Mtisa  sapientium  or  banana, 
the  fruit  of  which  was  not  produced  on  a  large  scale  in  the  Latin 
American  tropics  until  citizens  of  the  United  States  had  estab- 
V    lished  the  banana  trade^  in  1866, —  at  first  importing  from  Colon 
-■    )  only  —  and  then  had  developed  the  industry  during  years  and 
S  decades  of  unremitting  eifort.     Many  groups  of  citizens  of  the 
(  same  country  have  been  actively  engaged  in. this  work  of  develop- 
ment  and   share  the   credit   accorded  to   all   for  the   successful 
application  of  northern  initiative,  enterprise,  and  capital  to  the 
problems  of  tropical  agriculture.     It  is  especially  important  to 
remember  and  register  the  circumstance  that  such  efforts  have 
been  in  a  wide   sense  constructive  or  well  nigh  creative ;  that 
northern  commercial  methods  have  supplied  new  transportation 


Copyright,    Keystone  View   Co. 
Golden    Mangoes   in    Nicaragua 

and  communication  facilities,  and  (taking  in  their  stride  obstacles 
that  for  centuries  had  been  regarded  as  insurmountable)  have 
expelled  tropical  fevers  from  their  strongholds.  As  Mr.  F.  U. 
Adams  writes  in  his  Conquest  of  the  .Tropics  (New  York  1914) : 
*'  In  1871  there  was  not  a  mile  of  railroad  in  all  of  Central 
America  [the  Republics  of  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica]  with  the  exception  of  a  short  line 
having  its  terminal  at  Puerto  Cortez,  Honduras.  There  were  no 
dependable  foot  or  wagon  roads  from  its  capitals.  .  .  .  There 
was  no  steamship  service  from  the  United  States  or  from  any 
part  of  the  world.    .    .     .    There  probably  was  no  inhabited  spot 


776  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

on  earth  more  isolated.  These  republics  were  cut  off  not  only  by 
the  sea  but  also  by  barriers  of  pestilential  lands,  which  the  natives 
dreaded  to  cross  and  w^hich  the  outside  world  could  not  enter. 
To-day  these  former  wildernesses  constitute  one  of  the  most 
productive  agricultural  sections  of  the  globe.  To-day  the  ships 
from  all  the  world  enter  the  beautiful  harbors  of  Central  America 
and  land  their  passengers  in  ports  which  are  as  sanitary  as  those 
of  Massachusetts.  To-day  most  republics  of  Central  America  are 
served  with  well-managed  and  modernly  equipped  railway  lines. 
.  .  .  Who  performed  these  miracles?"  His  answer  is  that 
they  were  wrought  by  citizens  of  the  United  States  "  who  had 
the  imagination,  the  courage,  and  the  ability  to  attack  and  con- 
quer "  the  problems  of  tropical  wildernesses;  and  he  adds  that 
when  actual  results  had  demonstrated  to  the  world  that  the 
industrial  and  commercial  conquest  of  the  tropics  was  possible, 
this  should  have  proved  to  the  United  States  that  it  was  the 
bounden  duty  of  its  people,  its  press,  and  its  government  to 
encourage  and  foster  the  speedy  development  of  those  regions, 
not  for  the  mere  purpose  of  obtaining  money  rewards,  but  w^th 
the  larger,  broader,  and  truly  statesmanlike  object  of  "  obtaining 
from  the  tropics  such  of  its  other  products  as  would  add  to  the 
happiness  and  raise  the  standard  of  living  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States."  And  in  other  passages  of  the  same  book  the 
benefits  accruing  to  the  citizens  of  the  Latin  American  republics 
are  discussed  with  equal  interest.  Under  the  command  of  a 
single  northern  company  60,000  trained  men  are  working  in  the 
Latin  American  tropics  at  the  present  time.  Tens  of  millions 
of  dollars  have  been  advanced  to  those  who  otherwise  would  not 
have  been  able  to  use  their  lands  for  banana  cultivation  —  such 
loans  having  been  made,  at  reasonable  or  relatively  low  rates  of 
mterest  — much  lower  than  the  prevailing  rates  for  similar 
advances  in  the  same  localities  —  to  residents  in  or  citizens  of 
Costa  Rica,  Panama,  Colombia,  Guatemala,  and  other  Caribbean 
regions  that  have  become  important  sources  of  fruit  supply.  The 
problems  of  tropical  sanitation  have  been  attacked  and  mastered 
—  not  less  vigorously  attacked  and  not  less  thoroughly  mastered 
on  the  extensive  banana  plantations  than  in  the  Canal  Zone, 
Panama,  or  in  Havana  and  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

The  last-mentioned  achievement  —  the  mastery  of  problems 
of  tropical  sanitation  for  the  safeguarding  of  the  health  of  all 
who  labor  on  the  fruit  plantations  —  deserves  our  special  con- 
sideration at  this  moment.     The  head  of  the  Tulane  School  of 


FRUIT  777 

Tropical  Medicine  of  New  Orleans  observes :  ' '  The  vast  improve- 
ments there  [in  the  Latin  American  tropics]  do  the  genius  of 
American  medical  men  a  credit  that  only  future  ages  will  appre- 
ciate. Every  one  knows  what  great  sanitary  work  the  American 
Government  has  accomplished  in  the  Canal  Zone,  but  few  realize 
that  a  similar  improvement  has  been  worked  in  the  rich  fruit 
centres."  The  facts  adduced  in  support  or  confirmation  of  this 
statement  are  substantially  the  following:  In  1900,  about  three 
years  before  the  United  States  took  over  the  Panama  Canal  and 
began  the  work  of  sanitation  in  the  Canal  Zone,  more  than  15,000 
men  were  at  work  for  a  fruit  company  on  Caribbean  tracts  of 
coastal  lands  which  had  been  regarded  always  with  fear  and 
aversion,  as  though  they  had  been  necessarily  and  permanently 
disease-breeding  areas.  But  the  rate  of  mortality  among  laborers 
and  officials  was  not  high,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  basic 
principles  of  that  system  which  afterward  made  possible  the 
completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  (q.  v.)  without  terrible  sacrifices 
of  human  life  had  already  been  studied,  tested,  accepted,  and  the 
appropriate  remedies  had  been  already  applied.  ''  In  the  selec- 
tion of  sites  for  new  towns  and  settlements  careful  attention  was 
given  to  the  reciuirements  of  drainage.  All  adjacent  swamps 
were  cleared,  and  the  grass  and  underbrush  kept  cut  about  the 
houses.  The  laborers  were  verbally  instructed  how  to  take 
precautions  against  the  known  dangers  of  these  districts,  and  the 
medical  employees  of  the  company  made  regular  inspections  of 
their  places  of  living,"  to  enforce  compliance  with  guch  instruc- 
tions. "  Hospitals  were  erected  and  prompt  measures  taken  to 
isolate  any  victim  of  contagious  disease."  With  the  co-operation 
of  the  various  governments,  strict  quarantine  was  enforced 
against  certain  foreign  ports  whenever  such  action  became  advis- 
able. The  medical  officers  of  the  banana  companies  very  promptly 
turned  to  good  account  the  discovery  (confirmed  practically  in 
1898)  of  the  causes  of  yellow  fever  and  malarial  fevers,  and 
employed  the  most  effective  methods  for  the  extermination  of 
the  disease-bearing  insects;  indeed,  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  for  withholding  endorsement  of  the  assertion  that  sanitary 
work  and  experiments  conducted  by  the  pioneer  banana  com- 
panies in  Costa  Rica  and  elsewhere  in  the  years  between  1873 
and  1899  were  of  value  to  those  medical  scientists  who  finally 
were  ''  able  to  announce  to  the  world  that  the  mysteries  of  yellow 
fever  and  malaria  had  been  solved."  After  1899  all  houses 
occupied  by  employees  not  immune  to  such  fevers  were  screened 


778  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

—  sometimes  doubly  screened  —  to  exclude  pernicious  mosquitoes. 
Petroleum  was  used  freely  in  stagnant  pools  and  slow-running 
streams.  All  expedients  for  eliminating  the  tropical  menaces  to 
health  were  tested  and,  if  approved,  installed  on  a  liberal  scale. 
For  example,  we  may  mention  the  adoption  of  the  following 
sanitary  measures  at  Puerto  Barrios,  Guatemala:  All  low-lying 
places  near  that  town  were  filled  in  or  flushed  with  salt  water 
and  danger-spots  above  high  tide  were  drained.  The  camps  out 
on  the  neighboring  plantations  were  located  on  high,  w^eU-drained 
ground,  and  all  grass  and  other  vegetation  kept  low  for  150  yards 
around  these  camps;  tanks  holding  the  water  supply  were 
thoroughly  screened ;  all  surface  water  was  oiled  at  stated  periods. 
The  results  are  satisfactory;  for  no  case  of  any  quarantinable 
disease  has  appeared  during  several  recent  years  at  this  port  or 
at  others  to  which  similar  preventive  measures  and  methods  have 
been  applied. 

The  banana  lands  owned  by  a  single  northern  company  are 
150,000  acres  in  extent,  and  those  owned  by  its  competitors  and 
by  independent  growers  who  sell  to  the  various  importing  houses, 
about  370,000  acres.  Even  now,  the  total  area  devoted  to  this 
agricultural  industry  approximates  520,000  acres.  We  have 
mentioned  already  the  development  of  railroad  transportation 
facilities  in  the  Central  American  republics  that  stood  most  in 
need  of  them.  Not  less  noteworthy  is  another  outgrowth  of  this 
international  dealing  in  the  fruits  of  the  Latin  American  tropics 

—  the  establishment  of  new  steamship  transportation  facilities. 
One  of  the  fruit  companies  operates  90  vessels  (248,607  tons  in 
all),  \\dth  accommodations  for  3,000  passengers  and  carrying 
about  360,000  tons  annually  of  general  freight  for  the  public  — 
thus  opening  not  only  new  markets  to  manufacturers  in  the 
United  States  but  also  opening  the  markets  and  the  opportunities 
of  the  great  world  to  the  people  of  Central  America  who  had  been 
shut  off  from  both  during  long  and  sometimes  depressing,  though 
never,  to  the  people  there  who  inherit  traits  of  the  Indomitable 
Iberian,  wholly  discouraging  ages. —  Professor  C.  L.  Jones,  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  writes:  "  One  company  chiefly  engaged 
in  the  exploitation  of  the  banana  trade  claims,  with  its  allied 
interests,  to  have  expended  $200,000,000  in  the  [Latin]  American 
tropics.  It  reports  its  resources  devoted  to  Caribbean  develop- 
ment as  $88,867,408.27."  Again,  on  pages  296-7  of  Caribbean 
Interests  of  the  IJmted  States,  he  says  that  the  fruit  trade  has 
undergone  a  development  similar  to  that  of  the  asphalt  industry. 


FRUIT  779 

Production  to  some  extent  may  be  left  in  the  hands  of  small 
planters  and  a  minor  part  of  the  total  amount  marketed  is  still 
thus  grown;  but  the  work  even  in  this  stage  of  the  industry  is 
more  efficienth'  performed  by  aggregations  of  capital  which  can 
assure  a  steady  supply  and  transportation  facilities  that  can  be 
depended  upon.  The  small  planter  must  ordinarily  market  his 
fruit  by  sending  it  to  tidewater  or  to  the  railroad  on  muleback. 
The  large  company  can  build  branch  railroads  at  a  fractional 
part  of  the  cost  of  animal  transportation;  and  in  this  manner  it 
can  exploit  regions  which  otherwise  lie  too  far  distant  to  permit 
their  profitable  cultivation.  If  a  steamship  cannot  berth  at  his 
dock,  the  small  producer  is  at  a  disadvantage  because  he  can 
neither  buy  a  lighter  nor  build  the  necessary  landing  pier.  More- 
over, in  many  of  the  Caribbean  banana  regions  the  public  author- 
ities neglect  to  supply  him  with  these  facilities.  Shipments  of 
fruits  to  foreign  countries,  he  adds,  cannot  take  plase  in  the 
ordinary  cargo  vessels.  Specially  constructed  steamships  with 
refrigerating  appliances  are  required,  to  keep  the  fruits  from 
ripening  too  rapidly.  "As  a  result  of  these  conditions  the  export 
of  fruit  in  the  Caribbean  has  come  to  be  almost  entirely  controlled 
by  a  few  large  concerns,  the  pioneer  companies."  Particularly 
interesting  are  the  same  writer's  comments  on  Cuba  and 
Honduras.  In  his  opinion  the  fruit  trade  of  Cuba,  still  in  its 
infancy,  shows  promise  of  healthy  development.  Bananas  for 
home  consumption  are  grown  over  the  entire  island,  but  are 
exported  only  from  the  north  coast  at  the  extreme  eastern  end 
where  soil  and  climate  are  especially  favorable.  The  Cuban  citrus 
fruit  (especially  grape  fruit)  industry  is  increasing  in 
importance.  His  studies  of  Central  American  countries  lead 
him  to  say  that  the  prosperity  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Honduras 
*'  depends,  even  more  than  in  Costa  Eica,  upon  the  banana 
industry.  ...  In  the  production  of  fruit  the  country  has 
great  possibilities.  As  yet,  this  development  is  confined  chiefly 
to  the  north-east  coast,  near  the  ports  of  Tela,  Ceiba  and 
Trujillo!"  The  heterogenous  population  of  the  Trujillo  region 
is  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the  banana  trade,  which  in 
Honduras  has  apparently  unlimited  possibilities  of  development. 


Wool  in  Latin  America 

By  W.  B.  GRAHAM 
Chancellor  of  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

THE  wool  industry  is  subject  to  climatic  influences,  it  being 
found  that,  while  sheep  thrive  in  the  tropic  and  semi-tropic 
zones,  nature,  by  its  law  of  compensation,  relieves  them  of 
the  necessity  of  clothing  themselves  to  withstand  the  cold,  and 
their  wool  loses  those  qualities  that  the  requirements  of  commerce 
have  standardized.  Applying  this  to  Latin  America,  we  find  that 
the  most  successful  exploitation  of  the  wool  industry  is  in  the 
extreme  southern  countries  of  South  America,  or  on  the  high  table 
lands  free  from  tropic  influence. 

Argentina 

Next  to  Australia,  and  on  a  par  with  the  United  States,  Argen- 
tina occupies  a  pre-eminent  position  in  the  wool  industry.  Unlike 
the  cattle  and  meat  industry,  wool  growing  has  been  of  long  stand- 
ing. In  1885  the  exports  of  this  commodity  amounted  to  $35,950,- 
111;  1890,  $35,521,681;  1900,  $31,029,522;  1905,  $27,991,561;  1910, 
$58,847,699.  The  best  year  during  this  period  was  1899,  during 
which  the  total  amounted  to  $71,283,619.  Throughout  the  entire 
statistics  of  the  country,  a  fact  generally  true  elsewhere,  a  close 
relation  is  noted  between  the  production  of  wool  and  the  price  of 
mutton.  When  the  latter  is  in  demand  at  a  good  price,  entire 
flocks  of  sheep  are  slaughtered,  with  a  resulting  diminution  of  the 
wool  clip  for  the  following  few  years. 

On  1  Jan.  1915,  the  estimated  number  of  sheep  in  the  republic 
was  80,000,000,  and  the  estimated  clip  amounts  to  upwards  of  300,- 
000,000  pounds  per  annum  (Commerce  Eeports,  1  Dec.  1916). 
Sheep  are  pastured  throughout  the  republic,  particularly  in  the 
central  and  southern  part.  Requiring  cheap  lands,  they  have  been 
pushed  further  south  each  year,  with  the  result  that  parts  of  Pata- 
gonia and  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  considered  a  generation  ago  as 
uninhabitable  for  civilized  man,  have  been  found  to  be  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  industry.  The  rapid  development  of  this  territory 
to  its  new  capabilities,  in  connection  with  a  similar  development  in 
the  corresponding  latitude  of  Chile,  has  made  a  distinct  sheep 

[780] 


WOOL  781 

raising  section  of  the  southernmost  part  of  the  Continent,  tribu- 
tary to  a  great  extent  to  Punta  Arenas,  Chile,  which  until  recently 
was  a  free  port. 

Vice-Consul  J.  W.  White,  at  Buenos  Aires,  on  17  Oct.  1916 
(Commerce  Reports  above  cited),  made  an  extended  report  on  the 
wool  industry  to  Washington,  calling  attention  to  the  conditions 
permitting  Argentina  to  demand  unheard-of  prices  for  her  wool. 
The  action  of  the  British  Government  in  placing  an  embargo  on 
the  sale  of  the  last  year's  clip  of  the  United  Kingdom  had  operated 
to  the  direct  advantage  of  the  republic,  enabling  her  to  supply  the 
wants  of  neutral  countries  in  addition  to  filling  orders  from  the 
Entente  Allies  for  such  varieties  as  the  British  colonies  do  not 
produce. 

Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  wool  comes  from  the  white-faced, 
long-wool  sheep  of  the  Lincoln  and  Leicester  breeds,  the  quantity 
and  the  quality  being  such  that  in  the  markets  of  the  world  it  is 
known  as  Argentine  crossbreed.  It  grades,  when  sorted,  into  coarse 
and  medium  crossbred,  correspond  to  the  domestic  commons  and 
domestic  one-fourth  bloods  in  the  United  States.  The  fine  Argen- 
tine crossbred  is  the  equivalent  of  the  United  States  three-eighths 
blood.  Of  the  yearly  total,  merino  fleeces  constitute  20  per  cent, 
the  equivalent  of  the  domestic  fine  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
remaining  5  per  cent  is  from  the  black-faced  and  domestic  sheep. 
The  average  clip  per  animal  is  5.3  pounds. 

Prior  to  the  European  War,  the  principal  buyers  of  Argentine 
wool  were  France  and  Germany.  Exports  to  France  in  1911 
amounted  to  51,501  tons;  1912,  51,138  tons;  1913,  31,342  tons;  and 
1914,  23,794  tons,  a  total  for  the  four  years  of  157,775  tons.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period,  Germany  bought  in  1911,  31,693  tons;  1912, 
47,839  tons;  19X3,  41,362  tons ;"^ and  1914,  30,386  tons,  total,  151,280 
tons.  During  the  same  years  the  pur^iases  of  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  to  93,225  tons;  Belgium,  55,731  tons;  United  States, 
42,521  tons;  Italy,  14,849  tons;  and  other  countries,  18,989  tons. 
From  these  figures  the  total  exports  of  wool  for  these  four  years 
totalled  534,370  tons,  being  divided  as  follows:  1911,  132,056  tons; 
1912,  164,964  tons;  1913,  120,080  tons;  and  1914,  117,270  tons, 
Recent  economic  changes  have  made  the  United  States  the  princi- 
pal purchaser  of  Argentine  wool.  Of  the  total  export,  298,939 
bales  (925.9  pounds  each)  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  Sept.  1916, 
152,330  bales  went  to  the  United  States,  as  compared  with  the  102,- 
429  bales  purchased  of  the  export  of  303,402  bales  in  1915,  and 
34,000  bales  out  of  304,268  bales  in  1914.  The  strong  demand  from 
the  United  States  has  contributed  largely  to  the  increase  of  prices. 


7S2  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  average  sales  in  1912  being,  per  pound,  $0,165;  1913,  $0,175; 
1914,  $0,175;  and  1915,  $0,201.  During  the  August-September 
market  season  of  1916,  the  foreign  demand  plus  speculation  forced 
the  price  from  $0,327  to  $0,404  per  pound,  quotations  that  covered 
all  classes,  including  lambs'  wool,  shorts,  belly  wool,  and  sweep- 
ings, the  spirit  of  speculation  being  so  strongly  instilled  into  the 
market  that  to-day  no  settled  price  is  recognized. 

Chile 

In  Chile  the  raising  of  sheep  for  their  wool  to  be  used  in  the 
domestic  textile  industry  has  been  carried  on  since  the  first  settle- 
ment of  the  country.  It  is  within  the  present  generation  that  the 
industry  has  assumed  export  proportions,  a  result  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  southern  portion  of  the  republic,  including  the  exten- 
sive Territory  of  Magellanes.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  country, 
according  to  the  estimate  of  the  government  (Commerce  Reports, 
16  March  1916),  is  5,000,000,  of  which  2,000,000  are  in  the  terri- 
tory tributary  to  Punta  Arenas. 

Formerly  the  centre  of  the  government  penal  colony,  founded 
in  1840,  Punta  Arenas,  on  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  in  time  became 
an  important  coaling  station  for  steamers.  Later,  Scotch  shep- 
herds from  the  Falkland  Islands,  noting  the  excellence  of  the  pas- 
tures in  the  vicinity,  brought  their  flocks  and  started  the  industry 
that  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  country. 
The  result  has  been  that  the  Chilean  Government  has  recognized 
the  possibilities  of  this  part  of  the  republic,  and  has  thrown  open 
the  Territories  of  Llanquihue,  Chiloe  and  Magellanes  to  settle- 
ment, and  thousands  of  acres  of  land  have  been  occupied,  the 
greater  part  devoted  to  sheep  farming.  There  are  many  settlers 
from  the  British  Isles,  and  English  is  everywhere  spoken.  Punta 
Arenas,  population  17,000,  was  a  free  port  until  1912,  one  cause  of 
its  rapid  growth  and  importance.  The  territory,  all  devoted  to  the 
same  industry,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  city,  includes  not  only 
Chilean  pastures,  but  those  of  southern  Argentina.  The  estimated 
clip  for  1916  (Commerce  Reports,  21  Oct.  1916),  w^as  25,000,000 
pounds.  Argentine  wool  also  to  the  amount  of  1,347  metric  tons 
(2,204.6  pounds)  passed  through  this  port  in  1914. 

In  1913  and  1914  Chile  exported  the  following  amounts 
(metric  tons) :  To  Great  Britain,  9,400  and  8,115;  France,  1,938 
and  1,264;  Belgium,  583  and  39;  Germany,  742  and  2,185;  and  the 
United  States,  7  and  358.  Due  to  the  demand  caused  by  the  war, 
exports  have  greatly  increased  to  the  United  States,  those  for 


AVOOl.  783 

1915  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June)  amounting  to  2,369,359  pounds, 
valued  at  $599,650,  and  1916,  9,611,489  pounds,  valued  at  $2,562,792. 
Chilean  wool  is  divided  into  two  general  classes  —  merino, 
which  is  fine,  soft,  curly,  and  comparatively  short,  and  English, 
which  is  long,  straight,  and  glossy.  Between  these  two  grades 
there  are  various  ''  crossbreeds,"  the  quantity  of  these  increasing 
each  year.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  price  of  merino 
wool  has  fallen,  while  the  crossbreed  has  risen  appreciably. 
Export  wool  is  unwashed  (Commerce  Reports,  16  March  1916), 
weighing  twice  as  much  as  that  prepared  for  spinning.  The  lack 
of  facilities  for  washing  has  had  the  effect  of  causing  difficulty  in 
the  dying  of  wools  for  native  industry.  Of  this  latter  there  are 
two  factories  in  the  country,  at  Santiago  and  at  Tome,  the  annual 
consumption  being  about  550  metric  tons  of  wool,  and  their  out- 
put 435,000  yards  of  fabric,  which  is  used  in  part  for  army,  navy, 
and  police  uniforms.  In  addition,  the  manufacture  includes  cash- 
meres, broadcloths,  blankets  and  shawls. 

Uruguay 

Uruguay,  as  regards  the  production  of  wool,  is  subject  to  the 
general  conditions  that  affect  Argentina.  The  country  is  essen- 
tially pastoral,  and  the  greatest  interest  has  been  taken  by  the 
goverimient  in  the  introduction  and  propagation  of  fine  stock. 
The  exports  of  wool  in  1913  amounted  to  63,571  metric  tons.  Since 
the  w^ar,  the  greatest  trade  in  this  commodity  has  been  wdth  the 
United  States,  the  exports  in  1914  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June) 
amounting  to  7,965,817  pounds,  valued  at  $1,854,065;  1915,  14,612,- 
703  pounds,  valued  at  $3,956,216;  and  1916,  8,941,506  pounds, 
valued  at  $3,206,191. 

Brazil 

Brazil,  due  to  the  tropical  nature  of  the  greater  part  of  its 
surface,  is  not  destined  to  become  one  of  the  great  w^ool  producing 
countries.  However,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  republic  —  not- 
ably in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  —  the  climate  is  adapted 
for  sheep  raising,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  w^ool  is  pro- 
duced. The  principal  market  of  the  country  for  wool  is  at  the 
port  of  Rio  Grande.  Success  is  also  reported  in  sheep  raising  for 
wool  in  the  states  of  Parana  and  Minas  Geraes.  Exports  for  the 
country  in  1911  amounted  to  2,147,970  pounds,  valued  at  $311,386; 
1912,  4,198,630  pounds,  valued  at  $571,276;  1913,  2,838,804  pounds, 
valued  at  $394,155;  1914,  2,448,193  pounds,  valued  at  $251,544;  and 
61 


784  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

1915,  997,639  pounds,  valued  at  $193,065.  Exports  to  the  Uuitoil 
States  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1915,  amounted  to 
115,147  pounds,  valued  at  $29,389;  and  1916,  87,864  pounds,  valued 
at  $15,590.  Native  industry  consumes  a  large  amount,  the  quan- 
tity increasing  rapidly. 

Other  Countries  of  Latin  America 

Of  the  other  Latin  American  countries,  there  are  none  that  do 
not  produce  some  wool,  many  in  large  quantities,  and  some  a  prod- 
uct of  a  special  quality,  this  latter  being  particularly  true  of  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Chile,  where,  in  the  Andes  region,  the  alpaca,  vicuna, 
and  llama  thrive.  In  the  Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports  of  18 
April  1917,  the  United  States  Minister  at  La  Paz  says :  "  Through- 
out the  arid  region  that  lies  between  the  two  Cordilleras  a  species 
of  bunch  grass  grows  which  is  capable  of  resisting  the  rigors  of 
winter  and  which  provides  abundant  pasture  for  sheep  and  other 
wool-bearing  animals.  Experiments  conducted  under  government 
supervision  seem  to  indicate  that  the  alpaca  is  better  suited  to  live 
in  the  highlands  than  is  the.  sheep  or  any  other  wool-bearing  ani- 
mal. The  government  of  Bolivia  is  making  a  special  effort  to 
stimulate  the  industry,  and  the  production  of  alpaca  wool  is  attain- 
ing considerable  importance  in  the  country."  (Samples  of 
alpaca  and  llama  wool,  raw  and  woven  into  native  fabrics,  are 
on  exhibition  at  the  Bolivian  Consulate  Cjeneral  at  New  York.) 

Four  animals  closely  related  to  the  camel  of  Africa  and 
Asia  inhabit  the  Andean  highlands.  Of  these  the  vicuiia  and 
guanaco  are  wild  and  hold  no  important  position  as  a  source  of 
wealth.  The  skin  of  these  animals  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  soft 
hair  and  has  value  as  a  fur.  Efforts  to  prevent  their  extermination, 
however,  are  of  little  effect  in  a  country  so  sparsely  settled  and  so 
difficult  to  police,  and  the  fear  is  that  they  may  eventually  disap- 
pear altogether.  The  alpaca  and  the  llama  are  domesticated  .  .  . 
The  alpaca,  although  closely  related  to  the  llama,  with  which  it 
interbreeds  freely,  differs  ...  in  the  character  of  its  wool.  The 
wool  of  the  alpaca  is  generally  black  or  white;  occasionally,  how- 
ever, brown  or  spotted  ones  are  found.  It  is  customary  to  shear 
the  alpaca  every  second  year,  but  it  has  been  found  that  the  wool 
continues  to  grow  for  a  longer  period  and  that  it  would  be  profit- 
able to  shear  them  only  every  third  year.  The  present  yield  aver- 
ages about  10  to  15  pounds  every  second  year  .  .  .  Among  the 
wools  alpaca  is  superior  because  of  its  remarkable  strength,  its 
flexibility,  and  the  fineness  of  its  texture  .  .  .  The  production  is 
'iniitod  entirely  to  the  Andean  highlands  of  Peru  and  Bolivia. 


WOOL  785 

Peru,  in  addition  to  her  production  of  alpaca  and  llama  wool, 
has  large  domestic  sheep  interests.  The  exports  of  alpaca  wool  in 
1913  amounted  to  $1,573,670;  1914,  $1,538,427;  and  1916,  $1,696,- 
213.  Of  llama  wool,  the  exports  in  1913  amounted  to  $141,493; 
1914,  $90,477;  and  1915,  $144,152.  Domestic  wool,  1913,  $797,868; 
1914,  $841,165 ;  and  1915,  $1,066,844.  Exports  to  the  United  States 
in  1915  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June)  amounted  to  819,347. pounds, 
v^alued  at  $192,284;  and  1916,  2,426,279  pounds,  valued  at  $669,174. 

Colombia,  although  using  a  considerable  quantity  of  wool  in 
domestic  manufacture,  also  produces  some  for  export.  The  quan- 
tity sent  to  the  United  States  in  1915  amounted  to  915  pounds, 
valued  at  $218.  No  shipments  were  made  in  1916.  Paraguay  also 
produces  wool  for  export,  the  quantity  sold  abroad  in  1914  being 
93,634  pounds;  and  1915,  129,127  pounds.  Of  this  latter,  24,651 
pounds  were  shipped  to  the  United  States,  the  remainder  to  Argen- 
tina, Uruguay,  Italy  and  France.  As  to  Venezuela,  no  figures 
regarding  w^ool  production  are  available.  Of  the  northern  group 
of  Latin  American  States,  Mexico  is  the  greatest  grower  of  wool. 
In  normal  times  it  is  an  important  industry.  Even  during  the 
recent  troubled  period,  her  exports  to  the  United  States  amounted 
in  1914  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June)  to  849,991  pounds,  valued  at 
$108,004;  1915,  1,154,626  pounds,  valued  at  $134,863;  and  1916, 
1,321,213  pounds,  valued  at  $170,518.  Of  the  remainder  of  the 
group,  the  only  states  exporting  to  the  United  States  during  1916 
(fiscal  3^ear  ending  30  June)  were  Costa  Rica,  19,574  pounds,  valued 
at  $8,935;  Guatemala,  572  pounds,  valued  at  $257;  g,nd  Panama, 
200  pounds,  valued  at  $50. 


Rice  Production  in  Latin  America 

By  W.  B.  Graham 
Chancellor  of  Consulate  General  of  Paraguay,  New  York 

THE  use  of  rice  as  an  article  of  food  is  more  uniformly  wide- 
spread in  Latin  America  than  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
the  mainstay  of  the  laboring  classes,  and,  by  itself  or 
incorporated  with  other  foods,  it  is  found,  as  well,  on  the  tables 
of  the  wealthy.  From  the  universal  demand  for  this  cereal,  it  is 
found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  of  the  Latin  American  states, 
with  the  greatest  acreage  in  Brazil,  where  its  cultivation  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  From  the  days 
of  its  earliest  production  it  has  been  a  subject  of  government 
control  and  encouragement.  At  the  present  time  it  is  being  fos- 
tered by  the  Ministry  of  Industry  and  Agriculture,  whose  efforts 
are  directed  to  an  increased  production  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
living  —  a  real  service  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of 
wheat  and  other  breadstutfs  is  imported.  Under  the  auspices  of 
this  Ministry  there  was  published  in  1914  a  comprehensive  work 
on  the  subject  by  Dr.  L.  Granato,  entitled  0  Arroz,  and  recently, 
in  connection  with  the  conclusion  of  arrangements  for  a  direct 
shipping  line*  between  Brazil  and  Japan,  plans  have  been  perfected 
for  the  introduction  of  several  thousand  laborers  *'  to  be  employed 
in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  national  authorities  in 
the  cultivation  of  rice,  etc."  With  experienced  labor,  and  the 
natural  facilities  offered  by  the  Brazilian  climate,  lands,  and  nat- 
ural streams  adaptable  for  irrigation  uses,  the  future  of  the 
country  as  a  rice  producer  is  promising. 

Brazil 

The  chief  rice-raising  state  of  Brazil  is  Sao  Paulo,  with  an 
acreage  (1913)  of  231,000  acres.  In  1911  its  crop  amounted  to 
134,367,856  pounds,  1912,  222,992,643  pounds,  1913,  178,013,824 
pounds,  and  1915,  192,000,000  pounds.  Of  the  other  states,  Minas 
Geraes,  producing  about  half  as  much  as  Sfio  Paulo,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Eio  Grande  do  Sul,  Ceara,  Parahyba,  Santa  Catharina, 
Maranhao,  Para,  and  Espirito  Santo  follow  in  the  order  named. 
The  total  production  of  the  whole  of  Brazil  was  estimated  in  1911 

[786] 


RICE  787 

at  15,823,372  bushels,  a  figure  that  is  exceeded  at  the  present  time. 
Due  to  the  domestic  demand,  only  a  negligible  quantity  of  rice  is 
exported,  but  a  large  amount  is  imported  each  year,  the  quantity 
for  1913  being  17,110,195  pounds,  and  for  1914,  14,377,073  pounds, 
of  which  about  70  per  cent  was  purchased  in  India,  the  remainder 
coming  principally  from  Germany,  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
The  Netherlands.  Of  purchases  from  the  United  States  the  quan- 
tity in  1911  Avas  5,050  pounds,  valued  at  $280;  1912,  191  pounds, 
valued  at  $8;  1913,  13,530  pounds,  valued  at  $636;  1914,  190 
pounds,  valued  at  $9;  1915,  274,104  pounds,  valued  at  $11,789; 
and  1916,  700,574  pounds,  vafued  at  $26,904.  Due  to  the  high  cus- 
toms duties  and  surtax,  amounting  to  about  $0.31/2  per  pound,  the 
cost  of  the  low  and  medium  grades  of  foreign  rice  when  offered  on 
the  domestic  market  is  too  high  to  be  able  to  compete  with  the 
local  cereal  of  the  same  quality,  and  the  greater  part  of  all  the 
imports  consists  of  the  fancy  high  priced  grain,  the  favorite 
grades  being  those  known  as  the  Patna  and  Siam. 

Argentina  • 

In  accordance  with  the  policy  of  the  Government  in  its  scheme 
for  the  encouragement  of  national  industry,  to  make  the  country 
self  supporting,  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  of  Argentina  has  lent 
its  assistance  to  the  rice  growing  industry,  which  has  long  passed 
its  experimental  stage.  Due  to  climatic  fitness,  the  northern  part 
of  the  Republic  has  seen  the  greatest  development.  In  a  special 
report  by  the  United  States  Consul  at  Rosario  (15  June  1915)  to 
Washington,  it  was  stated  that  approximately  12,000  acres  were 
under  rice  cultivation  at  that  time,  a  decrease  from  the  19,664  acres 
shown  by  the  government  statistics  of  1908.  Of  this  latter  the 
number  of  acres  devoted  to  rice  in  the  various  provinces  and 
territories  was  divided  as  follows:  Santa  Fe,  5,421;  Tucuman, 
4,823;  Buenos  Aires,  2,469;  Cordoba,  1,997;  Entre  Rios,  1,838; 
Misiones,  1,530;  Salta,  598;  Jujuy,  526;  Pampa,  334;  San  Juan, 
54:  Corrientes,  54;  La  Rioja,  10,  and  Santiago  del  Estero,  10.  In 
a  supplemental  report  (2  June  1916),  certain  changes  are  indi- 
cated in  the  localities  of  production,  Tucuman,  Salta,  and  Jujuy 
being  mentioned  as  the  principal  producers,  with  cultivation  on  a 
smaller  scale  in  San  Juan,  Mendoza,  La  Rioja,  Catamarca, 
Corrientes,  the  Chaco,  and  Misiones. 

Experiments  have  been  made  with  the  principal  varieties  of 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Italian,  and  Spanish  rice,  and  those  known  as 
vialonne,   kinskii,    and   Valencian    are   mentioned   as   being  best 


788  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

adapted  for  the  localities  under  experiment.  Efforts  are  still 
under  way  to  place  the  industry  upon  a  stable  basis,  in  furtherance 
of  which  experts  from  Japan  have  recently  been  called  to  study 
and  report  upon  rice  growing  possibilities.  As  far  as  investiga- 
tion has  been  made,  the  climate,  soil,  and  irrigation  of  the  north- 
western provinces  of  Salta,  Jujuy,  and  Santiago  del  Estero  have 
been  reported  suitable  for  rice  culture  on  a  large  scale,  with  par- 
ticular recommendation  for  the  Departments  of  Campo  Santo  and 
Santa  Ana  in  Salta  and  La  Banda  in  Santiago  del  Estero.  Later 
reports  will  be  made  regarding  passibilities  in  Catamarca  and 
La  Rioja,  where  conditions  are  already  known  to  be  favorable. 

In  default  of  exact  figures  of  recent  acreage  and  production, 
it  may  safely  be  said  that  the  national  production  of  rice  has 
doubled,  at  least,  since  the  breaking  out  of  the  European  war,  due 
to  the  general  increase  in  the  prices  of  cereals  of  all  kinds  result- 
ing from  the  generaL  world  demand,  and,  particularly  as  concerns 
Argentina,  the  excessive  oversea  freight  rates  on  imports.  In  the 
three  provinces,  alone,  of  Tucuman,  Salta,  and  Jujuy,  the  acreage 
devoted  to  rice  growing  in  1916  was  five  times  that  of  1915,  and 
with  the  exception  of  certain  localities  —  notably  Corrientes  — 
where  drought  was  experienced,  the  yield  per  acre  was  the  maxi- 
mum. As  indicating  the  increase,  the  pi"Ovince  of  Tucuman  may  be 
taken  as  an  example,  the  yield  being,  in  1913,  4,190,000  pounds; 
1914,  7,120,000;  1915,  15,430,000  pounds;  and  in  1916,  between 
15,000,000  and  16,000,000  pounds  (estimated). 

On  the  occasion  of  a  competitive  exhibition  of  native  rice 
(1917)  held  at  Buenos  Aires,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Argentine 
Rural  Society,  it  was  pointed  out  that  with  an  acreage  of  from 
60,000  to  75,000  acres  devoted  to  this  cereal,  the  country  would  no 
longer  be  dependent  on  imports.  The  amount  bought  abroad 
amounted,  in  1913,  to  97,721,190  pounds;  1914,  123,417,935  pounds, 
of  which  the  greater  part  came  from  Italy  and  the  British  pos- 
sessions. The  United  States  (supplying  none  in  1911  and  1912) 
sold  Argentina,  in  1913,  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  7,619,152 
pounds;  1914,  3,000  pounds;  1915,  3,923,611  pounds;  and  1916, 
3,442,042  pounds,  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  imports  —  small, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  the  United  States  CoilsuI  at  Rosario, 
from  the  fact  of  its  high  price  in  comparison  with  other  markets, 
although  the  quality  is  considered  good. 

In  accordance  with  the  policy  of  encouragement  given  to  the 
industry,  the  National  and  Provincial  governments  have  perfected 
agreements,  the  former  through  the  Banco  de  la  Nacion,  providing 
for  the  milling  and  grading  of  rice  at  actual  cost  to  the  grower.    In 


RICE  789 

addition,  plans  have  been  made  for  giving  expert  instruction  as  to 
its  culture;  for  furnishing  suitable  seed  and  other  inducements; 
and  seasonable  markets. 

Peru 

Peru  is  one  of  the  Latin  American  countries  whose  production 
of  rice  corresponds  closely  to  domestic  requirements.  In  a  recent 
mention  of  the  industry  {Bulletin  of  the  Pan  American  Union, 
February  1917),  rice  culture  is  stated  as  having  been  a  national 
industry  for  several  centuries,  the  importance  of  which  has  only 
recently  come  to  be  realized.  In  the  same  article  the  annual  pro- 
duction is  estimated  for  the  past  several  years  as  being  from 
70,000,000  to  100,000,000  pounds.  While  obsolete  methods  of  grow- 
ing and  handling  the  cereal  are  still  in  vogue  in  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, there  has  been  a  noticeable  advance  generally  in  the  utilization 
of  modern  appliances,  due  to  the  encouragement  of  the  government 
through  the  Ministry  of  Public  Industry.  Rice  mills  are  being 
installed,  for  which  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  equipment  from 
the  United  States  (Commerce  Reports,  3  Feb.  1916). 

The  quality  of  the  Peruvian  rice  is  stated  by  the  United 
States  consul  at  Lima  (Report  of  10  June  1916)  as  being  superior, 
and  better  than  that  imported  from  China,  a  fact  that  accounts 
for  both  imports  and  exports  appearing  in  the  annual  trade 
reports  of  the  countr>%  as  the  former  are  intended  to  supply  the 
cheaper  grades  of  consumption,  releasing  for  foreign  demand  the 
higher  priced  domestic  product.  Recently,  however,  in  order  to 
conserve  domestic  foodstuffs,  an  embargo  has  been  placed  on  its 
exportation,  a  measure  that  has  been  the  subject  of  criticism.  The 
exports  of  rice  amounted  in  1912  to  $289,411;  1913,  $380,690;  1914, 
$305,484;  and  1915,  $788,061.  During  the  same  period  the  imports 
were,  1912,  $598,399;  1913,  $546,313;  1914,  $404,592;  and  1915, 
$603,700.  Of  the  imports  since  1911,  those  from  the  United  States 
were  as  follows:  1911  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  none;  1912, 
30,000  pounds,  valued  at  $1,200;  1913  and  1914,  none;  1915, 
541,662  pounds,  valued  at  $24,255;  and  1916,  57,890  pounds,  valued 
at  $2,410. 

Costa  Rica 

The  annual  per  capita  consumption  of  rice  in  Costa  Rica  is  at 
least  100  pounds,  it  being  eaten  at  least  twdce  a  day  by  every  inhab- 
itant of  the  Republic.  The  total  consumption  exceeds  30,000,000 
pounds  per  year,  from  4,000,000  to  6,000,000  pounds  being  imported 
annually,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  domestic  production,  largely 
on  the  mountain  and  hill  slopes  of  the  interior  of  the  country.    Of 


7!)0  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

late  there  lias  been  a  movement  towards  the  utilization  of  the 
swamp  lands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Port  Limon,  it  being  prac- 
ticable to  flood  these  during  certain  months  of  the  year.  The 
imports  of  rice  —  formerly  60  per  cent  from  Germany,  22  per  cent 
from  the  United  States,  10  per  cent  from  England,  and  the 
remainder  from  China  and  other  countries  —  have  lately  been  as 
follows:  1913,  $143,391;  1914,  $160,311;  and  1915,  $108,649.  The 
amount  imported  from  the  United  States  since  1911  is  as  follows : 
Fiscal  year  ending  30  June,  1911,  11,000  pounds,  valued  at  $263; 
1912,  1,034  pounds,  valued  at  $38;  1913,  4,558  pounds,  valued  at 
$152;  1914,  10,236  pounds,  valued  at  $421;  1915,  876,014  pounds, 
valued  at  $34,944;  and  1916,  541,547  pounds,  valued  at  $21,031. 

On  28  April  1917,  the  United  States  Consul  at  San  Jose 
reported  that  the  available  supply  of  rice  in  the  country  amounted 
to  1,721,800  pounds,  and  that  the  present  year's  crop,  according  to 
government  estimates,  would  be  5,131,600  pounds. 

Paraguay 

As  regards  natural  facilities  —  climate  and  irrigation  —  for 
the  production  of  rice,  the  conditions  in  Paraguay  are  ideal.  The 
production,  however,  has  never  been  equal  to  the  demand,  and  it 
is  only  recently  that  the  government,  through  the  Banco  Agricola, 
has  taken  the  matter  seriously  in  hand.  The  area  devoted  to  rice 
growing  in  1915,  amounting  to  2,480  acres,  was  more  than  double 
that  of  1914,  and  in  1916  the  acreage  was  still  greater.  The  pro- 
duction for  1915  was  estimated  at  40,000  bushels.  The  numerous 
river  bottom  lands,  convenient  to  the  larger  population  centres, 
are  being  investigated,  and  plans  are  being  formulated  for  the 
study  of  the  problem  of  efficient  rice  culture  by  Japanese  experts. 
The  price  of  refined  rice,  26  May  1915,  was  $0.14y2  per  pound, 
and  the  domestic  production,  unrefined,  averaged  about  $0.04  per 
pound.  Early  in  1916  the  Banco  Agricola  instructed  its  agents 
that  the  Committee  of  Agriculture  and  Industry,  to  protect  the 
producers  of  agricultural  products,  had  authorized  the  purchase 
of  Paraguayan  grown  rice  in  the  husk,  at  $0.2i4  per  pound  deliv- 
ered to  the  agencies  of  the  bank.  This  minimum  price  was 
intended  merely  to  maintain  values  and  did  hot  prevent  others 
from  purchasing  the  product  at  the  same  or  a  higher  figure.  This 
activity  is  within  the  scheme  of  the  same  institution  for  several 
years,  in  purchasing  rice  in  the  open  market  and  furnishing  it  to 
the  poorer  classes  at  cost.  Due  to  the  fact  that  rice  appears  in 
the  government  statistics  under  the  heading  of  foodstuffs,  the 


RICE  791 

quantity  imported  cannot  be  estimated.  Before  the  war  the 
greater  part  came  from  Germany.  Much  is  purchased  through 
Buenos  Aires  commission  houses.  Imports  from  the  United 
States  began  with  1915,  37,212  pounds,  valued  at  $2,323;  1916, 
44,440  pounds,  valued  at  $2,250. 

Ecuador 

Rice  is  the  principal  article  of  diet  of  all  Pjcuadorians,  and 
is  raised  locally  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  production  varies 
from  7,500  to  10,000  tons  annually,  being  subject  at  long  intervals 
to  serious  droughts.  In  1916,  due  to  prolonged  lack  of  rainfall,  the 
crop  was  reported  by  the  United  States  Consul  (23  March  1916) 
as  almost  a  total  failure.  The  average  imports  of  rice,  1909  to 
1913,  amounted  annually  to  4,600  tons,  the  valuation  being,  1909 
and  1910,  per  ton,  $44;  1911,  $49;  1912,  $47;  and  1913,  $52.  In 
1916,  the  price  had  advanced  to  between  $70  and  $75  per  ton.  The 
most  popular  rice  consumed  is  that  imported  from  Peru,  the  next 
being  the  domestic  grain,  while  that  from  India  ranks  third.  The 
production  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  small  farmers,  and  the  crop 
is  usually  sold  or  bartered  in  its  raw  state  to  the  local  merchants, 
who  send  it  to  mill,  receiving  back  100  pounds  of  the  hulled 
product  for  every  160  pounds  of  the  unhulled.  There  are  19  rice 
hulling  machines  in  the  country.  Imports  from  the  United  States 
amounted,  in  1911  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  to  5,625  pounds, 
valued  at  $132 ;  1912  and  1913,  none ;  1914,  6,771  pounds,  valued  at 
$283;  1915,  127,092  pounds,  valued  at  $5,106;  and  1916,  50,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,955. 

Remaining  States  of  Latin  America 

Special  industries  and  special  products  of  many  of  the 
remaining  Latin  American  States  are  such  that  the  local  produc- 
tion of  rice  is  of  comparatively  small  importance,  and,  while 
carried  on  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  it  is  included  in  the  statistics 
of  ''  agricultural  products."  As  an  industry,  for  example,  in 
Bolivia,  the  United  States  Consul  (Supplement  to  Commerce 
Reports,  18  April  1917)  states  that  it  has  "  remained  undeveloped 
because  of  the  lack  of  adequate  means  of  transportation."  The 
imports  of  rice  for  the  year  1915  amounted  to  $209,963,  of  which 
the  United  States  contributed  $13,530. 

Chile  raises  very  little  rice,  although  a  great  deal  is  consumed 
in  the  country.     The  United  States  Consul  at  Valparaiso  (Com- 


792  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

merce  Keports,  4  Aug.  1915)  states  that  the  annual  imports,  taken 
on  the  basis  of  the  statistics  and  tables  of  1913,  total  40,350,340 
pounds,  valued  at  $935,281,  the  United  States  supplying-  99,427 
pounds,  valued  at  $2,305 ;  United  Kingdom,  484,240  pounds,  valued 
at  $11,224;  Germany,  15,684,406  pounds,  valued  at  $363,546;  Italy, 
9,217,532  pounds,  valued  at  $213,649;  India,  8,356,536  pounds, 
valued  at  $193,695;  Java,  80,688  pounds,  valued  at  $1,870; 
Peru,  5,247,499  pounds,  valued  at  $121,631;  all  other,  1,180,012 
pounds,  valued  at  $27,361.  In  1914,  the  imports  amounted  to 
$668,357,  and  in  1915,  $1,106,187.  No  imports  were  made  from 
the  United  States  in  1911,  1912,  or  1913.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
30  June  1914,  however,  19,315  pounds,  valued  at  $270,  were  pur- 
chased from  the  United  States;  1915,  1,829,700  pounds,  valued  at 
$74,346;  and  1916,  7,295,271  pounds,  valued  at  $312,387  —  a 
remarkable  gain,  bespeaking  the  Chilean  appreciation  of  the 
United  States  product. 

Colombia  consumes  vast  quantities  of  rice.  As  to  its  domes- 
tic production,  the  United  States  Consul  at  Barranquilla  (Sup- 
plement to  Commerce  Reports,  30  June  1915)  says:  ''  Rice,  an 
important  article  of  consumption,  is  cultivated  by  small  farmers 
in  a  primitive  way,  the  chief  implements  being  a  few  hides,  wooden 
poles,  and  a  winnowing  fan  of  palm  leaves."  In  view  of  the 
favorable  climate,  the  unlimited  facilities  for  irrigation,  and, 
above  all,  the  expressed  intention  of  the  Grovernment  to  foster 
agrarian  pursuits,  along  with  the  present,  increasing  price  of 
foodstuffs,  the  time  seems  opportune  for  making  rice  culture  of 
commercial  importance.  Prior  to  the  European  War,  the  quanti- 
ties imported  amounted  to  approximately  $800,000  annually,  86 
per  cent  being  furnished  by  Germany.  At  the  present  time  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  are  supplying  the  market.  During 
the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1911,  the  United  States  supplied 
33,653  pounds,  valued  at  $914 ;  191 2,  73,353  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,741;  1913,  45,740  pounds,  valued  at  $2,113;  1914,  17,680  pounds, 
valued  at  $629;  1915,  2,584,076  pounds,  valued  at  $98,013;  and 
1916,  8,934,829  pounds,  valued  at  $343,105. 

Uruguay  is  essentially  a  pastoral  country,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  wheat,  has,  until  recently,  given  but  little  attention  to 
the  raising  of  cereals.  As  to  her  imports  of  rice,  the  figures  are 
included  among  other  *'  food  products."  No  imports  were  made 
from  the  United  States  in  1911,  1912,  1913,  or  1914.  Those  made 
in  1915  amounted  to  93,175  pounds,  valued  at  $4,635;  and  1916, 
48,660  pounds,  valued  at  $2,513. 


RICE  793 

Venezuela  raises  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  rice. 
Accoramg  to  the  United  States  Consul  at  La  Guaira  (Supplement 
to  Commerce  Reports,  17  April  1916),  *'  rice  is  grown,  but  in  far 
from  sufficient  quantity,  and  it  is  one  of  the  principal  articles  of 
import."  Imports  in  1913  amounted  to  $288,607,  of  which  The 
Netherlands  supplied  $150,986;  Germany,  $106,088;  the  United 
States,  $16,281;  Great  Britain,  $9,635;  and  France,  $14,104.  In 
1914,  the  imports  amounted  to  $396,906,  of  which  The  Netherlands 
supplied  $196,052;  Germany,  $86,922;  the  United  States,  $63,630; 
Great  Britain,  $5,837;  others  not  reported.  In  1915,  the  amount 
was  $619,952,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  $424,518;  Great 
Britain,  $91,415;  Trinidad,  $23,866;  Spain,  $24,029;  and  France, 
$656  (Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports,  17  April,  and  29  Dec. 
1916).  According  to  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Commerce  (1915,  1916),  the  exports  from  the  United  States  to 
Venezuela  for  the  year  ending  30  June  1911,  amounted  to  48,300 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,378;  1912,  46,388  pounds,  valued  at  $1,490; 
1913,  42,650  pounds,  valued  at  $1,589;  1914,  25,018  pounds,  valued 
at  $800;  1915,  4,253,399  pounds,  valued  at  $175,408;  and  1916, 
6,559,777,  valued  at  $262,448. 

Guatemala  in  1913  raised  3,501,000  pounds  of  rice;  1914,  22,- 
753,200  pounds;  and  1915,  24,015,000  pounds,  indicating  an 
increased  interest  in  the  development  of  this  industry,  a  condi- 
tion resulting  from  general  world  conditions  and  the  appreciation 
of  the  possibilities,  in  an  agricultural  way,  of  the  country.  In 
1916  the  production,  due  to  labor  demands  for  other  industries, 
fell  to  13,554,700  pounds,  estimated  (Commerce  Reports,  5  April 
1917).  Rice,  being  the  principal  article  of  diet,  large  quantities 
are  also  imported,  the  quantity  from  the  United  States  being,  in 
1911  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  164,675  pounds,  valued  at 
$4,164;  1912,  130,330  pounds,  valued  at  $3,513;  1913,  68,200  pounds, 
valued  at  $2,524;  1914,  81,295  pounds,  valued  at  $3,422;  1915, 
671,299  pounds,  valued  at  $27,172;  and  1916,  235,814  pounds, 
valued  at  $9,658. 

Honduras,  according  to  the  report  of  the  American  Consul  at 
Tegucigalpa  (Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports,  7  July  1915), 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  raising  of  rice,  but  never  ' '  on  a  large 
scale  until  highways  are  built  and  transportation  facilities 
afforded  the  people."  In  a  later  report,  his  successor  at  the  same 
place  said  (Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports,  3  May  1916): 
'*  Honduras  at  present  imports  a  vast  quantity  of  rice;  yet  Hon- 
duran  rice  is  considered  the  best  on  the  market,  and  available  rice 


794  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

lands  ill  the  Puerto  Cortes  district  cover  a  large  area."  The  pro- 
duction in  1915  amounted  to  3,252,000  pounds.  The  imports, 
1913-14  (fiscal  year  ending  1  August),  amounted  to  $82,124,  of 
which  the  United  States  supplied  $72,218,  and  Germany,  $9,310; 
1914-15,  total,  $112,627,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  $110,- 
194,  and  Germany  $1,421  (Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports,  18 
Dec.  1916).  Evidently  on  a  different  basis  of  valuation,  the  United 
States  Department  of  Commerce  gives  the  exports  of  rice  to  Hon- 
duras as  follows:  1911,  684,815  pounds,  valued  at  $20,765;  1912, 
1,101,230  pounds,  valued  at  $33,267;  1913,  1,083,045  pounds,  valued 
at  $44,599;  1914,  1,501,472  pounds,  valued  at  $65,101;  1915,  2,119,- 
055  pounds,  valued  at  $83,748 ;  and  1916,  2,264,256  pounds,  valued 
at  $90,650. 

In  Nicaragua  "  some  rice  is  grown,  but  not  enough  for  local 
requirements  "  (Supplement  to  Commerce  Reports,  1  Dec.  1915). 
The  imports  of  this  cereal  amounted  in  1913  to  $172,645;  1914, 
$134,882;  and  1915,  $145,550.  Imports  from  the  United  States 
have  been  as  follows:  1911,  330,393  pounds,  valued  at  $10,242; 
1912,  583,476  pounds,  valued  at  $17,328;  1913,  812,911  pounds, 
valued  at  $32,448;  1914,  697,612  pounds,  valued  at  $29,719;  1915, 
807,672  pounds,  valued  at  $32,601;  and  1916,  1,164,645  pounds, 
valued  at  $46,232. 

■  Panama,  although  adaptable  to  agriculture,  is  in  a  backward 
state,  due  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities,  the  principal  indus- 
try being  that  of  utilizing  the  natural  products  of  the  country, 
balata,  bananas,  etc.  While  suited  to  rice  culture,  very  little  is 
raised.  The  imports  of  this  cereal  in  1914  amounted  to  $351,000. 
Imports  of  rice  from  the  United  States  amounted  in  1911  to  94,- 
483  pounds,  valued  at  $2,929;  1912,  170,323  pounds,  valued  at 
$4,864;  1913,  170,111  pounds,  valued  at  $7,614;  1914,  281,516 
pounds,  valued  at  $11,839;  1915,  4,861,604  pounds,  valued  at  $195,- 
031 ;  and  1916,  2,300,577  pounds,  valued  at  $90,573.  In  a  report 
by  the  United  States  Consul  General  (Commerce  Reports,  14  Aug. 
1915),  it  was  stated  that  the  preference  in  imports  was  for  the 
grains  know  as  Siam  No.  1  and  Saigon  No.  1,  formerly  procurable 
from  Hamburg,  but  purchased  at  present  in  San  Francisco.  Some 
domestic  United  States  rice  has  been  purchased  at  New  Orleans. 
Salvador  is  one  of  the  Latin  American  countries  raising  suffi- 
cient rice  for  its  own  needs,  and  a  surplus  for  export.  In  1914  the 
area  under  cultivation  was  27,000  acres,  producing  12,344,000 
pounds.  During  the  same  year,  the  exports  amounted  to  $10,983, 
of  which  the  United  States  received  $4,032;  Guatemala,  $2,050; 


RICE  795 

Nicaragua,  $3,632;  Honduras,  $366;  Panama,  $197;  Costa  Rica, 
$702 ;  and  France,  $4. 

Mexico  produces  a  large  quantity  of  rice,  but,  due  to  the  large 
domestic  consumption,  quantities  have  to  be  imported  every  year, 
particularly  at  present  on  account  of  recent  political  and  indus- 
trial troubles.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  1914  was  41,000 
acres,  producing  33,921,000  pounds.  Figures  regarding  importa- 
tion as  a  whole,  for  recent  years,  are  not  available,  but  the  imports 
from  the  United  States  amounted  in  1911  to  542,320  pounds,  valued 
at  $20,690;  1912,  21,621  pounds,  valued  at  $9,381;  1913,  439,937 
pounds,  valued  at  $22,711;  1914,  1,292,466  pounds,  valued  at 
$55,573;  1915,  1,742,531  pounds,  valued  at  $76,716;  and  1916, 
6,099,932  pounds,  valued  at  $229,196.  In  1914,  Mexico  exported  to 
Cuba  rice  to  the  amount  of  1,451,692  pounds,  valued  at  $44,734. 

Cuba  raises  sugar  and  tobacco,  lands  are  dear,  and  labor  is  in 
great  demand,  a  combination  of  elements  that  militates  against 
the  commercial  exploitation  of  rice  in  competition  with  the  fields 
of  the  Orient.  While  some  rice  is  raised,  its  quantity  is  negligible, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  great  demand  of  the  Island  is  met  by  importa- 
tion. The  imports  in  1913  amounted  to  279,952,741  pounds,  valued 
at  $7,772,634;  and  in  1914,  250,641,198  pounds,  valued  at  $6,529,- 
735.  In  1913,  Germany  supplied,  in  round  numbers,  106,000,000 
pounds,  and  British  India,  61,000,000  pounds;  the  respective 
quantities  in  1914  being  44,000,000  and  48,000,000  pounds.  Imports 
from  the  United  States  amounted  in  1911  to  2,277,617  pounds, 
valued  at  $52,687 ;  1912,  9,140,407  pounds,  valued  at  $246,214;  1913, 
669,179  pounds,  valued  at  $28,793 ;  1914,  11,378,020  pounds,  valued 
at  $414,768;  1915,  25,340,501  pounds,  valued  at  $999,810;  and  1916, 
49,127,404  pounds,  valued  at  $1,897,354  — Cuba  being  the  best 
customer  of  the  United  States  in  this  product. 

Special  Agent  Garrard  Harris  in  a  report  to  Washington 
(Commerce  Reports,  27  Jan.  1916),  calls  particular  attention  to 
the  high  quality  of  the  rice  demanded  for  Cuban  consumption. 
The  varieties  in  universal  demand  are  the  Rangoon,  or  "  Sem- 
illa,"  as  it  is  generally  termed;  the  Calcutta,  otherwise  known  as 
*'  Old  Hard  Patna,"  or  "  canilla  viejo  ";  the  Siam  Garden,  called 
'*  canilla  nuevo, "  and  a  small  quantity  of  Valencia  rice,  the  last 
named  in  packages,  and  called  locally  *'  Bomba,"  similar  to  the 
Domestic  Japan  so  well  known  on  the  New  Orleans  market. 

The  Dominican  Republic  is  concerned  with  the  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  cacao  industries,  and  very  few  cereals  are  raised, 
rice  being  grown  to  only  a  small  extent.     The  imports  of  this 


796  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

cereal  in  1913  amounted  to  $736,751;  1914,  $485,776;  1915, 
$908,876;  and  1916,  $1,080,068.  The  United  States  supplied,  in 
1911  (fiscal  year  ending  30  June),  35,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$1,007;  1912,  43,703  pounds,  valued  at  $1,498;  1913,  54,290  pounds, 
valued  at  $2,367;  1914,  48,750  pounds,  valued  at  $1,418;  1915, 
6,706,158  pounds,  valued  at  $289,874;  and  1916,  9,301,967  pounds, 
valued  at  $369,770. 

Haiti,  as  regards  industrial  conditions,  is  closely  allied  with 
the  Dominican  Republic.  The  production  of  rice  is  exceedingly 
small.  Imports  from  the  United  States  in  1911  (fiscal  year  ending 
30  June)  amounted  to  27,250  pounds,  valued  at  $789;  1912,  71,660 
pounds,  valued  at  $2,725 ;  1913,  109,055  pounds,  valued  at  $4,357 ; 
1914,  33,659  pounds,  valued  at  $1,253;  1915,  95,229  pounds,  valued 
at  $4,247;  and  1916,  1,135,981  pounds,  valued  at  $47,254. 


Consular  Regulations,  Documents  and 
Procedure  in  Latin  America 

By  J.  B.  McDonnell 
Of  the  Staff  of  the  Encyclopedia  Americana 

ALL  Latin  American  countries,  except  Argentina,  Cos1a  Rica, 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  require  the  presentation  of  con- 
sular invoices  for  the  clearance  of  shipments,  and  heavy 
penalties  are  provided  in  some  countries  for  failure  to  comply  with 
that  requirement  within  a  brief  time  limit.  In  some  countries 
importers  are  allowed  to  clear  their  shipments  without  the  con- 
sular documents,  but  are  obliged  to  furnish  bond  for  their  subse- 
quent presentation.  It  is  therefore  higlily  important  for  the  ship- 
per to  forward  the  consular  documents  by  the  same  vessel  as  the 
shipment  which  they  cover,  so  as  to  save  the  consignee  from  the 
imposition  of  a  fine  and  avoid  delay  in  clearing  the  shipment. 

While  there  are  some  minor  differences  in  form  between  the 
consular  invoices  required  by  the  various  Latin  American  coun- 
tries, they  generally  call  for  the  following  information  on  the  part  of 
the  shipper.  Names  of  the  shipper,  vessel,  captain,  consignee,  port 
of  origin,  port  of  destination,  mark,  number,  and  weight  of  each 
package,  character  of  packing  employed,  number  of  packages,  con- 
tents, and  value.  The  contents  must  be  given  in  detail,  and  infor- 
mation must  be  supplied  in  regard  to  component  material,  and,  in 
the  case  of  fabrics,  detailed  information  is  usually  required  as  to 
length,  width,  finish,  and  thread  count.  For  importation  of  auto- 
mobiles, typewriters,  etc.,  information  in  regard  to  make  is  some- 
times called  for.  A  separate  consular  invoice  is  required  for  each 
consignment,  and  in  most  cases  for  each  mark,  even  when  constitut- 
ing part  of  a  consignment. 

The  number  of  copies  of  invoices  required  to  be  presented  for 
consular  certification  ranges  from  three  to  seven,  most  of  which 
are  retained  by  the  consul,  some  for  his  own  files  and  others  for 
transmission  to  the  customs  authorities  of  the  country  of  destina- 
tion. While  in  the  case  of  some  countries  invoices  in  English  are 
accepted,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  language  of  the  country  of 
destination,  thereby  saving  the  consignee  the  delay  and  expense 
involved  in  making  translations.  Some  countries,  like  Guatemala. 
Panama,  and  probably  Honduras,  allow  shipping  documents  to  be 

[797] 


7!)8  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LAI^IN  AMERICA 

certiiied  by  a  consul  at  an  inland  post,  others  require  that  such 
documents  be  certified  by  the  consul  at  the  port  of  shipment  and 
therefore  it  is  safer  to  have  all  shipping  documents  certified  by  the 
consuls  at  the  port  of  shipment. 

The  consular  fees  charged  for  the  certification  of  invoices  are, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  determined  by  the  value  of  the  shipment  and 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  surtax  on  the  import  duty  rather 
than  as  a  fee  for  services  performed.  The  fees  range  from  $1  per 
set  of  invoices,  regardless  of  the  value  of  the  shipment,  in  the  case 
of  Haiti,  to  6  per  cent  of  the  invoice  value  on  some  shipments  to 
Colombia.  While  the  certificaiion  of  bills  of  lading  is  required  in 
some  countries,  in  the  majority  of  cases  no  fee  is  charged  for  the 
service.  Invoice  blanks  are  usually  sold  by  the  consul  at  prices 
ranging  from  10  to  90  cents  per  set.  The  customs  laws  of  Colom- 
bia, the  Dominican  Eepublic,  Panama,  and  Venezuela  prevent 
"  to  order  "  shipments  to  those  countries,  either  by  failing  to 
require  the  presentation  of  a  bill  of  lading  for  clearance  purposes 
or  by  specifically  prohibiting  such  shipments.  For  special  regula- 
tions in  this  regard  see  under  those  countries  in  this  section.  The 
following  pages  give  specific  information  under  each  country  in 
regard  to  consular  documents  and  also  on  such  subjects  as  mark- 
ing of  packages,  rules  for  consignments  of  shipments,  shipments 
requiring  special  permits,  health  certificates,  certificates  of 
origin,  etc. 

For  the  information  in  this  chapter  we  are  indebted  to  the 
consuls  general  ('New  York)  of  the  several  countries,  who  kindly 
revised  the  information  in  regard  to  their  respective  countries. 
Extensive  use  also  was  made  of  the  various  publications  in  the 
Tariff  Series  and  of  other  Bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

ARGENTINA 

Shipments  to  Argentina  do'not  require  consular  invoices  but  must  be  accom- 
panied by  a  bill  of  lading  in  triplicate,  the  fee  for  legalizing  which  is  $2  for  the 
set  and  50  cents  each  for  extra  copies.  Merchandise  of  small  quantity  and  value 
may  be  sent  on  a  parcel  receipt,  fee  for  which  is  50  cents.  The  bill  of  lading  for 
a  shipment  of  merchandise  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  origin  in 
triplicate  (which  forms  part  of  the  bill  of  lading  and  for  the  legalization  of  which 
no  charge  is  made)  specifying  the  marks  and  numbers  of  the  packages,  kind  of  pack- 
age, class  of  merchandise,  weight  (gross  or  net)  and  the  country  of  origin  of  the 
merchandise.  A  certificate  of  origin  is  not  required  with  a  parcel  receipt.  The 
value  of  merchandise  need  not  be  given  on  bill  of  lading,  but  this  information 
must  be  given  to  the  steamship  companies  for  inclusion  in  their  manifests. 
Slii])ping  documents  may  be  obtained  from  steamship  companies. 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  799 

Packages  should  bear  the  shipping  mark,  numbers,  and  name  of  steamer  on 
two  adjacent  sides,  and  the  marking  of  gross  and  net  weights  on  packages  is 
advisable.  Labels  on  containers  of  animal  products  must  give  name  of  product, 
weight  of  contents,  name  of  manufacturer,  place  of  origin  and  date  of  manu- 
facture. Consignments  of  crude  petroleum  must  be  accompanied  by  legalized 
certificates  of  origin,  giving  the  region  or  district  of  production.  The  sanitary 
origin  of  potatoes  and  their  sound  condition  must  be  attested  to  by  a  certificate 
which  is  viseed  by  an  Argentine  consul  at  a  cost  of  $2.  Argentina  has  consular 
offices  in  the  following  cities:  Apalachicola,  Fla.;  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.; 
Brunswick,  Ga. ;  Chicago,  111.;  Fernandina,  Fla.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.; 
New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Norfolk,  Va.;  Newport  News,  Va. ;  Pascagoula,  Miss.;  Pensa- 
cola,  Fla.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Port  Arthur,  Tex.;  Portland,  Me.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 
San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Savannah,  Ga. ;  Tacoma,  Wash. 

BRAZIL 

Shipments  to  Brazil  require  a  consular  invoice  in  quadniplicate.  This  invoice 
may  be  made  out  in  English  or  Portuguese,  but  invoices  in  English  are  subject 
to  a  charge  for  translation,  payable  by  the  consignee.  Invoices  are  not  required 
on  shipments  valued  at  not  more  than  $47.50,  including  freight,  packing,  com- 
mission, etc.  Invoice  blanks  are  not  sold  at  the  consulates,  but  may  be  obtained 
from  stationers  at  slight  cost.  No  consular  invoice  can  be  produced  for  legaliza- 
tion after  the  dejjarture  of  the  vessel  carrying  the  goods  referred  to  on  said 
invoice,  and  if  such  an  invoice  will  be  produced  for  said  purpose  it  shall  not  be 
legalized  owing  to  the  penalty  imposed  on  the  consignee  for  the  non-production 
of  said  invoice  at  the  proper  time.  The  non-production  of  a  consular  invoice 
makes  the  consignee  liable  to  a  fine  amounting  to  the  double  of  the  duties  to  be 
collected  on  the  goods.  It  is  compulsory  that  on  the  consular  invoices  should  be 
stated  in  the  respective  place  for  said  purpose,  the  country  where  the  goods  were 
purchased  for  export  to  Brazil,  as  well  as  the  declaration  of  the  country  of 
origin,  the  name  and  nationality  of  the  vessel,  also  whether  steamship  or  sailing 
vessel,  port  of  shipment,  the  destination  of  the  merchandise,  the  total  declared 
value  including  cost  and  approximate  freight  and  expenses,  quantity  and  nature 
of  packages,  whether  cases,  barrels,  casks,  crates,  bales,  etc.,  marks  and  numbers 
of  packages,  specifications  of  the  goods,  gross  and  net  weight  of  packages,  the 
value  of  each  article,  country  of  origin.  Importers  of  wines,  oils,  canned  goods, 
and  similar  products  must  declare  the  weight  per  package,  if  the  goods  are  in 
packages  of  uniform  size,  or  if  the  size  of  the  parcels  varies,  the  weight  of  each 
individual  package.  The  consular  fee  for  certification  of  bills  of  lading  was 
increased  from  $1.10  to  $1.38  in  1916.  Consular  invoices  are  legalized  for  $2.20 
and  steamship  companies  collect  $1.38  on  each  set  of  bills  of  lading,  this  sum 
being  eventually  turned  over  to  the  consul.  No  consular  invoice  can  bear  more 
than  one  mark.  Brazil  has  a  consulate  general  in  New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  vice- 
consulates  in  the  following  cities:  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Brunswick,  Ga.; 
Chicago,  111.;  Fernandina,  Fla.;  Gulf  port,  Miss.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.; 
Norfolk,  Va. ;  Newport  News,  Va.;  Pascagoula,  Miss.;  Pensaeola,  Fla.;  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.;  Port  Arthur,  Tex.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  San  Juan,  P.  R.; 
Savannah,  Ga. 
52 


800  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

BOLIVIA 

Shipments  to  Bolivia  may  be  made  in  transit  via  Chile,  Peru,  Brazil,  and 
Argentina.  No  through  bills  of  lading  are  issued.  Shipments  to  Bolivia  via 
MoUendo,  Pera,  require  Ave  copies  of  consular  invoices,  while  four  are  required 
for  shipments  via  Antofagasta  and  Arica,  Chile;  Para  and  Manaos,  Brazil;  and 
Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario,  Argentina.  Consular  invoices  must  be  in  Spanish,  and 
accompanied  by  the  bills  of  lading,  commercial  invoices,  and  other  documents 
necessary  to  prove  the  actual  market  value  of  the  merchandise.  Only  one  copy 
of  the  consular  invoice  is  returned  to  the  shipper.  The  consular  invoice  must 
give  the  name  of  the  consignee  at  the  place  of  transshipment,  the  name  of  the 
consignee  in  the  Bolivian  city  or  town  of  destination,  and  the  net  and  gross  weight 
in  kilos.  If  there  is  no  custom  house  at  the  place  to  which  goods  are  consigned, 
the  custom  house  destination  also  nmst  be  specified  in  the  consular  invoice.  Custom 
houses  are  located  at  La  Paz,  Oruro,  Villazon,  Puerto  Suarcz,  Uyuni,  Yacuiba,  Villa 
Bella,  Cobija,  and  Manoa.  For  fire  arms,  amnmnition,  etc.,  a  permit  must  be 
obtained  from  the  Bolivian  government  to  receive  such  merchandise.  Marks,  num- 
bers and  net  and  gross  weights  should  appear  on  all  packages,  which  also  should  be 
distinctly  marked  "  En  transito  a  Bolivia."  The  consular  fees  for  invoices  are  $3 
for  shipments  less  than  $200  in  value,  2  per  cent  for  those  of  $200  or  more  in  value, 
and  $1  for  extra  copies.  Consular  invoice  blanks  must  be  purchased  at  consulate 
i\nd  the  charge  for  a  set  of  five  is  $0.90,  and  $0.75  for  a  set  of  four.  The  consulates 
of  Bolivia  in  the  Cnited  States  are  located  at  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.; 
Chicago,  111. ;  Kansas  City,  Mo. ;  Mobile,  Ala. ;  New  Orleans,  La. ;  New  York,  N.  Y. ; 
Norfolk,  Va.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  San  Diego,  and  San  Francisco,  Cal.:  Seattle, 
Wash. 

CHILE 

Shipments  require  four  copies  of  the  consular  invoice,  two  of  which  are 
returned  to  the  shipper.  Any  alteration  or  erasure  on  invoices  render  them  value- 
less. If  an  error  is  made,  a  separate  letter  of  correction  in  triplicate,  preferably 
in  Spanish,  must  be  presented  to  the  consul.  Three  dollars  is  the  charge  for  let- 
ters of  correction,  but  in  the  case  of  change  of  steamer  a  new  consular  invoice 
must  be  made  out  for  which  new  fees  are  collected.  Parcel-post  shipments  require 
a  consular  invoice  if  the  value  of  the  shipment  exceeds  $25.  Where  a  consign- 
ment includes  several  packages  and  the  total  value  exceeds  this  amount,  one  con- 
sular invoice  is  required.  If  parcel-post  shi])ments  are  forwarded  from  a  place 
where  there  is  no  Chilean  consular  officer  invoices  must  be  sent  to  the  Chilean 
Consul-General  at  New  York  for  cei'tification.  Bills  of  lading  must  be  presented 
to  the  consul,  who  certifies  one  copy  and  returns  it  to  the  shipper  and  retains  the 
other  for  his  files.  Goods  may  be  shipped  either  direct  or  "  to  order."  Firearms, 
munitions,  etc.,  require  no  special  permit.  A  stencil  must  be  used  in  marking 
packages  for  shipment,  and  the  gross  weight  in  kilos  of  each  package  must  be 
marked  thereon.  Consular  fees  are  payable  at  the  following  rates:  certification  of 
a  bill  of  lading  of  merchandise  shipped  to  Chilean  ports,  per  copy  $0.75 ;  certifica- 
tion of  invoices  which  must  be  presented  at  the  Chilean  custom  house  for  clearance 
of  merchandise;  on  shipments  not  exceeding  $200  in  value,  $3;  exceeding  $200  in 
value  %  per  cent.  Each  extra  copy  of  invoice  75  cents ;  legalization  and  identifica- 
tion of  a  signature  to  a  document,  $3;  filing  a  document,  $3;  an  authorized  copy  of 
a   document   executed  or  filed  in   the   consulate,   per  page   $1.50;   translation   of 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  801 

documents  or  certification  of  a  translation,  per  page,  $1.50;  set  of  four  consular 
blanks,  20  cents.  Chile  has  the  following  consulates  in  the  United  States :  Including 
a  consulate  general  at  New  York,  the  head  of  the  service  in  U.  S.  A.;  Baltimore, 
Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Honolulu,  Hawaii;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans, 
La. ;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Portland,  Ore. ;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Seattle, 
Wash.;  St,  Louis,  Mo. 

COLOMBIA 

Shipments  to  Colombia  require  five  consular  invoices,  written  in  Spanish. 
One  copy  is  given  to  tlie  steamship  company,  and  four  are  presented  to  the 
Colombian  consul  the  day  before  the  ship  sails.  The  consul  returns  to  the 
shipper  one  copy  duly  certified  and  signed.  Three  copies  are  transmitted  by  the 
consul  to  the  Colombian  customs  officials.  Each  invoice  must  show  the  name  of 
shipper,  name  of  vessel,  names  of  consignee  and  owner  of  the  goods,  the  mark  and 
number  of  each  package,  contents  of  each,  net  and  gross  weights,  value  per  pack- 
age, and  the  total  f.  o.  b.  value  of  the  shipment;  also,  in  a  separate  line,  total 
amount  of  freight,  insurance,  and  commission  (if  any)  to  the  port  of  entry.  A 
separate  invoice  must  be  made  for  each  mark,  even  if  different  marks  represent  the 
same  consignee.  Parcel-post  shipments  do  not  require  certified  invoices,  but  they 
are  subject  to  a  surtax  of  5  per  cent  of  the  declared  value.  Merchandise  for  the 
interior  must  be  consigned  to  an  agent  at  tlie  port  of  entry.  Shipments  must  not 
be  consigned  "to  order."  Bills  of  lading  must  give  the  name  of  the  shipper,  name 
of  consignee  at  the  port  of  entry,  name  of  steamer,  number  of  each  package, 
number  of  packages  of  different  kinds,  gross  weight  in  kilos,  and  totai  value  of 
shipment.  Five  copies  of  the  bill  of  lading,  together  with  one  copy  of  the  con- 
sular invoice,  must  be  presented  to  the  steamship  company  the  day  before  sailing. 
Two  or  more  copies  are  returned  by  the  steamship  company,  with  the  amount 
of  freight  written  on  them,  and  duly  signed.  One  of  the  signed  copies  is  mailed 
to  the  consignee  with  the  certified  copy  of  the  invoice.  Each  package  should  be 
miarked  and  numbered  distinctly,  and  it  is  advisable  to  mark  the  weight  on  each 
package,  though  this  is  not  recjuired  by  law.  For  the  purpose  of  the  payment 
of  consular  fees,  shipments  are  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  contents.  To  avoid  delays  in  certification,  it  is  necessary  that  each 
invoice  should  cover  articles  only  falling  under  one  class. 

First  Class  (exempt  from  consular  fees). —  Gold  and  silver,  coined  or  in  bars, 
not  inferior  to  0.900,  articles  ordered  officially  by  the  national  government  or  that 
of  the  departments,  articles  of  personal  use  for  foreign  diplomatic  representatives, 
only  when  the  nations  they  represent  grant  equal  exemption  to  Colombian  diplo- 
mats, plants,  live  animals,  agricultural  seeds,  serum  and  medicinal  vaccine,  and 
textbooks  and  school  supplies. 

Second  Class  (1  per  cent  of  value). —  Iron,  steel,  copper,  zinc,  wood,  coal, 
oils  and  greases  for  machinery  and  for  paint;  prepared  paints  destined  for 
steamship,  railroad,  manufacturing  enterprises,  or  for  other  public  uses,  arti- 
ficial manures,  sulphuric  acid,  sulphur,  motors,  steam  and  electric  generators, 
agricultural  implements,  mining  implements,  hardware,  metal  roof  tiling,  tubing  of 
all  kinds,  ropes  of  manila  fibre,  sisal  or  hemp,  metal  cables,  wire  fencing,  wire 
for  electrical  purposes,  pumps  of  all  kinds,  sodium  salts  for  treatment  of  metals 
and  pig  or  sheet  metal. 

Third  Class. —  Articles  of  gold  or  silver,  and  precious  stones,  set  or  not,  6  pier 
cent  of  the  value;  all  other  articles,  3  per  cent  of  the  value.     Consular  blanks  are 


802  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

sold  at  10  cents  per  set  of  Ave.  Colombia  has  consulates  in  the  following  cities 
of  the  United  States:  Baltimore,  M'd. ;  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Gulfport, 
Miss.;  Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.; 
Norfolk,  Va.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

COSTA  RICA 

Consular  invoices  written  in  Spanish  and  in  quadruplicate  are  required.  No 
charge  is  made  for  certification  of  such  invoices.  Three  of  the  certified  invoices 
are  attached  to  the  bill  of  lading  and  forwarded  to  the  consignee  not  later  than 
the  date  of  shipment.  When  different  classes  of  goods  are  packed  together  the 
articles  should  be  itemized  and  the  legal  or  net  weight  of  each  specified,  and  the 
use  of  general  terms,  such  as  "stationery"  or  "hardware",  should  be  avoided. 
A  special  permit  from  the  consul  is  required  for  shipments  of  firearms  and 
annnunition.  Shipments  may  be  consigned  either  direct  or  "  to  order ".  The 
form  of  invoice  is  sold  by  the  Consul-General  of  Costa  Rica,  New  York,  at 
25  cents  per  set.  Consuls  of  Costa  Rica  are  located  in  the  following  cities  of  the 
United  States:  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Galveston,  Tex.; 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Norfolk, 
Va.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Portland,  Ore.;  Richmond,  Va.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San 
Francisco,  Cal. 

CUBA 

Invoices,  of  which  5  sets  are  requii-ed,  must  be  written  on  durable  paper,  in 
indelible  inkj  and  m.ay  be  in  English  or  Spanish.  If  typewritten,  the  original 
copy  must  be  presented;  duplicates,  etc.,  may  be  carbon  copies.  Invoices  must 
contain  name  of  shipper  and  consignee,  name  of  vessel,  marks  and  numbers, 
description  of  merchandise,  specifying  the  component  materials,  gross  and  net 
weights  of  each  article  in  kilos,  detailed  price  and  total  value,  including  a 
statement  of  the  expenses  incurred  on  account  of  the  merchandise  up  to  the 
time  it  is  packed  and  ready  for  shipment.  Prices  should  not  be  added  up,  but 
the  price  of  each  article  or  class  of  goods  should  be  given  separately.  If  there 
are  no  expenses  this  should  be  noted.  In  describing  the  merchandise,  particular 
care  nmst  be  taken  in  making  a  thorough  statement  of  the  materials  of  which 
it  is  composed,  example :  if  knives,  state  knives  of  steel  with  wooden  handles 
or  bone  handles,  as  the  case  may  be;  if  shoes,  state  made  of  leather,  with  tops  of 
cloth,  canvas,  etc.;  if  machinery,  stat«  if  of  steel  or  steel  and  brass,  or  any  other 
metals;  if  furniture,  made  of  oak,  mahogany  or  pine  wood.  Besides  the  marks, 
numbers,  classes,  quantity  and  gross  weight  of  packages,  the  following  particu- 
lars will  be  required  on  invoices  covering  shipment  of  tissues  to  Cuba:  1.  Nature 
of  fibre  (cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk,  etc.)  2.  Kind  of  tissue  (plain,  smooth,  twilled, 
damask-like,  or  whether  it  is  or  not  embroidered).  3.  Bleached,  half-bleached, 
stamped,  dyed  by  the  piece  or  woven  with  threads  dyed  before  being  woven.  4. 
Number  of  threads  in  six  square  millimeters  (i/i  inc-h).  5.  Length  and  width 
in  meters  and  centimeters.  Weight  of  100  sruare  meters.  7.  Price  of  the  unity 
and  partial  value  of  each  kind,  and  nature  of  same. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  invoice,  or  on  last  sheet,  if  there  are  more  than  one, 
the  manufacturer,  producer,  seller,  owner,  or  shipper  must  write  in  Spanish  and 
sign  one  of  two  declarations,  according  as  the  article  shipped  is,  or  is  not,  the 
product  of  the  soil  and  industi-y  of  the  United  States.     If  the  manufacturer,  etc., 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  803 

is  not  a  resident  of  the  place  where  the  consulate  is  located,  a  local  agent  must 
be  appointed  to  present  the  invoice,  and  such  appointment  nmst  be  in  writing. 
In  this  case  the  agent  must  write  and  sign  the  following  declaration :  "  Deelaro 
que  soy  el  agente  autorizado  por  la  persona  que  ha  suscrito  la  anterior  declaracion, 
para  presentar  esta  factura  en  la  oficina  consular  de  Cuba  en  esta  plaza,  a  fin  de 
que  sea  certificado."  ("I  declare  that  I  am  the  agent  authorized  by  the  person 
signing  the  preceding  declaration  to  present  this  invoice  at  the  consular  office 
of  Cuba  in  this  city  for  the  purpose  of  certification.")  Goods  other  than  the 
product  of  the  soil  or  industry  of  the  United  States  should  be  placed  on  a  sep- 
arate consular  and  commercial  invoice.  Invoices  need  not  be  certified  when 
merchafidise  is  shipped  from  a  port  where  there  is  no  Cuban  consul.  Household 
goods,  shipped  as  freight,  require  a  certified  invoice,  but  if  shipped  as  personal 
baggage  no  invoice  is  retjuired,  but  a  declaration  must  be  made  before  the  customs 
authorities  in  Cuba  to  the  effect  that  the  household  goods  are  for  personal  use. 
Two  copies  of  the  bill  of  lading  nmst  be  viseed  (fee  $1.00)  by  the  consul,  who 
letains  one  copy.  To  avoid  delay  in  forwarding  the  negotiable  bills  of  lading, 
shippers  are  authorized  to  jiresent  for  viseing,  instead  of  a  set  of  bills  of  lading 
signed  by  the  steamship  company,  two  exact  copies  thereof,  bearing  in  indelible 
characters  on  the  face,  the  statement :  "  This  consular  bill  of  lading  is  not 
negotiable,  and  is  valid  only  for  customs  purposes.''  Packages  should  show  gross 
weight.  Shipments  may  be  consigned  either  direct  or  "  to  order."  A  certified 
consular  invoice  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  all  articles  of  United  States  origin 
imported  into  Cuba,  whether  shipment  is  made  by  mail  or  otherwise,  in  order 
that  the  lower  duties  applicable  to  United  States  products  may  be  imposed.  No 
charge  is  made  for  consular  certification  where  the  value  of  the  shipment  is  less 
than  $5.  For  invoices  valued  from  $5  to  $49.99  the  fee  is  50  cents;  from  $50  to 
$200  the  fee  is  $2;  over  $200,  $3,  plus  an  additional  charge  of  10  cents  for  each 
$100  or  fraction  thereof  in  excess  of  $200.  Extra  copies  of  invoice  cost  50  cents 
each,  and  invoice  blanks  may  be  obtained  for  10  cents  per  set.  A  fee  of  $1  is 
charged  for  certifying  each  set  of  bills  of  lading.  Cuban  consulates  are  located 
in  the  following  cities  of  the  United  States:  Aguadilla,  P.  R.;  Arecibo,  P.  R.; 
Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Baltimore,  Md. ;  Boston,  Mass.;  Brunswick,  Ga;  Chattanooga,  Tenn. ; 
Chicago,  111.;  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  Detroit,  Mich.;  Fernandina,  Fla. ;  Galveston,  Tex.; 
Gulf  port.  Miss.;  Jacksonville,  P^la.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Key  West,  Fla.;  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Mayaguez,  P.  R.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.; 
New  York,  N.  Y.;  Newport  News,  Va. ;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Pascagoula,  Miss.;  Pensa- 
cola,  Fla.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Ponce,  P.  R.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  San  Juan, 
P.  R.;  Savannah,  Ga.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Tampa,  Fla.;  Washington,  D.  C. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

Four  copies  of  the  consular  invoices  and  four  copies  of  the  bills  of  lading 
nmst  be  presented  by  the  shipper  for  consular  certification.  The  invoices  should 
be  made  out  in  Spanish  and  must  contain  the  names  of  the  shipper,  captain, 
consignee,  importer,  ports  of  shipment  and  destination,  and  steamer,  and  its 
nationality  as  well  as  the  mark,  gross  and  net  weights,  contents,  kind,  and  value 
of  each  package.  A  separate  invoice  is  required  for  each  consignment,  and  for 
each  mark,  even  when  applied  only  to  a  part  of  a  consignment.  Packages  of 
uniform  contents,  weight,  form,  mark,  and  number  may  be  included  in  one  item 
in  the  invoice.     Weight  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages.     The  bills  of  lading 


804  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

must  show  tlie  marks,  numbers,  and  gross  weiglit  of  packages.  Shipments  of 
firearms,  ammunition,  etc.,  require  a  special  government  permit  to  the  consignee. 
Shipments  must  not  be  consigned  "to  order."  The  consignee  can  claim  goods 
upon  presentation  of  the  consular  invoice,  and  to  protect  the  shipper  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  consign  shipments  to  banks  or  to  shippers'  agents,  so  that 
the  shipping  documents  are  not  turned  over  to  the  ultimate  consignee  until  his 
acceptance  of  the  draft.  The  consular  fees  for  certification  of  invoices  are 
payable  at  the  port  of  entry  at  the  following  rates :  Invoices  $50  or  less  in  value, 
$1;  $51  to  $200  in  value,  $2;  $201  to  $1,000  in  value,  $3;  $1,000  to 
$2,000  in  value,  $4;  $2,001  to  $4,000  in  vaule,  $5;  over  $4,000  in  value,  $5,  j)lus  $1 
for  each  additional  $1,000  or  fraction  thereof.  Invoice  blanks  are  sold  by  the 
consulate  at  10  cents  the  set  of  four,  the  small  form,  and  15  cents  the  set  of 
four,  the  big  form.  The  Dominican  Republic  has  consuls  at:  Baltimore,  Md. ; 
Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  Newport  News, 
Va.;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Wilmington,  N.  C. 

ECUADOR 

Consular  invoices,  as  well  as  manifests  should  be  made  out  in  seven  copies, 
five  of  which  must  be  presented  for  consular  certification.  The  consul  returns 
one  signed  copy  to  the  shipper.  A  separate  invoice  is  required  for  each  mark. 
Shipments  may  be  consigned  direct  or  "  to  order."  Packages  should  show  gross 
weight  in  kilos.  Consular  invoices  must  be  made  out  in  Spanish  and  contain  the 
following  data :  names  of  the  shipper,  the  consignee,  the  steamer  and  its  captain, 
the  flag  of  the  ship,  port  of  destination,  the  total  value  of  the  merchandise  covered 
by  the  invoice,  the  marks,  numbers,  and  the  number  of  packages,  their  kind, 
whether  bales,  boxes,  barrels,  etc.,  gross  and  net  weight  in  kilos  (net  weight  includes 
inner  container  or  wrapping)  of  each  package  or  of  a  number  of  packages,  specify- 
ing the  kind  of  merchandise,  without  using  general  terms,  such  as  hardware,  cottons, 
etc.  The  fee  for  certification  of  consular  invoices  up  to  $50  in  value  is  $1,  for 
invoices  of  more  than  $50,  3  per  cent  of  the  declared  value.  Consular  blanks  cost 
20  cents  per  set  of  seven.  There  is  no  charge  for  certification  of  bills  of  lading. 
The  steamship  companies  make  the  following  additional  charges:  For  invoices 
not  exceeding  $50  in  value,  $0.40 ;  for  invoices  more  than  $50  in  value,  1.2  per  cent 
of  the  invoice  value.  There  are  consuls  in  the  following  cities :  New  York,  N.  Y. ; 
New  Orleans,  La. ;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

N.  B.  The  new  Ecuadorian  customs  law  of  February  1917,  which  was  to 
go  into  effect  on  1  June  1917,  was  suspended  on  18  May  1917. 

GUATEMALA 

For  shipments  to  Guatemala  a  set  of  five  invoices,  in  Spanish,  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  consul  before  the  steamer  or  vessel  leaves  the  port,  and  must  contain 
the  names  of  shipper  and  consignee,  place  of  origin,  port  of  destination,  name 
of  vessel,  the  mark,  number,  gross  and  net  weights,  contents,  and  character  of 
each  package,  also  the  total  value  of  the  invoice,  the  details  of  the  contents  of 
each  package,  with  the  sworn  and  signed  declaration  of  the  shipper  as  to  the  cor- 
rectness of  said  value.  Each  package  must  be  numbered.  Different  marks 
require  separate  invoices,  even  when  shipped  to  the  same  consignee,  and  packages 
destined  for  different  ports  cannot  be  put  on  the  same  invoice.  Importations  of 
firearms,   anmiunition,    and   electrical   goods    require   a    special    permit    from    the 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  805 

Guatemalan  government.  Bills  of  lading  must  accompany  the  consular  invoices 
when  presented  for  certification.  The  consul  certifies  four  copies  of  the  bill  of  lad- 
ing without  charge.  Steamship  companies  require  from  three  to  five  copies  of  the 
bill  of  lading.  The  charge  for  certifying  invoices  is  2  per  cent  ad  valorem;  for 
the  legalization  of  ship  manifests,  $10;  for  the  certification  of  sets  of  bills  of 
lading  (four  copies)  $1,  and  $1  for  each  additional  copy;  for  legalizing  health 
certificates,  $2;  for  certifying  signatures  of  documents  required  by  the  Gruate- 
malan  government,  $3.  Guatemala  has  the  following  consulates  in  the  United 
•  States:  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Galveston,  Tex.;  Gulfport, 
Miss.;  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  Kansas  City,  Kans.;  Louisville,  Ky.;  M'obile,  Ala.; 
New  Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Pensacola,  Fla.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San  Diego,  Cal.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  San  Juan, 
P.  R.;  Seattle,  Wash. 

HAITI 

Six  copies  of  each  invoice  are  required  to  be  presented  for  certification,  the 
consul  retaining  four  copies  and  returning  two  to  the  shipper,  who  must  send 
one  to  the  consignee  by  the  boat  which  carries  the  shipment.  Each  copy  of  the 
invoice  must  be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  bill  of  lading,  which  must  also  be 
certified  by  the  consul.  Packages  must  bear  consecutive  numbers,  the  net  weight 
in  pounds,  the  counter  marks,  and  the  name  or  initials  of  consignees.  The  declara- 
tion, invoices,  and  bills  of  lading,  as  well  as  all  other  papers  used  in  connection 
with  the  manifest,  should  bear  the  same  marks,  names  and  countermarks.  Ship- 
ments of  cordage  and  beer  require  a  certificate  of  origin  (English  or  French) 
from  the  manufacturers.  No  special  form  is  provided  for  such  certificates,  which 
must  be  sworn  to  before  a  notary  public  and  certified  by  the  consul  together 
with  the  invoice.  A  fee  of  $1  is  charged  for  certifying  set  of  six  consular  invoices 
and  six  bills  of  lading,  and  50  cents  for  legalization  or  vise  of  certificate  of  origin. 
Consular  blanks  cost  6  cents  per  set  of  six.  There  is,  in  addition,  a  consular  vise 
fee  of  1  per  cent  ad  valorem,  collected  at  port  of  destination,  from  the  consignee. 
Haiti  has  the  following  consulates  in  the  United  States :  Boston,  Mass. ;  New 
Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Chicago,  111.;  Savannah,  Ga. ;  Wilmington,  N.  C. 

HONDURAS 

Shippers  of  merchandise  to  Honduras  must  present  to  the  consul  at  the  port 
of  shipment  four  copies  of  an  invoice  in  Spanish,  stating  the  name  and  the 
address  of  the  shipper,  the  class  and  name  of  the  vessel,  the  name  of  the  captain, 
the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  the  merchandise  is  destined,  the  port  of  des- 
tination, the  date  of  departure  of  the  vessel,  the  marks,  number  of  each  package, 
gross  and  net  weight  of  each  in  kilos,  the  kind  of  packages,  as  bags,  boxes,-  etc., 
the  total  value  of  the  invoice,  giving  in  detail  the  value  of  each  package  or  lot 
of  packages  of  uniform  contents,  the  name  of  the  merchandise  contained  in  each 
package,  the  weight  and  origin  of  same,  the  value  of  the  merchandise  in  American 
currency,  the  alcoholic  strength  of  wines  and  liquors,  the  declaration  sworn  to 
and  signed  by  the  shipper  as  to  weight,  values,  etc. 

Should  there  be  neither  consul,  vice  consul,  nor  consular  agent  at  the  port 
of  shipment,  the  invoices  may  be  signed  by  a  consul  or  consular  agent  of  any 
other  Central  American  Republic,  or  should  there  be  none,  by  one  of  another 
friendly  nation,  and  the  signer  shall  observe  the  provisions  of  the  law  and  charge 


806  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  established  fees.  However,  should  there  be  at  the  port  of  shipment  none  of  the 
above  mentioned  officials,  the  shipper  shall  himself  prepare  three  copies  of  the 
invoice,  of  which  he  shall  send  one  each  from  the  local  post  office,  by  regis- 
tered mail,  to  the  department  of  the  treasury  of  Honduras  and  to  the  chief  of 
customs  of  the  port  of  destination,  obtaining  from  the  post  office  the  correspond- 
ing receipts,  and  he  shall  indicate  on  the  envelopes  the  date  and  port  of  departure 
of  the  merchandise  and  the  port  of  destination;  the  other  copy  of  the  invoice, 
together  with  the  receipts  issued  by  the  post  office,  shall  be  forwarded  to  the 
consignee. 

Shipments  to  Honduras  must  also  be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  commer- 
cial invoice,  which  will  be  certified  by  the  consul  without  charge.  This  is  for- 
warded to  the  consignee  for  presentation  at  the  customhouse.  Steamship  com- 
panies require  shippers  from  interior  points  to  furnish  two  copies  of  the  com- 
mercial invoice.  Goods  may  be  consigned  direct  or  "  to  order."  Separate 
invoices  must  be  made  for  each  mark,  even  if  the  different  marks  represent  the 
same  consignee.  Each  package  should  be  numbered.  The  consular  fees  are  as 
follows:  For  certifying  four  invoices,  if  the  invoice  does  not  exceed  in  value  .+25, 
$1;  more  than  $25  but  not  exceeding  $50,  $1.50;  more  than  $50  but  not  over 
$100,  $3 ;  more  than  $100  but  not  over  $500,  $6 ;  over  $500  but  not  over  $1,000, 
$10;  above  $1,000,  $10  for  the  first  $1,000  and  25  cents  for  each  additional  $100 
or  fraction  thereof,  up  to  $10,000.  Above  $10,000,  $32.50  plus  50  cents  for  each 
additional  $100  or  fraction  thereof.  For  certificate  of  loss  of  a  consular  invoice, 
$2.  Invoice  blanks  are  sold  at  30  cents  per  set  of  four.  There  are  consuls  of 
Honduras  at  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.;  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  Detroit,  Mich.; 
Galveston,  Tex.;  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Mobile, 
Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Newport  News,  Va. ;  St.  Louis,  Mo.: 
San  Diego,  Cal. ;  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  Tampa,  Fla.:  and  Washington,  D.  C. 

MEXICO 

N.  B. —  The  following  data  are  taken  from  the  Mexican  Code  of  Customs  rrocedure,  pub- 
lished in  1912,  and  show  the  regulations  in  force  under  normal  political  conditions. 
The  fees  stated  are  based  on  the  gold  peso  (value  $0,498),  and  not  on  the  present 
fluctuating  currency. 

For  shipments  by  rail  via  El  Paso,  Eagle  Pass,  Laredo,  or  Nogales  the  con- 
sular invoices  are  taken  out  at  the  frontier  by  the  railroad  companies  on  the  basis 
of  the  information  furnished  by  the  shipper  in  his  manifest.  Shippers  of  mer- 
chandise to  Mexican  ports  must  present  invoices  in  quadruplicate  for  consular  cer- 
tification, even  in  the  ease  of  merchandise  exempt  from  the  payment  of  duties.  The 
invoices  must  state  the  class,  nationality,  and  name  of  the  vessel  in  which  the 
goods  are  shipped,  the  name  of  the  captain,  that  of  the  consignee  of  the  mer- 
chandise, and  that  of  the  port  of  destination,  the  marks,  countermarks,  ^nd  num- 
bers on  the  packages,  the  quantity,  expressed  in  figures,  of  the  bales,  boxes,  or  any 
other  kind  of  packing  in  which  the  goods  may  be  inclosed,  with  their  respective 
gross  weights,  written  out,  and  the  total  number  of  packages,  written  in  figures 
and  in  letters,  also  the  weight,  net  or  legal,  written  out,  of  goods  dutiable  by 
weight,  the  number  of  pieces,  pairs,  or  thousands  of  articles  on  which  duty  is 
paid  by  the  piece,  pair  or  thousand,  the  length  and  width  of  articles  that  })ay 
duty  by  measure,  stating  the  unit  of  measure  that  is  used  as  a  basis,  all  written 
out.  The  invoice  must  also  state  the  name,  component  material,  and  kind  of 
merchandise,  and  in  case  of  merchandise  not  enumerated  in  the  tariff  nor  men- 
tioned in  the  alphabetical  tariff  schedule,  all  data  necessary  for  its  classification  shall 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  807 

be  given,  the  name  of  the  country  from  which  the  merchandise  is  sent  and  the  value 
of  each  item  of  the  shipment,  the  name  of  the  place  in  which  the  invoice  is  made 
out,  the  date  of  invoice,  and  the  signature  of  the  shipper,  with  statement  that 
the  values  assigned  to  the  merchandise  therein  are  stated  correctly.  Shippers  may 
pack  in  one  ease  several  parcels,  boxes,  bags,  bales,  or  other  packages  containing 
the  same  class  of  goods,  provided  that  they  specify  in  the  consular  invoice  the 
number  of  packages  "contained  in  each  bundle,  bale,  or  case.  Failure  to  comply 
with  this  requirement  is  punishable  by  a  fine  not  to  exceed  50  pesos.  The  cor- 
responding gross,  net,  and  legal  weights  of  packages  which,  although  containing 
the  same  kind  of  merchandise,  come  in  separate  receptacles,  must  be  indicated  in 
the  consular  invoice.  Packages  containing  fabrics  may  be  combined  in  one  item, 
with  their  weights  and  measures  added  up,  if  the  goods  come  under  the  same  class 
in  the  tariff  and  the  difference  in  their  respective  weights  does  not  exceed  10  kilos. 
In  places  where  there  is  no  Mexican  consul  or  commercial  agent  shippers  should 
prepare  the  invoice  in  triplicate;  in  all  other  places,  in  accordance  with  the  fore- 
going regulations.  The  invoices  should  be  forwarded,  on  the  same  day,  by  regis- 
tered mail,  one  copy  to  the  Department  of  Customs  and  one  to  the  collector  of 
customs  at  the  port  of  destination.  The  shipper  must  obtain  the  corresponding 
receipts  from  the  postmaster  and  forward  them  to  the  consignee  at  the  port  of 
destination,  who  must  submit  the  same  to  the  customs  authorities,  together  with 
the  third  copy  of  the  invoice  for  clearance  purposes.  In  case  of  eiTor  discovered 
after  consular  certification,  a  statement  in  quadruijlicate  declaring  the  error  may 
be  presented  to  the  consul,  who  seals,  certifies  and  returns  one  copy  to  the  shipper 
for  remittance  to  the  consignee  to  be  presented  with  the  invoice  for  which  there 
is  a  charge  of  $2  attachedj  Shipments  may  be  consigned  eitlier  direct  or  "  to 
order."  For  shipments  of  live  stock  or  meat,  the  consular  invoices  nmst  be  accom- 
panied by  health  certificates  issued  by  a  veterinary  expert  designated  by  the 
consul.  The  fees  for  certification  of  invoices  are,  in  the  case  of  shipments  valued 
at  3  per  cent  of  total  commercial  value  of  consular  invoice,  no  minimum;  set  of 
invoice  blanks,  10  cents;  legalization  of  signatures,  each  $4;  statements  of  altera- 
tions on  invoices,  per  set,  $2;  certificates  of  any  kind  issued  to  shippers,  $2. 
Consular  invoices  covering  shipments  of  legal  coins,  other  than  1  peso  Mexican 
coins,  provided  no  merchandise  appears  on  the  invoice,  are  issued  without  charge. 

NICARAGUA       ' 

Six  copies  of  consular  invoices  in  Spanish  are  required.  These  must  give  the 
name  of  the  vessel,  port  of  destination,  the  consignee,  the  country  of  origin,  the 
date  of  shipment,  and  signature  of  shipper,  the  number  (in  figures)  of  bales, 
eases,  barrels,  bundles,  etc.,  that  contain  the  merchandise,  also  the  mark  and  num- 
ber used  to  designate  each  package,  its  gross  and  net  weight,  excepting  in  the 
ease  of  iron,  machinery,  railway  material,  which  may  be  given  with  the  total  weight 
of  each  item,  the  name  and  component  material  of  the  merchandise  specified,  in 
exact  conformity  with  the  nomenclature  of  the  customs  tariff,  and  value  of  the 
articles,  stating  the  currency  taken  as  a  basis.  Erasures  of  all  kinds,  vague  and 
ambiguous  declarations,  or  writing  between  lines  are  not  allowed.  Two  copies  of 
bills  of  lading  (the  original  and  a  duplicate)  must  be  presented  to  the  consul  for 
certification,  after  having  been  signed  by  the  steamship  company.  Each  package 
must  bear  a  mark  and  number  and  separate  consular  invoices  are  required  for  each 
mark  even  when  shipped  to  the  same  consignee  or  buyer.  Not  over  10  different 
kinds  of  goods  may  be  packed  in  one  case.    When  merchandise  subject  to  dift'erent 


808  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  LATIN  AMERICA 

tariff  classification  is  inclosed  in  one  container,  each  clasrs  must  be  packed  or 
wrapped  separately  so  that  its  respective  weights  may  be  compared  with  that 
declared  in  the  invoice  and  the  respective  duty  levied  on  each  class.  An  additional 
charge  of  5  per  cent  of  the  duty  is  levied  in  case  of  failure  to  observe  this  require- 
ment. Certain  articles,  including  dry  wines,  quinine,  certain  dried  and  preserved 
fruits,  leather,  shoe  materials,  surgical  instruments,  etc.,  which  are  admitted  from 
the  United  States  and  certain  other  preferred  countries  at  a  reduction  of  25  per 
cent  of  the  regular  duties,  require  a  certificate  of  origin,  made  out  in  Spanish, 
and  it  may  be  issued  by  a  chamber  of  commerce  at  place  of  shipment,  by  a  cus- 
toms or  other  responsible  official  in  the  Federal  or  local  government  possessing  a 
seal  of  office.  So  prepared  it  will  be  legalized  by  the  consul.  Fees  for  the  cer- 
tification of  consular  invoices  are  collected  from  the  consignee  by  the  Administra- 
tion of  the  port  of  entry  in  Nicaragua;  fees  for  certification  for  bills  of  lading 
($2)  must  be  paid  by  the  shipper  at  the  original  port  of  shipment.  No  charge 
is  made  for  vise  of  certificates  of  origin,  but  the  forms  may  be  had  for  5  cents 
per  set  of  three  (the  required  number),  and  consular  blanks  for  15  cents  per  set 
of  six  for  the  first  or  original  pages  and  10  cents  per  set  for  second  or  continua- 
tion sheets.  Nicaragua  has  the  following  consulates  in  the  United  States: 
Chicago,  111.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Kansas  City,  Kans. ;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans, 
La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Norfolk,  Va.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 
Sacramento,  Cal. ;  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

PANAMA 

Shippers  to  Paiuuna  are  required  to  ^jresent  .for  consular  certification  six 
copies  of  the  invoice  made  out  in  Spanish  and  four  copies  of  the  bill 
of  lading.  The  invoice  nmst  give  a  detailed  description  of  the  goods 
contained  in  the  shipment,  and  the  quantities  should  be  given  according  to 
units  used  in  the  trade.  In  the  case  of  shipments  of  liquors,  the  mark,  origin,  and 
kind  of  liquors  must  be  given  without  abbreviations.  The  number  of  bottles  or 
half  bottles  in  each  case  or  barrel  must  be  stated.  In  the  case  of  certain  articles 
like  automobiles,  adding  machines,  typewriters,  cameras,  etc.,  the  name  of  the 
make  should  be  indicated,  as  well  as  the  catalogue  number,  so  as  to  enable  the 
consular  officer  to  determine  the  origin  of  the  goods.  Parcel  post  shipments  do 
not  require  invoices  or  bills  of  lading,  but  their  value  must  be  declared.  A  sep- 
arate invoice  is  required  for  each  mark.  Shipments  can  not  be  consigned  "  to 
order."  For  the  shipments  of  arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  pemiission  must  be 
obtained  from  the  consul.  In  the  case  of  goods  going  through  Panama  to  a  foreign 
port,  the  invoices  must  be  presented  to  the  Panama  consul  at  the  port  of  original 
shipment.  The  consular  fees  are  as  follows:  Set  of  six  invoice  blanks,  18  cents; 
certification  of  a  set  of  invoices,  nine-tenths  of  1  per  cent  of  the  value  of  ship- 
ment, minimum  fee,  $1;  extra  certified  copies  of  invoices,  50  cents;  certification  of 
health  certificate,  $1.80;  certificate  of  set  of  four  bills  of  lading  on  shipments  not 
exceeding  $100,  $1 ;  over  $100,  $3 ;  a  fee  of  $3  is  charged  for  six  copies  of  letters 
of  correction  in  declaration  of  merchandise.  Shipments  for  the  Panama  Canal 
Commission  are  exempted  from  the  payment  of  consular  fees.  Panama  main- 
tains consuls  at  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Chicago,  111.; 
Galveston,  Tex.;  Gulf  port.  Miss.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Mobile, 
Ala.;  New  Orelans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Norfolk,  Va.;  Pensacola,  Fla.; 
Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Puget  Sound,  Wash.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San  Diego,  Cal.;  and 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  809 

PARAGUAY 

Consular  invoices  except  in  shipments  via  Montevideo,  are  not  required,  these 
documents  being  forwarded  from  the  point  of  transshipment  on  the  river  Plata. 
Uruguay,  however,  requires  that  shipments  to  Paraguaj'^  via  Montevideo  be 
accompanied  by  two  copies  of  the  invoice,  certified  by  the  consul  of  Paraguay  at 
the  point  of  shipment.  Certificates  of  origin  of  a  special  form  in  duplicate  and 
bills  of  lading  in  triplicate  are  required  for  all  shipments.  Packages  may  be 
marked  as  desired.  Weights  and  measures  must  be  according  to  the  metiic  system. 
Bills  of  lading  must  be  certified  by  the  Paraguayan  consul  at  the  port  of  shipment, 
and  must  also  be  viseed  by  the  consul  of  Uruguay  who  requires  one  non-negotiable 
copy  in  Spanish,  if  the  goods  are  shipped  via  Montevideo,  but  not  by  the  consul 
of  Argentina,  if  the  shipment  is  via  Buenos  Aires  or  Rosario.  All  goods  destined 
for  Paraguayan  ports,  having  to  be  transshipped  at  Montevideo  or  Buenos  Aires, 
should  be  packed  in  cases  that  may  be  easily  handled  and  adapted  to  rough  usage. 
A  fee  of  $2  is  charged  for  certifying  a  set  of  three  negotiable  bills  of  lading,  and 
one  non-negotiable  consular  copy  for  Paraguayan  consul,  and  50  cents  for  each 
additional  negotiable  copy.  There  is  no  charge  for  non-negotiable  copies,  nor  for 
invoices  and  certificates  of  origin.  Paraguay  has  the  following  consulates  in  the 
United  States:  Boston,  Mass.;  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  Chicago,  111.;  Cincinnati,  Ohio.; 
Detroit,  Mich,;  Indianapolis,  Ind.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.:  Los  Angeles,  Cal. ;  Mobile, 
Ala. ;  Newark,  N.  J. ;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Newport  News,  Va. ;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.;  Richmond,  Va.;  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  San  Francisco, 
Cal.;  San  Juan,  P.  R.;  Wilmington,  Del. 

PERU 

Shippers  are  required  to  present  for  consular  certification  an  invoice  in 
quadruplicate,  made  out  in  Spanish  and  stating  the  names  of  the  shipper,  port  of 
destination,  consignee  and  vessel,  the  marks,  numbers,  number  and  kind  of  pack- 
ages, contents,  and  gross  and  net  weight  in  kilograms  of  each  package.  Invoices 
must  be  accompanied  by  bills  of  lading,  or,  in  the  case  of  shipments  without  bills 
of  lading,  by  parcel  receipts  from  the  ship  company.  Shipments  may  be  con- 
signed direct  or  "  to  order."  No  alterations  or  erasures  are  allowed  in  invoices, 
but  corrections  may  be  made  by  means  of  letters  in  quadruplicate  and  certified 
by  the  consul.  Shipments  requiring  transhipment  in  Peru  to  a  foreign  port, 
require  that  this  fact  be  m.entioned  in  the  invoice,  and  a  special  manifest  should  be 
presented  to  the  consul.  Shipments  of  plants,  seeds,  and  animals  must  be  accom- 
panied by  health  certificates,  certified  by  the  consul.  Shipments  of  lard  must  be 
accompanied  by  the  certificate  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture's  inspectors. 
This  is  to  be  certified  by  the  consul;  fee  $2.  Packages  should  show  gross  weight, 
Callao  and  Mollendb  are  the  only  ports  where  explosives,  firearms,  etc.,  may  be 
imported  without  special  permit.  Consular  blanks  cost  30  cents  per  set  of  four. 
The  fee  for  certifying  a  set  of  invoices  is  2  per  cent  of  the  invoice  value  of  the 
shipment.  Extra  copies  of  the  invoice  may  be  obtained  at  $1.  There  is  no  charge 
for  certification  of  bills  of  lading.  Peru  has  consulates  in  the  following  cities: 
Baltimore,  Md. ;  Boston,  Mass. ;  Chicago,  111. ;  Los  Angeles,  Cal. ;  Mobile,  Ala. ;  New 
Orleans,  La.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Norfolk,  Va.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Portland,  Ore.; 
Port  Townsend  and  Puget  Sound,  Wash.;  San  Diego,  Cal.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.; 
St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Toledo,  Ohio. 


810  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


EL  SALVADOR 

A  consular  invoice,  written  in  Spanish  and  in  quadruplicate  must  accompany 
all  shipments.  Such  invoice  must  contain  the  name  and  address  of  the  shipper,  the 
vessel,  the  captain  thereof,  the  port  of  destination,  the  name  of  the  consignee,  and 
that  of  the  person  to  whose  order  and  account  shipment  is  made.  Consular 
invoice  blanks  are  furnished  at  the  rate  of  25  cents  per  set  of  four.  Invoices  for 
shipments,  of  value  not  over  $25,  are  certified  for  $1;  from  $26  to  $100,  $1  plus 
2  per  cent  on  amount  over  $25;  from  $101  to  $500,  $2.50  plus  IV2  per  cent  on 
,  amount  over  $100;  from  $501  to  1,000,  $8.50  plus  1  per  cent  on  amount  over  $500; 
from  $1,001  to  $5,000,  $13.50  plus  one-half  of  one  per  cent  on  amount  over  $1,000 ; 
from  $5,001  to  $10,000,  $33.50  plus  one-eighth  of  1  per  cent  on  amount  over 
$5,000;  more  than  $10,000,  $39.75  plus  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent  on  amount  over 
$10,000;  A  vise  of  certificate  of  origin  costs  $1  and  the  same  charge  is  made  for 
viseing  a  set  of  bills  of  lading.  Consuls  of  Salvador  are  located  at  New  Orleans, 
La.;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

URUGUAY 

No  consular  invoices  are  required,  but  a  set  of  three  bills  of  lading  must  be 
certified  at  the  port  of  shipment.  One  copy  of  the  bill  of  lading  must  be  made 
out  in  Spanish,  and  must  give  the  port  of  shipment  and  destination  the  number 
and  kind  of  packages,  gross  and  net  Aveights,  cubic  measurements,  marks  and  num- 
bers, total  value  in  American  currency,  and  detailed  description  of  the  merchandise. 
Weights  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages.  Moreover  a  certificate  of  origin  of 
merchandise  for  Uruguay  nuist  be  presented  in  dupli<'ate  and  certified  by  the 
consul  or  vice  consul.  The  original  will  be  sent  to  the  consul  or  vice  consul  at 
the  port  of  shipment.  The  duplicate  must  be  sent  by  the  shipper  to  the  agent 
of  the  boat  carrying  the  goods.  The  steamship  company'  will  i)resent  this  duplicate 
together  with  the  other  documents,  such  as  general  numifest,  bill  of  lading,  parcel 
receipts,  etc.,  at  the  time  of  clearance  of  the  vessel.  The  certificate  of  origin  must 
be  filled  in  in  either  Spanish  or  French  in  accordance  with  the  items  thereon. 
They  must  specify  the  kinds,  numbers  and  quantity  of  packages  or  nationality  of 
the  goods,  total  value  in  American  euiTcncy,  and  the  ports  of  shipment  and  of 
destination,  transit,  optional,  etc.  Declarations  on  the  certificates  of  origin  (as 
per  rules  for  bills  of  lading,  parcel  receipts,  etc.)  must  be  made  out  in  black  ink, 
or  typewritten.  Pencil  will  not  be  accepted,  and  these  certificates  must  be  without 
alteration,  words  or  numbers  crossed  out  or  written  between  lines.  Once  legalized 
and  stamped,  the  certificates  of  origin,  as  in  the  case  of  legalization  of  all  other 
documents  required  for  the  shipment  of  goods  and  the  clearance  of  vessels,  its 
declaration  cannot  be  corrected  or  altered.  In  case  of  mistjikes,  if  found  before 
sailing  time,  must  be  made  known  to  the  consul  or  vice-consul  in  order  that  same 
may  be  noted,  or  by  letter  in  triplicate,  if  found  after  sailing  time,  which  are 
legalized  like  bills  of  lading.  Stamps  cannot  be  charged  from  one  set  to  another. 
Four  copies  of  the  ship's  manifest  must  be  presented  to  the  consul,  and  three  of 
them  must  be  in  Spanish.  All  consignments  must  be  specified  Avith  great  par- 
ticularity, and  manifests  must  state  the  numbers  of  the  bills  of  lading,  the  marks, 
numbers,  quantities,  nature,  and  contents  of  packages,  as  well  as  their  gross  or 
net  weight  or  measurement.  The  fee  fgr  consular  certification  of  certificates  of 
origin  is  53  cents  in  the  case  of  articles   shipped  on  bill   of  lading,  or  parcel 


CONSULAR  REGULATIONS  811 

receipt  and  21  cents  in  the  case  of  goods  sent  by  parcel  post.  Other  fees  for 
legalization  of  documents  are :  Bills  of  lading,  direct,  optional,  transit  or  reenibark, 
5  cents;  parcel  receipts  of  goods  having  a  value,  5  cents;  parcel  receipts  of  goods 
for  samples  and  without  a  value,  21  cents;  certificates  to  accompany  shipments  of 
petroleum,  plants,  and  animals,  each,  $2.10.  Uruguay  has  consulates  in  the  fol- 
lowing cities:  Albany,  N.  Y.;  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Brunswick,  Ga.; 
Chicago,  111.;  Fernandina,  Fla.;  Galveston,  Tex.;  Jacksonville,  Fla.;  Kansas  City, 
Mo.;  Los  Angeles,  Cal. ;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  New- 
port News,  Va.;  Norfolk,  Va.;  Pensacola,  Fla.;  Pascagoula,  Miss.;  Philadelphia, 
Pa.;  Port  Arthur  and  Sabine  Pass,  Tex.;  Richmond,  Va.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.; 
Savannah,  Ga.;  Seattle,  Wash. 

VENEZUELA 

Four  copies  of  the  consular  invoice  must  be  presented  for  certification  at  the 
consulate.  The  invoice  must  contain  names  of  shipper  and  consignee,  ports  of 
shipment  gnd  destination,  class  of  vessel,  its  name,  nationality,  name  of  its  cap- 
tain, the  mark,  number,  kind,  and  destination  of  each  package,  its  contents,  exact 
gross  weight  in  kilos,  and  its  value.  The  contents  must  be  declared  by  designating 
the  name  of  each  kind  of  merchandise,  without  abbreviations  or  the  use  of  ditto 
marks,  mentioning  the  component  material  and  the  quality  or  circumstance  which 
distinguishes  it  from  other  meix-handise  of  the  same  name  specified  in  the  tariff 
under  a  different  classification.  Packages  having  the  same  contents,  size,  weight, 
and  form,  such  as  bags,  cases,  barrels,  etc.,  of  cereals,  soap,  and  similar  mer- 
chandise, marked  with  the  same  numbers  and  marks,  may  be  included  in  one  item. 
If  the  shipi)ers  are  not  acquainted  with  the  Spanish  language,  the  consular  officer 
must  translate  the  invoice,  making  three  extra  copies  of  the  translation.  When 
the  original  invoice  does  not  exceed  30  handwritten  lines,  the  charge  is  $3  gold 
for  the  four  copies  of  the  translation,  a  charge  of  3  cents  is  made  for  each  addi- 
tional line.  Packages  with  different  marks  may  be  included  in  one  in\oice.  Con- 
sular invoices  should  be  presented  for  certification  not  later  than  three  hours  before 
the  sailing  of  the  vessels  so  that  the  consul  may  have  sufficient  time  for  their 
examination  and  for  insertion  of  the  required  data.  Bills  of  lading  do  not  require 
certification,  but,  if  presented,  five  copies  will  be  certified  by  the  consul  without 
charge,  a  charge  is  made  should  more  than  five  copies  be  desired.  It  is  not  per- 
missible to  consign  goods  ''  to  order,"  and  a  penalty  of  from  750  to  2,000  bolivars 
($150  to  $400)  is  imposed  on  the  captain  of  a  vessel  carrjdng  such  shipments, 
which  are  also  subject  to  a  surtax  of  25  per  cent  of  the  duty.  All  shipments  of 
foodstuffs  should  bear  a  Government  stamp  of  inspection  or  be  accompanied  by 
a  sworn  statement  that  the  goods  have  been  inspected  by  competent  authority. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  making  out  the  invoices,  as  fines  are  imposed  for 
even  slight  irregularities.  Fees  for  consular  documents  are  as  follows:  for 
invoices  up  to  $100  value,  $3.75;  from  $100.01  to  200,  $5;  from  $200.01  to  $800, 
$7.50;  for  each  additional  $200  or  fraction  thereof,  $1.25;  extra  copies  of  invoice, 
each  $1;  if  an  invoice  contains  more  than  one  mark,  there  is  an  extra  charge  of 
25  per  cent  of  the  fees  for  each  additional  mark.  Invoice  blanks  cost  35  cents 
per  set  of  four,  more  than  five  copies  of  bills  of  lading  each  $1.  Venezuela  has 
consulates  in  the  following  cities  of  the  United  States :  Chicago,  111. ;  New  Orleans, 
La.;  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 
Mobile,  Ala.;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Newport  News,  V^. ;  Seattle,  Wash.;  Jacksonville, 
Fla. ;  Mobile,  Ala. 


Trading  Licenses  and  Taxes 

By  Irving  E.  Rines 

Taxes 

THE  laws  and  customs  relating  to  taxation  in  the  Latin 
American  countries  vary  greatly  —  so  much  so,  in  fact,  as 
to  render  any  general  statement  impracticable.  Further- 
more, recent  data  for  the  smaller  countries  is  scarcely  available ; 
any  attempt  to  rehearse  the  regulations  by  countries  would  be 
futile  (and  also  impossible  owing  to  space  limitations),  while 
generalization  would  be  misleading.  Accordingly  only  the  briefest 
review  will  be  given  of  conditions  in  the  more  populous  countries 
and  for  them  only  a  skeleton  outline  can  be  presented.  '  For  the 
details  one  must  consult  a  great  variety  of  books,  since  in  no  one 
publication,  descriptive  of  any  country,  w^ll  these  regulations  be 
found  fully  and  completely  presented  or  properly  and  sys- 
tematically arranged  and  correlated.  Persons  interested  in  a 
particular  country  or  a  special  section  of  one  country  should  con- 
sult the  consul  of  that  country,  or  obtain  inf oiTnation  from  the 
International  Bureau  of  American  Republics  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
Article  67,  §  2  of  the  national  constitution  of  Argentina 
provides  that  besides  taxes  upon  imports  and  exports.  Congress 
may  impose  other  taxes  '*  for  a  period  of  time  and  in  a  manner 
proportionately  equal  in  all  the  territory  of  the  nation,  whenever 
the  defense  of  the  country,  the  common  safety,  or  the  public  good 
may  require  it."  The  indirect  tax  is  the  most  fruitful  fiscal 
resource,  as  is  proved  by  the  customs  revenues  which  are  rela- 
tively greater  than  those  of  all  other  taxes  combined ;  other  indirect 
taxes  are  the  consular  fees,  stamps,  dock  dues,  etc.  The  group 
of  direct  taxes  consists  of  the  land  tax  of  the  city  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  of  the  national  territories  and  the  commercial  and 
industrial  licenses  of  the  Federal  capital  and  the  national  terri- 
tories; but  of  these  taxes  the  nation  by  law  is  compelled  to  give  a 
certain  portion  to  the  city  and  another  portion  to  the  National 
Council  of  Education.  There  is  also  another  kind  of  indirect  inter- 
nal duty  —  the  branch  of  taxation  which  is  levied  on  the  national 
industry  and  national  consumption  and  usually  denominated 
"  Inland  Revenue."  These  imposts  are  levied  upon  alcohols, 
beers,  matches,  tobacco,  insurance,  etc.,  the  proceeds  being  given 
under  another  heading.  Article  II  of  the  constitution  provides 
that  ''  articles  of  national  or  foreign  production  or  manufacture, 

[812] 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  813 

and  cattle  of  all  kinds,  passing  from  the  territory  of  one  province 
into  the  territory  of  another,  shall  be  exempt  from  transit  duties." 
Under  the  system  in  vogue,  however,  every  article  of  food  and 
clothing  is  taxed,  whether  it  comes  from  the  provinces  or  abroad. 
In  Buenos  Aires  taxes  are  imposed  on  various  articles  and  goods 
from  the  outside  provinces  in  the  form  of  octroi  dues  collected  at 
the  city  gates.  Meat,  fish,  bacon,  vegetables,  eggs  and  other 
matters  are  subject  to  the  tax.    Advertisements  are  also  taxed. 

The  national  revenues  of  Bolivia  consist  mainly  of  customs 
duties,  the  alcohol  tax,  export  duties  and  other  excises,  consular 
fees,  etc.  The  departmental  revenues  are  derived  chiefly  from  the 
native  land  tax,  the  rural  property  tax,  taxes  on  indirect  inher- 
itances and  legacies,  tithes  or  dimes  and  stamped  papers  for 
titles,  etc.,  and  the  tax  on  the  exportation  and  importation  of 
cattle.  Conflicts  often  occur  between  the  national  and  municipal 
governments  over  the  persistent  tendency  of  the  latter  to  impose 
taxes  which  directly  affect  the  revenues  of  the  nation  or  of  the 
department.  Some  of  the  larger  municipalities  have  even  gone  so 
far  as  to  lev>"  taxes  on  imports  and  exports  to  the  detriment  of  the 
commercial  expansion  of  the  country,  with  the  result  that  many 
imported  articles  are  burdened  with  municipal  dues.  In  some  of 
the  customs  houses  may  be  found  a  municipal  agent,  whose  duty 
is  to  collect  such  taxes. 

Aside  from  the  customs  tariff*,  which  produces  approximately 
two-thirds  of  the  national  revenue,  the  other  principal  taxes 
imposed  by  the  national  government  of  Brazil  are  a  "  consumo  " 
tax  on  certain  articles  of  merchandise,  collected  by  compelling 
such  articles  to  have  stamps  affixed  to  them  or  to  their  containers ; 
a  stamp  tax  on  lottery  tickets,  and  on  legal  or  commercial  docu- 
ments ;  a  passenger  tax  on  all  railway  and  steamer  tickets ;  a  ton- 
nage tax  on  all  vessels  trading  with  Brazilian  ports  and  an  export 
tax  on  all  serinr/a  shipped  from  the  Federal  Territory  of  Acre. 
All  industries  and  businesses  are  taxed  and  heavy  monetary 
guarantees  are  exacted  of  brokers,  auctioneers  and  lottery  agents. 
Other  revenues  are  obtained  from  the  sales  of  public  lands,  divi- 
dends on  government  enterprises  (such  as  mines,  lands  and  for- 
ests) and  incomes  from  the  public  services.  Receipts  for  sums 
of  more  than  25  milreis  must  bear  a  300  reis  stamp,  and  checks, 
letters  of  exchange,  memorials,  petitions  (each  page)  and  all 
other  documents  must  bear  a  similar  stamp.  The  books  of  com- 
mercial houses  having  more  than  five  contos  capital  must  be  regis- 
tered and  stamped,  the  tax  being  44  reis  per  page.  Article  IX 
of  the  constitution  gives  the  states  alone  power  to  impose  taxes  on 


814  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

the  export  of  merchandise  of  their  own  production,  on  real  estate, 
on  the  conveyance  of  property,  and  on  industries  and  professions. 
The  states  also  have  the  exclusive  right  to  impose  stamp  duties 
on  instruments  emanating  from  their  respective  governments  and 
on  business  of  local  (inland)  character.  Products  in  transit  from 
one  state  to  another  are  exempt  from  taxation  by  the  exporting 
state  (Art.  XI).  The  states  are  prohibited  from  taxing  Federal 
property  or  revenue  or  anything  utilized  in  the  service  of  the 
national  government  (Art.  X).  No  income  tax  is  imposed 
anywhere  in  the  Republic. 

In  Chile  Congress  alone  has  power  to  impose  taxes,  whether 
direct  or  indirect,  and  no  authority  of  the  state  nor  any  individual 
shall,  without  its  special  authorization,  impose  them  under  any 
pretext  whatsoever,  even  if  it  w^ere  as  a  loan,  voluntary  or  other- 
wise. Taxation  is  very  low  and  amounts  to  only  about  $4  per 
capita  and  the  constitution  provides  that  taxes  shall  be  levied 
ahead  for  a  period  of  18  months  only.  The  major  portion  of  the 
revenue  is  derived  from  the  export  duty  on  nitrates,  the  sale  of 
lands  in  the  south  and  the  profits  on  the  state  railways,  telegraphs 
and  post  office.  Real  estate  and  also  some  imports  are  taxed. 
There  is  an  internal  tax  on  cigars,  cigarettes  and  cut  tobacco, 
w^hether  of  national  production  or  imported. 

Grovernmental  income  in  Colombia  is  raised  by  a  number  of 
devices,  no  scientific  study  of  taxation  ever  having  been  made. 
The  national  government  derives  its  principal  income  from  cus- 
toms duties  and  additional  income  from  mines,  stamped  paper, 
recording  taxes,  etc.  The  departments  and  the  larger  municipali- 
ties, having  no  adequate  system  of  land  taxation,  levy  what  they 
may  by  indirect  special  taxes,  often  of  an  un\\dse  and  hampering 
character,  e.  g.,  licenses  restrictive  of  commerce  and  industry, 
slaughter  house  fees,  tolls,  liquor  and  other  monopolies,  etc.  Land 
taxes  are  extremely  low  and  payment  is  often  evaded.  The  rev- 
enues of  the  municipal  districts,  especially  the  less  populous  ones, 
are  very  limited,  the  revenue  per  capita  rarely  exceeding  a  dollar 
gold  per  year. 

In  Ecuador  no  tax  or  duty  shall  be  levied  or  collected  except 
according  to  law,  and  in  the  apportionment  of  taxes  due  attention 
shall  be  paid  to  the  individual  wealth  or  industry  of  the  taxpay- 
ers. The  Chamber  of  Deputies  has  the  right  to  initiate  all  legis- 
lation relating  to  taxation.  In  order  to  encourage  the  develop- 
ment of  the  grape  industry,  domestic  grape  products  are  exempted 
from  the  payment  of  Federal  and  municipal  taxes.  In  Guatemala 
the  state  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  customs  duties,  liquor 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  815 

licenses  and  monopolies ;  a  tax  of  6  per  cent  on  landed  property ; 
the  sale  and  conveyance  of  real  estate;  patents  and  concessions; 
foreign  companies ;  redemption  of  ground  rents ;  etc.  In  the  larger 
cities  of  British  Gruiana,  the  municipal  governments  usually 
assess  taxes  on  lands  and  buildings  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent  of 
their  value  per  annum.  In  Surinam  the  legislative  assembly  is 
elected  by  the  citizens  who  pay  an  annual  income  tax  on  not  less 
than  1,400  guilders.  In  Honduras  the  educational  system  is  sup- 
ported indirectly  by  taxation,  50  centavos  (about  20  cents  United 
States  currency)  per  month  being  the  maximum  tax  that  may  be 
imposed  upon  a  citizen  for  this  purpose.  In  Panama.  Chinese 
must  pay  a  head  tax  of  $250  each  for  the  privilege  of  living  in  the 
Republic.  In  the  Dominican  Republic  no  general  tax  may  be 
levied  unless  by  virtue  of  a  law,  nor  shall  any  commercial  tax  be 
levied  except  by  the  respective  municipal  council  and  according  to 
law.  Congress  possesses  the  right  to  approve  or  reject  municipal 
taxes  not  established  by  law. 

Trading  Licenses 

Argentina. —  Annual  licenses  must  be  paid  by  everyone  con- 
ducting any  business  or  trade  or  exercising  any  profession  in  the 
Federal  capital  or  in  any  of  the  national  territories.  These 
licenses  fall  into  54  categories,  the  amounts  charged  varying  from 
$5  to  $60,000  paper,  per  annum.  Some  items  of  general  interest 
are  as  follows : 

Paper 

Architects  and  surveyors $100 

Auctioneers    $100  to     1,000 

Auctioneers  without  auction  rooms 50  to       700 

Banks 7,000  to  60,000 

Bank  branches 1,000 

Business  houses  (wholesale  or  wholesale  and  retail) 150  to     3,000 

Business  houses  (retail) 20  to    2,000 

Boarding  houses  and  furnished  apartments 50  to    1,000 

Brokers  and  commission  agents  in  general 50  to       700 

Brokers  (stock  exchange) 150 

Brokers  (insurance) 150 

Bonded  warehouses  (private)    500  to  10,000 

Co-operative  societies   1,000  to    7,000 

Consignees  of  national  produce  and  livestock 200  to     1,500 

Cafes  and  confectioners  50  to    1,500 

Customs  house  agents  (in  the  capital) 200 

Customs  house  agents  (in  the  provinces) 50 

Doctors 100 

Druggists  150  to     3,000 

Dentists    100 

53 


8](i  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Paper 

Electric  light  and  power  coiiipauies .tlO,000  to.t20,0{)U 

Exporters ." 300  to     5,000 

Engineers 50 

Gas  companies 10,000  to  20,000 

Hotels   150  to     2,000 

Insurance  companies    (national,  dealing  with  only  one  class  of 

risk) 2,000  to     3,000 

Insurance  companies    (foreign,   dealing  with   only  one   class  of 

risk) 3,000  to     6,000 

Insurance  companies  on  each  extra  class  of  risk  an  additional 

50  per  cent. 

Insurance  oflfices  (branches)    250 

Importers  of  general  merchandise 300  to     5,000 

Imjiorters  and  exporters  (both) 500  to     6,000 

l^ithographers   30  to     2,000 

Money  lenders  and  pawnbrokers 5,000  to     7,000 

News  advertising  agencies  150  to       400 

Opticians 100 

Patent  and  trade-mark  agents 100  to        300 

Photographers 30  to        400 

Printing  establishments 30  to        400 

Restaurants    50  to     1,500 

Stationers  and  booksellers 20  to     1,000 

Shipping  agents 60  to        800 

Telephone  companies  (in  the  capital) .  1,000 

Telephone  companies  (in  the  tei-ritories) 50 

Telegraph  companies 1,000 

Representatives  of  foreign  firms,  without  a  ship  or  warehouse 
for  sales  to  the  general  public,  foreign  or  traveling  commission 
agent,  are  taxed  $500.  The  licenses  for  limited  companies  in  gen- 
eral, unless  otherwise  classifieci,  cost  from  $500  to  $5,000.  Ship- 
ping is  also  taxed,  details  of  which  will  be  found  under  that  head- 
ing. Commercial  travelers'  samples  are  not  admitted  duty  free 
but  samples  of  all  kinds  may  be  taken  into  the  country  under  bond 
for  90  days,  renewable  for  an  additional  period  of  90  days.  Com- 
mercial travelers  carrying  samples  and  intending  to  do  business  in 
Argentina  must  obtain  a  license  at  Buenos  Aires  for  the  Federal 
District  (costing  500  pesos  paper  or  $212.30  U.  S.  currency)  and 
a  separate  license  must  be  secured  in  every  province  and  territory 
where  the  trader  intends  to  do  business.  As  this  causes  serious 
inconvenience  and  much  expense,  foreign  houses  assign  their 
ti-avelers  to  some  large  importing  house  in  Buenos  Aires,  under 
whose  auspices  they  work,  thereby  avoiding  payment  of  the  license 
fees.  If  the  traveler  desire  to  work  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
provinces,  the  importing  house  at  Buenos  Aires  will  assign  him  to 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  817 

its  branches  as  agent  in  such  localities.     The  license  charges  are 
as  follows: 

Provinces  of  Buenos  Aires  and  Santa  Fe:  Annual  patente  of  $400  paper 
($169.84  U.  S.  currency). 

Province  of  Santiago  del  Estero:  Annual  patente  of  $300  ($127.38);  or  if 
taken  out  after  30  June  $300  ($63.69)  to  end  of  year. 

Province  of  Entre  Rios  and  Tucuman:  Annual  patente  of  $600  ($254.76); 
if  taken  out  after  30  June  $300  (127.38)  to  end  of  year. 

Province  of  Cordoba:  Annual  patente  of  $400  ($169.84);  if  taken  out  after 
30  June  $200  ($84.92)  to  end  of  year. 

Province  of  La  Rioja:     Annual  patente  of  $250  ($106.15). 

Province  of  Jujuy:  Annual  patente  of  $200  ($84.92)  if  representing  only  one 
fimi;  $100  ($42.46)  for  each  additional  firm  represented. 

Province  op  Corrientes:  Annual  patente  of  $600  ($254.76)  if  selling  to  busi- 
ness houses  only;  $1,000  ($424.60)  if  selling  to  private  individuals  also. 

Province  of  Salta:  Sliding  scale  depending  on  class  of  merchandise,  ranging 
from  $60  ($25.48)  for  empty  sacks  and  $100  ($42.46)  for  soap  and  candles  up  to 
$800  ($339.68)  for  ready-made  clothing  and  $1,000  ($424.60)  for  textiles  or  sugar. 

Province  of  San  Juan  :  Fees  vary  according  to  season,  patente  being  issued 
for  the  following  periods:  Annual,  $400  ($169.84);  May  to  December,  $300 
($127.38);  September  to  December,  $200  ($84.92). 

Province  of  Mendoza:  Patentes  are  issued  for  a  year  at  $700  ($297.22),  for 
the  period  from  May  to  December  at  $600  ($254.76)  and  for  the  period  from 
September  to  December  at  $500   ($212.30). 

Province  of  San  Luis:  Annual  patente  of  $400  ($169.84)  for  each  firm 
represented. 

Province  of  Catamarca:     Annual  patente  of  $300  ($127.38). 

National  Territories:     Annual  patente  of  $50  ($21.23). 

Bolivia. —  There  is  no  Federal  law  but  all  Bolivian  cities  levy 
a  tax  on  the  representatives  of  foreign  houses.  The  rates  vary 
greatly  and  licenses  are  issued  only  from  the  date  of  payment  of 
the  tax  until  the  end  of  the  calendar  year.  The  charges  range 
from  200  bolivianos  in  Tarija,  Tupiza  and  Potosi,  250  in  La  Paz, 
Uyuni  and  Oruro  and  300  in  Sucre  to  400  to  800  in  Santa  Cruz  and 
1,000  in  Cochabamba.  Though  not  specifically  provided  for  in  the 
Bolivian  customs  laws,  samples  of  no  commercial  value  may  be 
admitted  free  if  satisfactory  bond  be  furnished  for  the  payment 
of  the  regular  customs  duties  in  case  the  samples  are  not  re-ex- 
ported. Samples  may  remain  in  the  country  for  a  period  of  90 
days  which  may  be  extended  for  30  days  longer,  after  which  time, 
if  samples  have  not  been  re-exported,  the  duty  will  be  collected. 
The  principal  towns  of  Bolivia  levy  taxes  for  municipal  purposes 
on  traders  of  different  classes.  In  La  Paz  an  annual  tax  of  1,000 
bolivianos  is  imposed  on  banks  of  the  first  class,  and  also  on  the 
large  importing  and  exporting  houses,  the  smaller  houses  paying 


H\S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

less.  Taxes  ranging  from  30  to  100  bolivianos  are  levied  upon 
professional  men,  such  as  architects,  engineers,  lawyers  and  phy- 
sicians. In  Oruro  the  amount  charged  for  a  trader's  license 
depends  upon  the  business  supposed  to  be  done.  Every  trader, 
shopkeeper  and  professional  man  is  supposed  to  pay  something, 
the  taxes  ranging  from  5  to  1,000  bolivianos.  In  Sucre  an  annual 
municipal  tax  is  levied  on  all  banks,  shops,  warehouses,  ofiices, 
hotels,  inns,  cafes,  sporting  premises,  club  premises,  etc.,  the  tax 
varying  from  year  to  year  in  some  cases  according  to  the  valu- 
ation made  by  the  Finance  Commission.  Bauks  pay  from  400  to 
1,000  bolivianos,  shops  from  5  to  300,  and  warehouses  from  50 
to  500. 

Brazil.^  The  Federal  government  does  not  impose  any  license 
tax  on  foreign  commercial  travelers  but  the  various  state  and 
municipal  authorities  frequently  assess  taxes,  and  license  fees 
must  be  paid.  Most  municipalities  require  a  traveler  to  pay  for  a 
hawker's  license,  if  he  can  be  considered  within  that  category  but 
the  states  do  not  require  such  a  license.  These  fees  vary  so  much 
that  consultation  with  the  nearest  American  consul  is  necessary 
before  attempting  to  do  business,  but  the  following  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  charges :  .        ^ 

Bahia:  State  tax  of  100  milreis,  annual,  license  being  granted  on  payment  of 
fee.    A  new  license  is  required  if  traveler  leaves  the  country  and  returns. 

Maranhao:  Annual  state  tax  of  250  milreis  and  at  city  of  Maranhao  annual 
municipal  tax  of  100  milreis. 

MiNAS  Geraes:  Annual  state  tax  of  55  milreis  but  should  a  trader's  license 
be  taken  out  traveler  is  subject  to  both  state  and  municipal  taxes ;  but  if  a  hawker's 
license  be  taken  out  there  is  only  a  nmnicipal  tax.  A  hawker's  license  in  Oliveira 
costs  500  milreis.  At  Lavras  the  tax  is  300  milreis  if  travelers  do  business  with 
private  individuals. 

Para:  Annual  state  tax  of  300  milreis,  seldom  exacted.  At  Para  a  municipal 
tax  of  365  milreis  is  levied  for  each  visit  and  if  he  sell  goods  the  traveler  must 
take  out  a  trader's  or  hawker's  license. 

Pernambuoo:  Annual  state  tax  of  600  milreis  levied  on  pedlars  not  possessing 
a  shop  and  selling  in  the  streets.  Travelers  usually  connect  with  some  shopkeeper 
or  business  man  or  one  who  holds  a  pedlar's  license.  At  Fortaleza  (Ceara)  a 
municipal  tax  of  53  milreis  is  levied. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  :  No  state  tax  on  commercial  travelers  unless  they  sell  the  goods 
they  carry,  in  which  event  they  must  take  out  either  a  trader's  license  under  which 
state  and  municipal  taxes  of  various  amounts  are  charged,  or  a  hawker's  license 
under  which  there  is  only  a  municipal  tax. 

liio  Grande  do  Sul:  Annual  state  tax  200  milreis.  The  municipal  taxes  vary 
from  60  milreis  at  Sao  Borga  to  100  at  Porto  Alegre,  200  each  at  Pelotas  and 
Suo  Gabriel  and  300  at  ITi-uguayana  to  800  at  Bage.  There  is  no  tax  at  liio 
Grande. 

Sao  Pauix):  No  state  tax  is  levied  but  there  ai-e  municipal  taxes  of  500  milreis 
at  Santos  and  1,000  milreis  at  Sao  Paulo. 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  819 

Some  salesmen  arrange  with  local  houses  for  their  representa- 
tion and  as  the  local  houses  are  registered  a  proper  legal  standing 
is  obtained  so  that  the  payment  of  claims  can  be  enforced.  Under 
the  law  of  1916  samples  may  be  entered  if  bond  for  their  re-ex- 
portation be  furnished,  the  maximum  period  for  which  such  sam- 
ples may  remain  in  the  country  being  determined  by  the  customs 
officials.  Formal  proof  of  re-exportation  is  required.  The  law 
also  provides  that  such  temporary  free  admission  shall  be  granted 
only  when  goods  are  accompanied  by  a  consular  invoice  from  the 
country  of  origin  and  a  memorandum  detailing  the  articles  con- 
tained in  the  various  packages.  While  exempt  from  import  duty, 
samples  are  subject  to  the  payment  of  the  ''  expediente  "  tax  of  5 
per  cent  of  their  official  value  and  other  supplementary  charges, 
such  as  port  taxes,  storage  and  handling  fees,  etc. 

Chile. —  No  government,  state,  provincial,  or  municipal 
licenses,  warrants  or  permits  are  required  before  a  foreign  com- 
mercial traveler  can  begin  business  nor  is  he  required  to  register 
or  take  out  any  documents  before  transacting  business.  No  gen- 
eral, local  or  income  tax  charges  are  levied  on  commercial  travel- 
ers. Samples  without  commercial  value  are  admitted  free  of  duty 
without  any  restriction  as  to  re-exportation.  Salable  samples  may 
be  imported  for  six  months  if  security  be  furnished  by  a  local 
house  to  cover  the  full  amount  of  duty  to  which  the  samples  would 
be  subject  as  merchandise,  or  upon  a 'cash  deposit  of  equal  amount 
by  the  importer.  On  presentation  of  a  certificate  from  the  cus- 
toms house  through  which  the  samples  are  re-exported,  the  secur- 
ity or  cash  deposit  will  be  refunded.  The  re-exportation  need  not 
be  made  through  the  port  of  entry. 

Colombia. — After  passing  the  customs  house  the  commercial 
traveler  is  not  subjected  to  any  further  formalities  by  the  Colom- 
bian government.  A  municipal  tax  is  levied  by  some  cities  and  a 
license  must  be  obtained  before  samples  are  exhibited.  Carta- 
gena and  Medellm  impose  taxes  from  $10  to  $20  for  the  calendar 
year  and  Bogota  fixed  a  tax  of  $25  for  each  firm  represented  by 
the  traveler  but  this  ordinance  is  now  before  the  courts  and  is 
suspended  temporarily.  Samples  of  no  commercial  value  may  be 
imported  free  of  duty  and  without  bond  or  security,  but  all  other 
samples  must  pay  the  full  duty,  75  per  cent  of  which  will  be 
refunded  upon  re-exportation  of  the  samples,  within  one  year. 

Costa  Rica. —  In  order  to  do  business  in  the  various  districts 
of  Costa  Rica,  commercial  travelers  are  required  to  obtain  per- 
mits from  the  municipal  treasurers,  but  the  general  government 
does  not  require  any  official  documents.    The  municipal  permit  is 


820  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

valid  only  in  the  municipal  limits  and  a  new  permit  must  be 
obtained  in  each  city.  Regardless  of  the  line  of  business,  such 
permits  cost  2  colones  {colon=$0A65'^  U.  S.  currency)  per  day  in 
Port  Limon,  or  8  colones  per  week  for  the  time  the  traveler  may 
wish  to  do  business  in  the  city  limits ;  in  San  Jose  a  license  costs 
50  colones  per  six  months  and  in  Puntarenas  a  tax  of  15  colones 
is  collected  for  each  visit.  Samples  of  no  commercial  value  are 
dutiable  at  0.05  colon  per  kilo  gross  ($1.05  per  100  pounds)  and  on 
all  other  samples  a  deposit  must  be  made  to  cover  the  full  amount 
of  duty.  If  not  re-exported  within  90  days  the  deposit  will  not  be 
refunded  but  if  re-exported  the  amount  deposited  will  be  refunded, 
less  a  charge  of  0.05  colon  per  kilo  gross  ($1.05  per  100  pounds)  if 
number  or  quantity  of  samples  re-exported  be  the  same  as  shown 
at  time  of  making  entry.  Samples  of  jewelry  or  articles  made 
of  gold  or  silver  are  not  entitled  to  a  refund  but  must  pay  full 
duty. 

Cuba. —  No  licenses  are  required  nor  are  charges  of  any  kind 
imposed  upon  commercial  travelers ;  neither  are  they  restricted  as 
to  duration  of  visit  or  methods  of  transacting  business.  While 
all  samples  of  dutiable  merchandise  must  pay  full  duty  upon  entry, 
the  tariff  laws  provide  that  if  a  sample  lot  valued  at  not  more 
than  $500  be  re-exported  within  90  days  from  date  of  entry,  75 
per  cent  of  the  duty  paid  will  be  refunded  after  identification  of 
the  samples.  In  order  to  be  entitled  to  the  refund  of  duty, 
samples  must  be  imported  as  baggage  and  part  of  the  salesman's 
personal  equipment.  Some  samples  are  admitted  duty  free  under 
certain  conditions  —  such  as  samples  of  felt,  wall  paper,  fabrics, 
hosiery,  and  trimmings. 

Ecuador. — A  license  to  sell  goods  is  required  and  is  valid  dur- 
ing the  entire  stay  of  the  traveler,  also  permitting  him  to  sell  to 
any  person.  The  license  must  be  obtained  from  the  customs  in- 
spector on  the  wharf  before  the  baggage  and  samples  may  enter 
the  country;  the  charge  is  100  sucres  ($48,665).  Many  municipali- 
ties require  permits  to  sell  goods,  and  such  permits  usually  cost 
nothing.  If  the  traveler  wish  to  transact  business  in  another 
part  of  the  country,  official  permission  to  do  so  must  be  written 
on  the  back  of  the  license;  otherwise  he  must  purchase  another 
license,  at  the  new  port.  Samples  of  fabrics,  small  articles  of  no 
value  and  articles  rendered  unsalable  by  mutilation  are  admitted 
duty  free,  but  valuable  samples  are  admitted  under  bond,  subject 
to  re-exportation  within  90  days. 

Guatemala. —  No  formalities  are  imposed  on  commercial  trav- 
elers in  Guatemala,  there  are  no  charges  of  any  sort,  no  Federal 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  821 

or  municipal  license  fees,  no  income  tax,  no  special  regulations, 
and  no  limitation  as  to  clientele.  All  samples,  save  those  of  no 
commercial  value  or  those  rendered  unsalable,  must  pay  the  regu- 
lar customs  duties,  though  in  some  cases  the  payment  of  duties 
is  not  required  if  bond  be  given  for  the  amount  of  duty  leviable. 
Samples  must  be  re-exported  within  60  days. 

Haiti. —  No  license  is  required  before  transacting  business  and 
the  only  official  paper  necessary  is  a  permit  from  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  prior  to  traveler's  departure  from  the  city  for  any 
other  part  of  the  country  or  a  passport  when  leaving  for  any  other 
country.  No  charge  is  made  for  the  former  but  the  passport 
costs  $4  and  to  obtain  it  a  letter  from  the  consul  is  necessary.  No 
duty  is  imposed  on  samples  of  no  commercial  value  nor,  gener- 
ally speaking,  is  a  duty  imposed  on  valuable  samples  imported  in 
moderate  quantities  and  not  disposed  of  by  sale. 

Honduras.— ^o  governmental  or  local  permits  are  required 
and,  save  for  the  payment  of  municipal  license  fees  and  the  tem- 
porary entry  of  their  samples,  commercial  travelers  are  under  no 
restrictions.  Municipal  licenses  cover  one  visit  only  and  are 
limited  to  90  days.  If  a  traveler  make  a  trip  to  another  city  he  is 
liable  to  pay  another  fee  on  his  return.  The  tax  for  each  visits 
irrespective  of  length  of  stay  or  goods  handled,  is  50  pesos  (about 
$2.50)  in  Tegucigalpa  and  San  Pedro  Sula  and  25  pesos  in  Puerto 
Cortes.  Fees  are  liable  to  change  annually  upon  the  change  of 
municipal  administrations.  Salesmen  paying  the  fees  may  repre- 
sent several  firms  without  additional  charge.  Samples  of  no  com- ' 
mercial  value  weighing  less  than  25  libras  (25.25  pounds)  are 
admitted  duty  free  but  those  exceeding  that  weight  must  pay 
0.01  peso  per  half  kilo  (about  $0.50  per  100  pounds,  including  sur- 
tax) gross  weight.  Valuable  samples  to  be  re-exported  require 
a  deposit  of  the  amount  of  duty  leviable  and  if  re-exported  ivithin 
90  days  this  deposit  w411  be  refunded  after  deducting  a  charge  of 
0.05  pesos  per  half  kilo  ($2.50  per  100  pounds,  including  surtax) 
gross  weight. 

Mexico. —  Many  of  the  Mexican  states  and  municipalities 
impose  taxes  on  commercial  travelers,  but  owing  to  the  prevailing- 
abnormal  political  conditions,  information  regarding  the  license 
fees  now  in  force  is  practically  valueless. 

Nicaragua. —  No  licenses  are  required  from  either  the 
national  or  local  authorities  and  commercial  travelers  may  trans- 
act business  without  formalities  or  the  payment  of  charges  or 
taxes.  Samples  of  no  commercial  value  are  exempt  from  import 
duty  but  other  samples  must  pay  the  full  duty  pending  re-exporta- 


822  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

tion  or  may  be  allowed  temporary  free  admission  upon  a  bond 
furnished  by  a  reputable  local  merchant.  The  term  of  temporary 
admission  varies  from  one  to  three  months  according  to  locality 

visited. 

Panama. —  No  formalities  are  necessary  prior  to  transacting 
business,  save  the  payment  by  commercial  travelers  of  a  municipal 
license  in  the  district  in  which  they  expect  to  trade.  The  cost  of 
such  licenses  varies  according  to  municipality.  Panama  City 
charging  $10  for  30  days  and  Bocas  del  Toro  $10  and  Colon 
$12.50  for  a  period  of  six  months.  Unsalable  samples  are  exempt 
from  duty,  but  other  samples  are  admitted  under  bond  or  on 
deposit  of  an  amount  sufficient  to  cover  the  leviable  duty. 

Paraguay. —  A  municipal  license  is  the  only  official  license 
required  and  may  be  obtained  upon  application  to  the  intendente 
municipal  (mayor).  The  licenses  cover  all  lines  of  goods  and 
include  as  many  firms  as  the  traveler  desires  to  represent,  but  a 
separate  license  is  required  for  each  municipality.  The  licenses 
are  for  six  months,  the  semesters  beginning  1  January  and  1 
July,  but  if  taken  out  in  the  middle  of  a  semester  a  discount  is 
allowed  for  the  time  already  passed.  In  Pilar  the  fee  is  200  pesos 
(about  $7.62),  in  Encarnacion  300  pesos  ($11.58),  in  Villarica 
800  pesos  (about  $30.88),  and  in  Concepcion  and  Asuncion  each 
1,200  pesos  (about  $46.32),  but  in  Asuncion  an  additional  munici- 
pal tax  of  360  pesos  ($13.90)  per  annum  is  levied  on  all  commer- 
cial travelei^s  taking  out  licenses,  this  tax  being  assigned  to 
public  lighting,  street  cleaning,  etc.  In  Villarica  a  license  may 
be  taken  out  for  as  short  a  time  as  one  month.  There  is  no  income 
tax  on  travelers.  Samples  of  no  commercial  value  are  exempt 
from  duty,  but  all  other  samples  must  pay  full  duty  which  will  be 
refunded  on  re-exportation  within  60  days,  less  wharfage  and 
lighterage  charges  ($2.90  per  220  pounds),  a  statistical  charge  of 
one-half  per  mill  of  value  of  goods  imported,  and  a  small  charge 
for  stamped  paper  used  in  clearing  goods  through  the  customs 
house. 

Peru. —  No  government  license  or  documents  are  required  of 
commercial  travelers  in  Peru  nor  is  a  national  tax  imposed  for 
solicitating  trade,  but  in  some  interior  towns  a  municipal  tax  is 
levied.  Arequipa  imposes  a  tax  of  25  soles  (about  $12)  quarterly 
and  Cuzco  50  soles  (about  $24),  presumably  for  each  visit. 
Samples  of  no  commercial  value  are  exempt  from  import  duty 
and  under  certain  conditions  samples  of  any  kind  may  be  imported 
duty  free  for  three  months,  which  period  may  be  extended 
another  three  months.    The  salesman  must  deposit  a  sum  equiva- 


TRADING  LICENSES  AND  TAXES  823 

lent  to  the  leviable  duty  which  will  be  refunded  in  full  upon 
re-exportation. 

Salvador. —  No  certificates  or  official  papers  certified  by  gov- 
ernment officials  are  required  before  a  commercial  traveler  may 
transact  business  in  Salvador,  the  only  official  license,  warrant  or 
permit  being  issued  by  the  local  municipalities,  usually  for  one 
year.  In  San  Salvador  the  municipal  tax  is  50  pesos  (about 
$25)  and  the  other  municipalities  le\y  a  tax  of  from  10  pesos 
do^\^l.  Under  the  customs  tariff  of  1  Jan.  1916,  samples  of  no 
commercial  value  are  subject  to  a  duty  of  $0.03  per  kilo  ($1.41 
per  100  pounds)  and  all  other  samples  are  dutiable  at  the  rates 
prescribed  for  similar  articles  imported  in  commercial  quantities. 

Dominican  Republic. — All  industries,  offices  and  professions 
(occupations)  are  subject  to  license  duties,  the  local  tax  and  the 
professional  (business)  tax  being  combined  as  a  basis  for  calcu- 
lating license  duties.  Married  persons  living  together  and  fol- 
lowing one  occupation  pay  for  only  one  license.  The  licensing 
law  is  discussed  in  Congress  every  year  when  preparing  the  bud- 
gets and  is  fixed  aijew  for  the  following  year.  Furthermore  the 
government,  with  certain  restrictions,  possesses  the  sole  right  to 
grant  monopolies  so  far  as  concerns  the  construction  of  railroads, 
cables,  telegraph,  telephones,  canals,  hydraulic  works,  and  other 
similar  enterprises.  The  only  document  required  of  commercial 
travelers,  prior  to  transacting  business  is  an  annual  license 
costing  $10.  Unsalable  samples  or  those  having  no  commercial 
value  are  admitted  duty  free  and  samples  exceeding  $2,000  in 
value  imported  by  bona  fide  commercial  travelers  are  admitted 
free  under  bond,  provided  they  do  not  remain  in  the  country  more 
than  four  months. 

Uruguay. — A  license  valid  for  one  year  must  be  procured 
from  the  Direccion  de  Impuestos  at  a  cost  of  200  pesos  ($206.80) 
in  the  Department  of  Montevideo  and  100  pesos  ($103.40)  in  the 
other  departments.  A  general  license  for  the  whole  country  costs 
300  pesos  ($310.20).  If  taken  out  in  the  second  half  of  the  year 
only  one-half  of  the  fee  is  collected. 

Venezuela. —  No  officially  certified  papers,  official  licenses, 
warrants  or  permits  to  do  business  are  required  in  Venezuela  and 
the  commercial  traveler  may  begin  to  solicit  business  the  minute 
he  is  permitted  to  land.  Samples  of  no  commercial  value,  weigh- 
ing not  more  than  25  kilos  (55  pounds)  are  admitted  duty  free  but 
samples  weighing  more  than  25  kilos  are  dutiable  at  $3.43  per  100 
pounds  gross  weight.  Valuable  samples  are  exempt  from  duty  if 
bond  be  furnished  to  guarantee  re-exportation  within  one  year. 


Companies  and  Partnerships 


By  Irving  E.  Rines 


UNDER  most  of  the  Latin- American  commercial  codes  four 
kinds  of  commercial  associations  are  recognized:  (1) 
Unlimited  partnerships;  (2)  Limited  partnerships;  (3) 
Limited  (joint-stock)  companies;  and  (4)  Occasional  partnerships 
or  partnerships  of  participated  accounts  (sometimes  called  acci- 
dental partnerships).  Some  countries  provide  for  what  are  termed 
partnerships  between  capital  and  industry  {habilitacidnes). 
Broadly  speaking  the  codes  define  an  unlimited  partnership  as  one 
which  operates  in  the  name  of  all  the  members  whose  rights  and 
obligations  are  common,  and  in  which  no  member  who  does  not 
presently  belong  thereto  may  be  included  in  the  trade  name.  The 
domicile  of  an  unlimited  partnership  is  not  fixed  by  that  of  its 
members.  A  limited  partnership  is  one  formed  by  two  or  more 
persons,  at  least  one  of  whom  must  be  a  merchant,  while  the  other 
or  others  provide  the  funds  or  capital  to  be  administered  by  the 
former  on  the  condition  that  those  who  contribute  the  funds  shall 
not  be  liable  save  to  the  extent  of  the  funds  stated  in  the  con- 
tract. Those  providing  the  funds  are  termed  limited  members 
and  the  others  who  administer  the  funds  under  their  exclusive 
name  are  merely  members.  One  code  defines  a  limited  (joint 
stock)  company  as  "  a  juristic  person  formed  by  the  creation  of 
a  common  fund  supplied  by  the  shareholders  who  are  only  liable 
up  to  the  amount  of  their  shares,  administered  by  removable 
agents  and  known  by  the  denomination  of  its  proposed  object." 

Some  provisions  relating  to  partnerships  or  companies  are 
universally  recognized.  No  partner  can  be  denied  the  opportunity 
to  examine  the  books,  correspondence  and  papers  relating  to  the 
partnership,  which  provision  holds  true  of  shareholders  in  a 
limited  company.  Most  countries  provide  that  organizations 
legally  formed  in  foreign  countries  but  having  no  registered  office, 
branch  or  any  other  kind  of  partnership  representation  in  the 
respective  countries  may  practice  commercial  acts  not  contrary 
to  the  national  laws  and  if  they  have  been  recognized  as  juridical 
persons  or  have  established  a  branch  or  any  other  kind  of  social 
representation  shall  come  under  the  same  commercial  provisions 
as  native  organizations  as  regards  their  registry  and  the  publi- 
cation of  the  acts  of  the  society  and  of  the  mandates  of  their 

[824] 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  825 

respective  representatives.  Most  countries  stipulate  that  foreign 
companies  or  partnerships  which  found  undertakings  of  a  perma- 
nent nature  must,  within*  a  specified  time,  register  the  instrument 
of  their  foundation  and  of  their  articles,  while  Colombia  requires 
that  such  organizations,  at  the  principal  seat  of  business  in  that 
country,  must  have  a  representative  with  powers  of  agency  and 
with  legal  capacity,  equal  to  that  of  manager,  for  judicial  pro- 
ceedings which  may  occur.  Most  codes  require  that  the  consti- 
tution of  a  commercial  society  or  the  contract  of  a  commercial 
partnership,  the  value  of  which  exceeds  a  certain  amount  (in 
Argentina  1,000  pesos)  must  be  expressed  in  writing  and  may  be 
a  notarial  or  private  instrument,  but  in  the  case  of  limited 
companies  the  instrument  must  be  notarial. 

Unlimited  Partnerships 

In  Venezuela,  Chile,  Colombia  and  some  other  countries, 
minors  and  married  women,  even  though  divorced  or  with  separa- 
tion of  property,  and  though  possessing  all  the  qualifications 
necessary  to  trade,  require  special  authorization  to  contract  an 
unlimited  partnership.  The  authorization  of  the  minor  shall  be 
conferred  by  the  ordinary  judge  and  that  of  a  married  woman  by 
her  husband.  Only  the  names  of  the  unlimited  partners  may  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  firm  name.  Anyone  allowing  the  inser- 
tion of  his  name  in  the  commercial  style  of  a  partnership  is  liable 
to  the  persons  who  have  contracted  therewith.  In  a  contract  of 
ordinary  or  unlimited  partnership,  the  partners  cannot  agree 
among  themselves  that  they  shall  not  be  jointly  and  severally  liable 
or  that  all  the  profits  shall  belong  to  one  partner  alone.  Unless  the 
articles  of  partnership  expressly  designate  a  partner  or  partners 
as  having  the  exclusive  right  to  use  the  firm  name  and  if  they  do 
not  exclude  any  of  the  partners  from  this  right,  all  the  partners 
are  presumed  to  possess  an  equal  right  to  use  the  firm  name ;  the 
signing  of  the  firm  name  by  any  one  of  the  partners  entitled  to 
use  it  binds  all  the  partners  jointly  and  severally  as  regards  third 
persons  and  third  persons  as  regards  the  partnership.  Unless  all 
the  partners  consent,  a  majority  of  the  partners  Qannot  transact 
any  business  different  from  that  agreed  to  in  the  contract  of 
partnership,  but  in  other  cases  a  majority  vote  decides  the  part- 
nership affairs.  If  to  one  or  more  of  the  partners  be  delegated  the 
power  of  administration,  the  others,  by  this  single  act,  are  prohib- 
ited from  all  interference  in  the  social  administration.  No  partner, 
without  the  consent  of  all  the  partners,  may  transfer  his  partner- 
ship interest  to  another  person  not  a  partner,  nor  may  he  appoint 


826 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


a  substitute  to  act  in  his  stead  in  managing  the  partnership,  under 
pain  of  nullity  of  the  contract.  Any  one  of  its  partners  has  legal 
personality  to  represent  a  commercial* association  in  legal  pro- 
ceedings when  all  of  them  enjoy  the  use  of  the  partnership  stjde 
or  firm  name,  although,  on  the  other  hand,  the  management  of  the 
partnership  business  may  be  divided  between  them. 

The  partners  of  an  unlimited  partnership  which  has  no  fixed 
kind  of  commerce  cannot  transact  business  on  their  own  account, 
unless  expressly  permitted  by  the  other  partners,  and  must  place 
the  profits  of  such  transactions  in  the  common  fund  of  the  part- 
nership or  bear  all  losses  individually ;  but  if  the  kind  of  commerce 
be  fixed  by  the  contract  of  partnership,  the  partners  may  enter 
into  any  commercial  transactions  that  do  not  belong  to  the  class 
of  business  in  w^hich  the  partnership  is  engaged.  A  limited  part- 
ner may  be  admitted  to  unlimited  partnerships.  If  one  partner 
bring  loss  upon  the  others  by  fraud,  abuse  of  powers,  culpa  or 
negligence  he  shall  indemnify  the  loss  without  being  able  to  plead 
that  profits  made  by  him  in  other  transactions  shall  constitute  a 
set  otf .  If  an  unauthorized  partner  use  the  firm  name  the  partner- 
ship shall  not  be  responsible  for  the  performance  of  the  obliga- 
tions signed  by  the  former,  except  when  the  obligation  has 
resulted  in  a  profit  to  the  partnership. 

Partners  as  individuals  cannot  be  held  liable  for  partnership 
debts  nor  can  their  private  property  be  taken  in  execution  to  pay 
partnership  debts  until  all  the  property  of  the  partnership  has 
been  levied  upon;  no  partner  as  an  individual  can  be  held  liable 
so  long  as  the  insolvency  of  the  partnership  does  not  appear  on 
the  record.  The  personal  creditors  of  a  partner  cannot  arrest  the 
capital  contribution  which  he  has  introduced  while  the  partnership 
lasts,  but  they  may  apply  for  the  retention  of  the  share  of  interest 
which  he  has  therein  in  order  to  receive  it  at  the  time  of  the  part- 
nership appropriation.  Nor  do  personal  creditors  rank  with 
partnership  creditors  if  the  partnership  become  bankrupt,  but 
they  may  sue  for  the  shares  which  correspond  to  their  debts  in  the 
surplus  of  the  bankrupt  estate.  Partners  may  not  withdraw  from 
the  common  fund  a  sum  larger  than  that  assigned  for  their  private 
expenses;  they  may  not  apply  the  common  fund  to  their  private 
business. 

Upon  expiration  of  the  time  limit,  partnerships  cannot  be 
prolonged  merely  by  the  wish  of  partners  but  must  be  renewed  by 
a  new  contract.  A  partnership  may  be  judicially  dissolved  before 
the  time  limit  on  the  demand  of  any  of  the  partners  if  the  partner- 
ship capital  be  lost  entirely  or  impaired  to  such  an  extent  that 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSlllPS  827 

attainment  of  the  partnersliip  objects  be  impossible;  if  the  legal 
incapacity  of  one  of  the  partners  be  shown,  or  moral  or  civil 
incapacity  as  decided  by  a  judgment;  or  if  one  of  the  partners 
misuse  the  firm  name^  misappropriate  funds  or  violate  or  fail  to 
carry  out  his  obligations  toward  the  partnership.  The  voluntary 
or  judicial  dissolution  of  a  partnership  must  be  entered  in  the  reg- 
istry designated  for  that  purpose  and  published  in  the  newspapers 
of  the  partnership  domicile  or  brought  to  popular  attention  by 
notices  fixed  in  public  places. 

Limited  Partnerships 

In  the  case  of  a  limited  partnership,  the  registry  of  the  name 
of  the  limited  partner  is  not  compulsory.  In  Chile  the  words 
' '  and  company  ' '  added  to  the  name  of  a  managing  partner  do  not 
imply  the  inclusion. of  the  name  of  the  limited  partner  in  the  firm 
name  or  impose  upon  him  liabilities  different  from  those  which  he 
has  in  that  character.  A  limited  partner  who  forms  an  establish- 
ment of  the  same  nature  as  the  partnership  establishment  or  par- 
ticipates as  an  unlimited  or  limited  partner  in  one  formed 
by  another  person,  forfeits  the  rights  of  examining  the  partner- 
ship books  unless  the  interests  of  that  establishment  be  not  opposed 
to  those  of  the  partnership.  The  partner  or  partners  who  manage 
or  direct  a  limited  partnership  are  jointly  and  severally  liable  for 
the  results  of  all  transactions,  while  limited  partners  are  only 
liable  for  the  funds  which  they  have  provided  or  are  bound  to  pro- 
vide as  capital ;  but  if  the  latter  include  their  names  in  the  partner- 
ship name  they  become  jointly  and  severally  liable  as  if  they  were 
managers.  No  limited  partner,  personally,  may  perform  any  act  of 
management,  intervention  or  administration  which  may  produce 
partnersliip  obligations  or  rights,  nor  even  as  attorney  of  the 
managing  partners;  nor  may  a  limited  partner,  as  such,  be 
employed  in  the  business  of  the  partnership,  nor  give  orders  to 
managing  partners  nor  prevent  their  doing  what  they  may  per- 
form by  themselves  alone.  Any  limited  partner  performing  acts  of 
management  is  jointly  and  severally  liable  to  creditors  and  in  case 
of  bankruptcy  may  be  criminally  liable.  Advice,  opinion,  examina- 
tion, inspection,  etc.,  are  not  considered  acts  of  management. 

Limited  (Joint-Stock)  Companies 

Limited  companies  have  no  trade  name,  nor  can  they  be 
formed  or  organized  until  they  have  a  certain  number  of  mem- 
bers (in  Brazil  7;  Argentina  10) ;  until  a  certain  percentage  or  all 


828  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

of  the  capital  stock  is  subscribed  (in  Argentina  at  least  20  per 
cent  of  the  first  issue) ;  until  a  specified  portion  of  the  subscribed 
capital  is  paid  for  and  deposited  in  a  bank  (10  per  cent  in  Argen- 
tina and  Brazil;  25  per  cent  in  Chile;  some  countries  not  stated) ; 
and  until  they  have  been  properly  authorized  by  the  designated 
branch  of  the  government.  After  receiving  such  authorization, 
the  company  may  be  definitely  formed  by  executing  the  proper 
instrument,  by  registering  it  at  the  proper  tribunal  and  by  pub- 
lishing it  for  15  days  (indefinite  in  some  countries)  together  with 
the  company's  constitution,  authorization  and  other  constitutive 
acts.  The  constitution  of  a  company  must  be  inscribed  on  the  regis- 
ter of  the  commercial  tribunal  before  the  company  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  judicial  person  or  as  legally  existing.  The  shares  of 
a  limited  company  must  be  of  equal  value,  and  a  stock  register 
and  transfer  book  must  be  kept  at  the  head  offices  of  the  company ; 
preferred  stock  only  may  bear  a  fixed  rate  of  interest.  The  terms 
of  directors  (not  necessarily  shareholders  in  Brazil)  are  certain 
and  fixed  and  in  some  countries  may  not  exceed  three  years  (six 
in  Brazil  and  Dominican  Republic)  nor  are  directors  re-eligible 
unless  so  stated  in  the  constitution  (in  Brazil  directors  are  re-eligi- 
ble). In  most  countries  directors  of  a  limited  company  not  recog- 
nized as  a  judicial  person  or  not  inscribed  in  the  public  register  are 
liable  jointly,  severally  and  without  limit  for  the  debts  of  a  com- 
pany but  are  not  personally  liable,  if  the  company  shall  have  been 
duly  constituted,  save  for  negligence,  culpa  or  fraud.  Directors 
may  not  do  business  or  contract  on  their  own  account,  directly  or 
otherwise,  with  the  company  which  they  direct.  In  Chile  share- 
holders who  directly  or  indirectly  participate  in  the  administra- 
tion of  a  company  which  has  not  fulfilled  its  obligations  as  to 
authorization,  dissolution,  or  other  acts  the  omission  of  which 
would  produce  nullity,  shall  be  considered  unlimited  partners  who 
are  jointly  and  severally  liable  for  the  obligations  contracted  in 
favor  of  third  persons.  In  Venezuela,  when  forming  a  company, 
the  promoters  cannot  reserve  to  themselves  any  individual  reward, 
brokerage  or  advantage  taken  from  the  joint  capital  or  repre- 
sented in  shares  or  beneficial  obligations,  and  any  agreement  to 
the  contrary  is  void.  But  they  may  reserve  to  themselves  a  part 
of  the  profits  during  a  specified  time.  In  most  countries  inspectors 
are  also  appointed  by  the  shareholders  to  scrutinize  the  manage- 
ment of  the  company  and  in  general  to  see  that  the  directors  faith- 
fully comply  with  the  laws  of  the  country  as  well  as  the  constitu- 
tion and  by-laws  of  the  company.  The  manager  of  a  company  is 
liable  for  losses  sustained  therebv  as  a  result  of  his  fault  or  omis- 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  829 

sioii.  In  Bolivia  the  members  of  limited  companies  are  forbidden 
to  use  the  common  property  and  the  trade  name  in  private  busi- 
ness on  pain  of  restoring  the  sum  taken  and  a  quarter  in  addition ; 
of  the  loss  of  profit  for  the  advantage  of  the  association;  and  of 
compensating  for  all  the  damage. 

Shareholders  must  hold  at  least  one  ordinary  general  meet- 
ing each  year  and  such  other  extraordinary  general  meetings  as 
may  properlj'  be  summoned  by  the  directors  or  inspectors  or  as 
may  be  requisitioned  by  shareholders  representing  one-fifth  part 
of  the  capital.  Unless  otherwise  provided  in  the  constitution  a 
vote  of  three-quarters  of  the  capital  stock  is  necessary  before  a 
company  can  be  merged  with  another  or  its  capital  reduced, 
restored  or  increased  (some  only  require  two-thirds).  Directors 
cannot  be  proxies.  In  Argentina'at  least  2  per  cent  of  the  annual 
net  profits  must  be  set  aside  as  a  reserve  fund  until  it  reaches  a 
minimum  of  10  per  cent  of  the  capital  (in  Dominican  Republic  and 
Venezuela  5  per  cent  must  be  set  aside  but  in  some  countries  the 
amount  is  not  stipulated).  Distribution  of  dividends  before  com- 
pleting the  feserve  fund  is  forbidden.  Limited  companies  may 
issue  scrip  or  bonds,  nominal  or  to  bearer,  equal  to  the  paid  up 
capital,  but  such  companies  must  publish  monthly  in  a  newspaper 
a  balance  sheet  of  their  assets  and  liabilities;  all  limited  com- 
panies must  publish  annually  or  semi-annualh'  a  general  balance 
sheet  of  their  condition  and  a  list  of  shareholders.  The  1917  con- 
stitution of  Mexico  provides  that  commercial  stock  companies  may 
not  acquire,  hold  or  administer  rural  stock  companies.  Companies 
of  this  nature  organized  to  develop  any  manufacturing,  mining, 
petroleum  or  other  industry  (save  agriculture)  may  acquire,  hold 
or  administer  lands  only  in  an  area  absolutely  necessary  for  their 
establishments  or  adequate  to  serve  the  purposes  indicated,  to  be 
determined  by  the  national  or  state  executive. 

Limited  companies  can  only  be  dissolved  by  the  expiration  of 
their  time  limit,  or  by  completion  or  proof  of  inability  to  complete 
the  undertakings  for  which  they  were  created;  by  insolvency;  by 
the  death,  lunacy,  or  bankruptcy  of  any  or  all  of  their  members ; 
or  by  liquidation.  In  most  countries,  if  the  capital  become 
impaired  to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent  (Venezuela  'S^%)  or  to 
the  minimum  fixed  by  the  constitution  as  a  ground  for  dissolution, 
the  directors  or  administrators  must  inform  the  commercial  tribu- 
nal and  also  publish  the  fact ;  and  if  the  impairment  be  75  per  cent 
(Venezuela  66%),  the  directors  shall  be  liable  jointly  and  sever- 
ally for  obligations  contracted  after  the  existence  of  the  deficit 
became  known  to  them  or  should  have  come  to  their  notice.     In 


830  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Brazil  the  company,  the  creditors  of  an  insolvent  company  and 
the  shareholders  prejudiced  have  a  right  of  action  against  direc- 
tors for  losses  resulting  from  the  distribution  of  dividends  not 
due.  In  Peru  funds  belonging  to  foreigners  invested  in  limited 
companies  shall  not  be  subject  to  reprisals  in  case  of  war. 

Partnerships  between  Capital  and  Industry 

These  consist  on  the  one  hand  of  one  or  more  persons  who 
furnish  funds  for  general  business  or  a  particular  mercantile 
transaction,  and  on  the  other  hand  of  one  or  more  persons  who 
enter  into  the  partnership  with  their  industry  only.  The  capitalist 
partners  are  liable  jointly  and  severally  for  the  partnership  debts 
and  credits  and  their  obligation  extends  beyond  the  capital 
brought  into  the  partnership.  They  cannot  convert  themselves 
into  limited  partners.  The  partnership  papers  must  specify 
the  obligations  of  and  profits  to  be  apportioned  to  the  indus- 
trial partner  or  partners,  in  default  of  which  specification 
the  industrial  partner's  share  of  profits  shall  equal  that  of  the 
partner  who  furnished  the  least  capital.  The  industrial  partner 
may  not  contract  in  the  name  of  the  partnership  nor  is  he  liable 
with  his  own  property  to  the  creditors  of  the  partnership,  but  if 
he  furnish  both  capital  and  industry  the  partnership  shall  be 
deemed  unlimited  and  the  industrial  partner,  whatever  be  the 
stipulation,  shall  be  jointly  and  severally  liable.  The  capitalist 
partner  and  also  the  partnership  creditors  may  institute  against 
an  industrial  partner  whatever  action  the  law  permits  against  an 
unfaithful  or  culpably  negligent  manager  or  agent. 

Accidental  Partnerships  or  Associations  on  Joint  Account 

These  are  casual  combinations  of  two  or  more  persons  acting 
in  relation  to  one  or  more  certain  and  transitoi-y  commercial  trans- 
actions, some  or  all  of  which  persons  work  in  their  individual 
names  only,  without  a  partnership  name  or  fixed  address,  but  with 
a  fixed  proportion  of  interest  in  the  profits  accruing  from  such 
transactions.  If  such  partners  contract  with  third  persons  in  com- 
mon without  stating  the  participation  which  each  one  takes,  they 
are  all  jointly  and  severally  liable  though  their  shares  in  the  part- 
nership may  be  unequal.  As  the  duration  of  this  kind  of  associa- 
tion is  limited  to  a  short  time,  it  is  not  subject  to  the  formalities 
of  the  others. 


List  of  Financial  and  Commercial 
Companies 

BANKS  AND  BANKERS 

Anglo-South  American  Bank,  Ltd.,  with  which  is  incorporated  the  London  Bank 
of  Mexico  and  South  America,  Ltd.,  Head  office,  Old  Broad  Street,  London,  E.  C. 
Authorized  capital,— Subscribed,  $22,500,000;  Unissued,  $2,500,000;  Total,  $25,- 
000,000.  Capital  issued  and  paid  up,  $11,250,000;  Reserve  fund,  $7,000,000; 
uncalled  liability  of  shareholders,  $11,250,000;  total  responsibility  for  creditors, 
$29,500,000. 

Branches:     In  Chile  —  Antofagasta,  Chilian,  Concepcion,  Copiapo,  Coquimbo, 
Iquique,  la  Serena,  Punta  Arenas,  Santiago,  Talcahuano,  Valparaiso;  in  Argen- 
tina —  Bahia  Blanea,  Buenos  Aires,  Mendoza,  Rio  Gallegos,   Rosario  de  Santa 
Fe,  San  Rafael;  in  Uruguay  —  Montevideo;  New  York  —  60  Wall  Street;  Paris 
— 19  Boulevard  de  Capucines  and  23  Rue  de  la  Paix ;  Germany  —  Hamburg. 
Correspondents:    Mexico  —  Branches  of  the  Banco  de  Londres  y  Mexico. 
Peru — Branches  of  the  Banco  de  Peru  y  Londres. 
Argentina  —  Branches  of  the  Banco  de  la  Provincia  de  Buenos  Aires. 
Cuba  —  Banco  de  la  Habana. 
El  Salvador  —  Banco  Agricola  Comercial. 
Bolivia  —  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Boliviana. 
Banco  Aleman  Transatlantico.    See  Deutsche  Ueberseeische  Bank. 
Banco  Germanico  de  la  America  del  Sud.    See  Deutsch-Siidamerikanische  Bank. 
Banco  Suizo  Sudamericano.     See  Schweizerisch  Siidamerikanische  Bank  under 

Argentina. 
Banque  Franqaise  et   Italienne  pour  l'Amerique  du  Sud.     Head  office,  41 
Avenue  de  FOpera,  Paris.     Capital  fully  paid  up,  25,000,000  francs   ($5,000,- 
000);  reserve  fund,  11,233,223  francs  ($2,246,644).     Tel.  addr.  for  Paris  and 
Brazil,  "  Sudameris  " ;  for  Buenos  Aires  branch,  "  Francital." 

Branches :  In  Argentina  —  Buenos  Aires ;  in  Brazil  —  Botucatu,  Curityba, 
Espirito  Santo  do  Pinhal,  Jahu,  Mococa,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Ponta  Grossa,  Ribeirao, 
Preto,  Sao  Paulo,  Sao  Carlos,  Santos. 
Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America,  Ltd.  (formerly  Cortes  Commercial  and 
Banking  Co.  Ltd.)  Est.  1904.  Head  office,  9  Bishopsgate,  London,  E.  C. 
•  Tel.  addr.  "  Mandatum,  London."  1914.  Capital  subscribed,  $2,500,000; 
Paid  up,  $1,307,417. 

Branches :  In  Colombia  —  Bogota,  Medellin ;  in  Ecuador  —  Guayaquil ;  in 
Nicaragua  —  Managua ;  in  Peru  —  Iquitos ;  in  Salvador  —  San  Salvador ;  in 
Venezuela  —  Caracas. 
British  Bank  of  South  America.  Est.  1863.  Head  office,  4  Moorgate  St., 
London,  E.  C.  Tel.  addr. — "  Carrington,  London."  1914.  Subscribed  capital, 
$10,000,000;  Capital  paid  up,  $5,000,000;  reserve  fund,  $5,000,000. 

Branches:     In    Argentina  —  Buenos    Aires    (6);    in    Brazil  —  Bahia,   Rio    de 

Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Montevideo,  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe ;  in  Uruguay  —  Montevideo. 

Deutsch-Suedamerikanische   Bank    Aktien-Gesellschaft    (Banco    Germanico 

de  la  America  del  Sud).    Est.  1906.    Head  office,  Berlin.    1913.     Capital  paid 

up,  marks,  20,000,000  ($5,000,000);  Reserve  fund,  marks,  800,000  ($200,000). 

Branches:    Buenos  Aires,  Valparaiso,  Santiago   (Chile),  Mexico  City,  Tor- 
reon  (Mexico),  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

54  [8-^11 


882  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Deutsche  I'eberseeische  Bank.     Head  office,  Berlin.     Capital  paid  up   (1913) 
30,000,000  marks  ($7,500,000). 

Branches:  Under  the  titles  of  Baneo-Alenian  Transatlantico  and  in  Brazil 
Banco  AUemao  Transatlantico ;  in  Argentina  —  Bahla  Blanca,  Buenos  Aires, 
Cordoba,  Mendoza,  Rosario,  Tecuman ;  in  Bolivia  —  La  Paz,  Oruro ;  in  Brazil  — 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Santos,  Petropolis;  in  Chile — Antofagasta,  Arica, 
Concepcion,  Iquique,  Osorno,  Santiago,  Teniuco,  Valdivia,  Valparaiso ;  in  Peru  — 
Arequipa,  Callao,  Lima,  Trujillo;  in  Uruguay  —  Montevideo. 

London  and  River  PijAte  Bank,  Ltd.     Est.  1862.     Subs,  capital   (1913),  $15,- 
000,000.     Paid  up,  $9,000,000.     Reserve  fund,  $10,000,000. 

Branches:  In  Argentina  —  Buenos  Aires  (5);  Rosario,  Mendoza,  Cordoba, 
Tucuman,  Parana,  Concordia,  Bahia  Blanca ;  in  Brazil  —  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos, 
Sao  Paulo,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  Para,  Victoria,  Curityba,  Manaos;  in  Chile  — 
Valparaiso;  in  Uniguay — ^Montevideo,  Paysandii,  Salto. 

London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  Ltd.    Est.  1862.     Subs,  capital  (1915)  $12,500,000. 
Branches:    In  Argentina  —  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario;  in  Brazil  —  Bahia,  Ceara, 
Curityba,  Manaos,  Para,  Pernambuco,  Porto  Alegre,  Rio  de  Janeii'o,  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo;  in  Uruguay- — Montevideo, 

Banque   Itai>o-Belge.     Head   office,   Antwerp.      Subs,   capital,   20,000,000   francs 
($4,000,000);  paid  up  capital,  10,000,000  francs  ($2,000,000). 

Branches:  In  Argentina  —  Buenos  Aires;  in  Brazil  —  Siio  Paulo,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Santos,  Campinas ;  in  Uruguay  —  Montevideo. 

National  City  Bank  of  New  York.    Head  office.  New  York.    Capital,  $25,000,000 ; 
surplus  fund  and  undivided  profits,  $35,450,000. 

Branches:  Argentina  —  Buenos  Aires;  in  Brazil  —  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos; 
in  Uruguay  —  Montevideo ;  in  Cuba  —  Havana. 

Royal  Bank  of  Canada.  Head  office,  Montreal,  Canada.  Capital,  $11,560,000. 
Branches  in  Latin  America:  In  Cuba  —  Antilla,  Bayamo,  Caibarien,  Cama- 
giiey,  Cardenas,  Ciego  de  Civila,  Cienfuegos,  Guantanamo,  Havana  (6),  Man- 
zanillo,  Matanzas,  Nuevitas,  Pinar  del  Rio,  Puerto  Padre,  Sagua  la  Grande, 
Sancti  Spiritus,  Santa  Clara,  Santiago  de  Cuba;  in  the  Dominican  Republic  — 
Santo  Domingo,  San  Pedro  de  Macoris;  in  Porto  Rico  —  Mayaguez,  Ponce, 
San  Juan. 

ARGENTINA 

Banco  de  Italia  y  Rio  de  la  Plata.     Head  office,  Buenos  Aires.     Tel.  addr., 

"Bankitalia,  Buenos  Aires."     Capital  paid  up,  $10,000,000. 

Branches:     Bahia  Blanca,  Concordia,  Gualeguay,  Gualeguaychu,  La  Paz,  La 

Plata,  Parana,  Resistencia   (Chaco),  Rosario   (Santa  Fe) ;  Uruguay;  Victoria. 

Agencies:    Ensenada   (La  Plata) ;  .Bahia  Blanca;  Puerto  Ingo. 
Banco   de    la    Nacion    Argentina.     Head    office,    Buenos    Aires.      Tel.    addr., 

"  Bancnacion."       Capital     (1913),     $128,000,000     paper,     ($54,348,800).     Res. 

fund,  gold,  $14,565,407.     Over  140  branches. 
Banco  de   la   Provincia   de   Buenos   Aires.     Head   office.    La   Plata.      Central 

office,  Buenos  Aires.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Provinbank,  Buenos  Aires."     Capital,  paid 

up  (1913),  $61,446,300.     Forty  branches. 
Banco  Espaxol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata.     Est.  1886.     Head  office,  Buenos  Aires. 

Subs,  and  paid  up  capital,  $43,650,790.     Sixty-nine  branches. 

Branches:     Sixty-four  in   Argentina,  Brazil,   Uruguay,   Europe.      Tel.   addr. 

for  all  offices,  "  Spainbank." 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS         83:J 

Banco  Frances  del  Rio  de  la  Plata.     Est.  1886.     Head  office,  Buenos  Aires. 

Tel.  addr.,  "  Banco  France."    Capital  paid  up,  $28,000,000.    Res.  fund,  $7,000,000. 

Thirteen  branches. 
Banco  Holandes  de  la  America  del  Sud.     Buenos  Aires.     See  Hollandsche 

Bank. 
Banco  Popular  Argentino.     Est.  1887.     Buenos  Aires.     Tel.  addr.,  "Popular." 

Capital  paid  up,  $10,498,971.    Res.  fund,  $5,259,760. 
BuNGE  (Ernesto  A.)  &  J.  Born.    Bankers,  Buenos  Aires. 
Hollandsche  Bank   Voor  Zuid-America    (Banco  Holandes  de  la  America  del 

Sud).     Head  office,  Amsterdam.     Branch,  Buenos  Aires.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Bano- 

landa."    Capital,  florins,  4,000,000  ($1,600,000). 
NuEVO  Banco  Italiano.    Est.  1887.    Buenos  Aires. 
SchweizerischiSudamerikanische  Bank.     Est.  1912.    Head  office,  Zurich.     Tel. 

addr.,  "  Bancosuizo."     Auth.  capital,  $4,000,000.     Capital,  paid  up,  $2,000,000. 

Branch,  Buenos  Aires. 
SuPERViELLE  &  Co.     Bankers.     Buenos  Aires. 
Ernesto  Tornquist  &  Co.,  Ltd.    Bankers.    Buenos  Aires. 

BOLIVIA 

Banco   de  la   Nacion   Boliviana.     La   Paz.     Tel.    addr.,   "  Naviana."      Capital, 

paid  up,  18,962,500  bolivianos    (about  $7,206,750).     Branches:     Cochabamba, 

Oruro,  Potosi,  Riberalta,  Santa  Cruz,  Sucre,  Tarija,  Uyuni. 
Banco  Francisco  Argandona.     Est.  1863.     Head  office,  Sucre.     Capital,  4,000,- 

000  bolivianos   ($1,520,000).     Four  branches. 
Banco    Mercantil.     Est.    1905.      Head    office,    Oruro.      Tel.    addr.,    ''  Bercant, 

Oruro."      Capital,    paid    up,    10,000,000    bolivianos    ($3,800,000).      Res.    fund, 

1,415,000  bolivianos  ($537,700).    Six  branches. 
Banco    Nacional    de    Bolivia.      Est.    1872.      Head    office,    Sucre.      Tel.    addr., 

"Bancviola,    Sucre."      Capital,    paid    up,    8,000,000    bolivianos     ($3,040,000). 

Res.  fund,  2,285,514  bolivianos  ($868,495).     Seven  branches. 

BRAZIL 

Banco  Commercial  do  Estado  de  Sao  Paulo.  Sao  Paulo.  Est.  1912.  Tel.  addr., 
"Commercial."  Subscribed  capital,  reis,  12,000,000$000 ;  paid  up,  reis,  7,200,- 
000$000.  Res.  fund,  reis,  500,000$000.  Agency:  Santos.  Foreign  corre- 
spondents: London,  Spain,  Paris,  Italy,  Portugal,  New  York:  Agency  of 
Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce.  Argentina:  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Argentina. 
Uruguay :  Banco  de  la  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay.  Asia :  Hongkong 
and  Shanghai  Banking  Corp. 

Banco  Commercial  do  Maranhao.  Maranhao.  Capital,  paid  up,  milreis, 
1,351,300. 

Banco  Commercial  do  Para.  Para,  Brazil.  Tel,  addr.,  "  Bancomercal,  Para." 
Capital,  milreis,  3,010,250.     Res.  fund,  milreis,  1,600,157. 

Banco  Commercial  Franco-Brazileiro.     Porto  Alegre,  Brazil. 

Banco  da  Provincia  do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Est.  1858.  Head  office,  Porto 
Alegre.  Tel.  addr.,  "Provincia."  Capital,  paid  up,  milreis,  5,000,000$000. 
Res.  fund,  milreis,  8,418,707$610.  Branches :  Alegrete,  Bage,  Cachoeira,  Caxias, 
Dom  Pedrito,  Jaguarao,  Lageado,  Livramento,  Passo  Fundo,  Pelotas,  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Rio  Grande,  Sao  Gabriel,  Santa  Maria  Taquara,  Uruguayana. 


SU  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Banco  do  Ceara.     Fortaleza   (or  Ceara).     Est.  1893.     Tel.  addr.,  '' Bancoceara, 

Fortalcza."     Capital,  paid  up,  niilreis,  600,000.     Res.  fund,  niilreis,  145,000. 
Banco  do  Brasil  (formerly  Banco  da  Republica  do  Brasil).      Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Capital,    paid    up,   milreis,    45,000,000.      Res.    fund,    milreis,    4,407,174.      Nine 

branches.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Satellite,  Rio  de  Janeiro." 
Banco  do  Commercio.     Rio  de  Janeiro.     Capital,  milreis,  7,000,000.     Res.  fund, 

milreis,  4,497,242. 
Banco  do  Commercio  de  Porto  Alegre.    Est.  1895.    Porto  Alegre.     Sub.  capital, 

milreis,  5,000,000.    Nine  branches. 
Banco  do  Para.     Para,  Brazil.     Est.  1883.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Banking,  Para."     Capi- 
tal, milreis,  4,326,300. 
Banco  do  Recife.     Pernambuco,  Brazil.     Est.  1900.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Recifbanco." 

Sub.  capital,  milreis,  2,000,000. 
Banque  Franqaise  pour  le  Bresiu     Est.  1911.    Paris:    1  Boulevard  des  Capu- 

cines.     Brazil :    Siio  Paulo ;   agency   at   Santos.     Capital   subscribed   and   fully 

called,  15,000,000  francs  ($3,000,000). 
Banco  Nacional  Ultramarino.     Head  office,  Lisbon,  Portugal.    Paid-up  capital, 

7,200,000  escudos  ($7,565,000).    Branch,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Brasilianische  Bank  FiJR  Deutschland.     Hamburg.     Capital,  paid  up,  15,000,- 

000  marks  ($3,750,000).     Res.  fund,  6,200,000  marks  ($1,550,000).     Tel.  addr., 

"  Nordbank."     Branches :     Rio   de   Janeiro,    Sao   Paulo,   Santos,   Bahia,    Porto 

Alegre. 
A.  F.  DE  SouzA  &  CiA.,  Bankers.     Para,  Brazil.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Mapua." 
LucHSiNGER  &  CiE.    Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
MosTARDEiRO,  Irmaos  &  Co.    Porto  Alegre. 

CHILE 

Banco  de  A.  Edwards  &  Co.  Est.  1852.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Saveloy,  Valparaiso." 
■Capital,  subs.,  $25,000,000;  paid  up,  $10,000,000.     Branch,  Santiago  (Chile). 

Banco  de  Chile.  Head  offices,  Santiago  and  Valparaiso.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Ban- 
cochile."  Capital,  subs.,  $80,000,000;  paid  up,  $40,000,000.  Res.  fund.  $22,000,- 
000.     Over  40  branches  and  agencies  in  Chile. 

Banco  de  Tacna.  Est.  1872.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Bantac,  Tacna."  Capital,  paid  up, 
$1,000,000.     Eight  branches.     Agents  in  London  and  Paris. 

Banco  Espanol  de  Chile.  Valparaiso.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Espanital."  Capital, 
$30,000,000.  Res.  fund,  $12,000,000.  Bank  authorized  by  decree  of  the 
Chilean  government  dated  24  April  1900.     Branches  in  Chile,  38. 

Banco  Italiano.  Valparaiso.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Italobanco,  Valparaiso."  Capital, 
paid  up,  $10,000,000.     Res.  fund,  $1,213,430.     Eight  branches  in  Chile. 

Banco  Mercantil.  Est.  1898.  Head  office,  Tacna.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Merca,  Tacna." 
Capital,  paid  up,  $500,000.    Res.  fund,  $387,339. 

Banco  Nacional.  Valparaiso.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Naeiobaneo."  Capital,  subscribed, 
$40,000,000;  paid  up,  $16,000,000.     Res.  fund,  $6,636,696.     Eight  branches. 

Bank  fijr  Chile  und  Deutschland.  Head  office,  Hamburg.  Capital,  10,000,- 
000  marks  ($2,500,000) ;  paid  up,  5,000,000  marks.  Res.  fund,  389,027  marks 
($^97,259).  Branches:  Banco  de  Chile  y  Alemania  in  Antofagasta,  Concep- 
eion,  Santiago,  Temuco,  Valdivia,  Valparaiso,  Victoria.  Tel.  addr.,  for  Ham- 
burg, "  Nordbank  " ;     for  Branches,  "  Nordisbank." 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  835 

Bank  of  Punta  Arenas.     Est.  1900.     Punta  Arenas,  Straits  of  Magellan,     Tel. 

addr.,  "  Banco."    Capital,  paid  up,  $2,200,000.    Kes.  fund,  $347,277.    Branches : 

Castro   (Chile);   Santa  Cruz   (Argentina). 
Caja   Hipotecaria    (Land   Mortgage   Bank).     Under   State   supervision.     Est. 

1855.    Head  oflBce,  Santiago. 
SociETE   Commerciale   FRANgAiSE   Au   Chile.     Est.   1892.     Head   office,   5   Rue 

dAntin,    Paris.      Tel.    addr.,    "  Lhostemi,    Valparaiso."      Capital,    subscribed, 

5,000,000  francs   ($1,000,€00)  ;  paid  up,  1,250,000  francs   ($250,0€0).     Branch, 

Valparaiso. 

(The  dollar  $  sign  represents  the  Chilean  gold  peso;  francs  and  marks  are 

converted  into  U.  S.  currency.) 

COLOMBIA 

Banco  Central.     Bogota.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Gerencia,  Bogota."     Capital,  paid  up, 

$2,300,000.    Res.  fund,  $1,353,985. 
Banco   Commercial  de   Barranquilla.     Est.   1904.      Tel.    addr.,   "  Commercial, 

Barranquilla." 
Banco  de  Bogota.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Bancbota."     Capital,  $250,000  gold. 
Banco  de  Colombia.    Bogota.    Tel.  addr.,  "  Bancolomb."    Capital,  $780,000. 
Banco  Hipotecario  de  Colombia.     Bogota.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Hispamer."     Capital, 

paid  up,  $500,000.    Res.  fund,  $27,600. 
V.  Dugand  &  HiJO.    Barranquilla,  Colombia. 

COSTA  RICA 

Banco  Anglo-Costarricense.     San  Jose.       Est.  1863,  1890.     Tel.  addr.,  "Anglo, 

San    Jose,    Costa    Rica."      Capital,    paid    up,    1,200,000    colones.      Res.    fund, 

1,016,000  colones. 
Banco  Comerciau  de  Costa  Rica.    San  Pose.    Bankrupt,  February  1915. 
Banco  de  Costa  Rica.     San  Jose.    Est.  1887.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Bancosta."     Capital, 

2,000,000  colones. 
Banco    Internacional   de    Costa    Rica.      Est.    1914.     Authorized   issue,    up    to 

4,000,000  colones  (guaranteed  by  government). 
Sasso  &  Pirie  Successors.    Bankers.     San  Jose.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Sasso,  Costa  Rica." 

CUBA 

J.  Balcells  &  Co.     Havana.     Est.  1868. 

Banco  de  ia  Habana.  Havana.  (Business  being  transferred  to  the  National 
City  Bank  of  New  York). 

Banco  Espanol  de  la  Isla  de  Cuba.  Havana.  Capital,  $8,000,000.  Forty 
branches. 

Banco  Nacional  de  Cuba.  Havana.  Est.  1901.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Banconac."  Cap- 
ital, $6,860,455;  surplus,  $1,500,000.  Branches,  35.  New  York  agency,  1 
Wall  St. 

Banco  Territorial  de  Cuba.    Havana.     Capital,  $5,000,000. 

National  Bank  of  Cuba.     See  Banco  Nacional,  above. 

Royal  Bank  of  Canada.     Capital  and  surplus,  $25,000,000. 

The  Trust  Company  of  Cuba.     Havana.     Capital,  $500,000;  surplus,  $325,000. 

H.  Upmann  &  Co.    Havana. 


836  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

National  Bank  of  Dominica.    Est.  1912.    Capital,  paid  up,  $500,000. 
International.  Banking  Corporation.    Santo  Domingo  and  Puerto  Plata. 
Royal    Bank    of    Canada.     Branches    at    Santo    Domingo    and    San    Pedro    de 
M'acoris. 

ECUADOR 

Banco  Comercial  y  Agricola.     Guayaquil.     Est.  1894.     Tel.  addr.,  "Agricola, 

Guayaquil."     Capital,  5,000,000  sucres. 
Banco    del    Ecuador.      Guayaquil.       Est.     1868.       Capital,    auth.    and    issued, 

3,000,000  sucres. 
Banco  del  Pinchincha.     Head  office,  Quito.     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  1,000,000 

sucres. 

(The  above  three  banks  are  authorized  to  issue  notes  for  circulation.) 
Banco   de    Crkdito    Hipotecario.     Guayatiuil.     Est.    1871.      Capital,    1,000,000 

sucres. 
Banco  Territorial.     Guayaquil.     Est.  188G.     Capital,  700,000  sucres. 
(The  last  two  are  mortgage  loan  banks.) 

GUATEMALA 

Banco  Agricola  Hipotecario.  Guatemala.  Est.  1894.  Capital,  subs,  and  paid  up, 
$5,000,000.  Res.  fund,  $1,'259,772.  Notes  in  circulation,  $4,900,000.  Deposits, 
$3,896,595.     Correspondents,  $1,388,888. 

Banco  Americano  de  Guatemala.  Est.  1895.  Tel.  addr.,  ''Americano,  Guate- 
mala."   Capital,  paid  up,  $4,000,000.    Res.  fund,  $3,650,000. 

Banco  de  Guatemala.  Est.  1895.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Guatelbanco,  Guatemala."  Cap- 
ital, subs.,  $2,500,000;  paid  up,  $2,500,000.  Res.  fund,  $7,652,576.  Agencies: 
Antigua,  Champerico,  Coatepeque,  Escuintla,  Jutiapa,  Livingston,  Mazatenango, 
Ocos,  Pochuta;  Quezaltenango,  Retalhuleu,  Salama,  San  Jose,  Tumbador,  Zaeapa. 

Banco  de  Occidente.  Est.  1881.  Tel.  addr.,  '*  Occidental,  Quezaltenango." 
Capital,  paid  up,  $1,650,000.     Res.  fund,  $15,750,000.     Branch  at  Guatemala. 

Banco  Internacional  de  Guatemala.  Est.  1877.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Banquero, 
Guatemala."  Capital,  paid  up,  $2,000,000.  Res.  fund,  $2,253,303.  Four 
agencies. 

(The  dollar  sign  $  in  each  case  represents  the  Guatemalan  dollar  or  peso.) 

HAITI 

Banque  National  de  la  Republique  d'Haiti.  Est.  1910.  Capital,  10,000,000 
francs   ($2,000,000).     Offices,  Paris  and  Port-au-Prince. 

HONDURAS 

Banco  de  Honduras.  Tegucigalpa.  Est.  1889.  Tel.  addr.,  "Banco,  Teguci- 
galpa." Capital,  417,000  pesos.  Branches:  Amapala,  Comayagua,  La  Ceiba, 
San  Pedro  Sula,  Truxillo,  Santa  Rosa. 

Banco  de  Comercio.    Tegucigalpa.    Est.  1913. 

Banco  Atlantida.     Est.  1913. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  837 

JAMAICA 

Bank  op  Nova  Scotia.  Head  office,  Toronto.  Capital,  auth.,  $10,000,000;  paid 
up,  $6,500,000.  Res.  fund,  $12,000,000.  Branches  at  Havana  and  Porto  Rico 
(San  Juan). 

Colonial  Bank. 

MARTINIQUE 

Banque  DE  LA  Martinique.  Fort-de-France.  Est.  1851.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Banque, 
Fort-de-France."  Capital,  paid  up,  3,000,000  francs  ($600,000).  Res.  fund, 
1,530,000  francs  ($306,000). 

MEXICO 

Banco  Central  Mexicano.     Tel.  addr.,  "  Bancentral,  Mexico."     State  bank ;  est. 

1899.     Capital,  $10,000,000. 
Banco  de  Coahuila.     State  bank;  est.  1897.     Capital,  $1,600,000. 
Banco  de  Londres  y  Mexico.     Head  office,   Mexico.     Tel.   addr.,   "  Londbank, 

Mexico."    Capital,  paid  up,  $21,500,000.    Res.  fund,  $8,366,000  (1914).  Branches, 

12  in  Mexico. 
Banco  de  Sonora.    Head  office,  Hermosillo,  Mexico.    Capital,  paid  up,  $1,500,000. 

Res.  fund,  $1,280,000  (1912).     Six  branches  in  Mexico.     (These  figures  are  the 

latest  obtainable). 
Banco  Espanol  Refaccionabio.    Puebla.    Capital,  $2,000,000. 
Banco  de  Queretaro.    Est.  1903.    Capita?,  $1,000,000;  surplus  reserve,  $80,000,000. 
Banco  de  Tamaulipas.     Tampico.     State  bank;  est.  1902.     Capital,  $2,500,000. 
Banco    del    Estado    de    Mexico.     Toluca.     State    bank;    est.    1897.     Capital, 

$3,000,000. 
Banco  de  la  Laguna.     Torreon,  Coahuila.     Capital,  $4,200,000. 
Banco  de  Zacatecas.     Mexico.     State  bank;  est.  1891.     Capital,  $1,000,000;  paid 

up,  1913,  $600,000.     Eight  branches  and  agencies. 
Banco  Hipotecario  de  Credito  Territorial  Mexicano.     State  bank;  est.  1897. 

Capital,  $5,000,000. 
Banco   Intebnacional   e   Hipotecario.     Mexico   City.     Est.   1889.     Tel.   addr., 

"Intcreario,  Mexico."     Capital,   subs.,  $5,000,000;   paid   up,  $3,500,000.     Res. 

fund  (1914),  $1,200,000. 
Banco  Mebcantil  de  Monterrey.    Nuevo  Leon.    Est.  1899.     Capital,  $2,500,000. 

Res.  fund,  $363,000. 
Banco  Mercantil  de  Vera  Cruz.     State  bank;  est.  1898.     Capital,  $3,000,000. 
Banco  Mexicano  de  Comercio  e  Industria.     State  bank;  est.  1906.     Capital, 

$10,000,000.     Correspondents :    National  City  Bank  and  National  Bank  of  Com- 
merce, New  York  City. 
Banco  Minebo  de  Chihuahua.    Head  office.  Chihuahua  City.    Est.  1883.    Capital, 

paid    up    (1912),    $5,000,000.      Tel.    addr.,    "  Bankminero,    Chihuahua."      Five 

branches  and  agencies. 
Banco  National  de  Mexico.     See  National  Bank  of  Mexico. 
Banco  Occidental  de  Mexico.     Mazatlan.     Est.  1897.     Tel.  addr.,  "Amistad." 

Capital,  paid  up,  $1,500,000.     Res.  fund  (1914),  $475,936.     Two  branches,  two 

agencies. 
Banco  Oriental  de  Mexico.    Est.  1900.    Head  office,  Puebla,  Mexico.    Tel.  addr., 

"  Bancorient."     Capital,  paid  up,  $12,000,000.     Res.  fund,  $1,746,757.     Bank- 
notes in  circulation   (1914),  $28,100,648.     Branches,  17. 


838  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Banco  Peninsular  Mexicano.  Merida,  Mexico.  Tel.  addr.,  "Peninsular, 
Merida."    Capital,  paid  up,  $10,725,000.    Res.  fund,  1915,  $1,450,199. 

Bank  of  Montreal.  Mexico  City.  Capital,  $32,000,000.  Correspondents, 
National  City  Bank,  New  York  City. 

G.  Brockmann  &  Co.    Mexico  City. 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce.  Capital  and  surplus,  $28,500,000.  Branch  in 
Mexico  City. 

CoMPANiA  Bancaria  de  Fomento  y  Bienes  Raices.  Mexico  City.  Capital, 
$10,600,000.  Correspondent,  National  Bank  of  Commerce,  New  York, 

Compania  Bancaria  de  Hipotecas  y  Prestamos.    Mexico  City.    Capital,  $1,200,000. 

CoMPANiA  Bancaria  de  Paris  y  Mexico.  Mexico  City.  Est.  1909.  Capital, 
$10,000,000. 

Mercantile  Banking  Co.,  Ltd.    Mexico  City.    Est.  1905.    Capital,  $500,000. 

Mexico  City  Banking  Co.     Est.  1903.     Capital,  $800,000. 

Mortgage  and  Loan  Banking  Co.    Mexico  City.    Est.  1909.    Capital,  $1,449,765. 

National  Bank  of  Mexico.  Head  office,  Mexico  City.  Capital,  subs,  and  paid 
up,  $32,000,000.     Res.  fund  (1914),  $34,275,000.     Branches,  38;  agencies,  20. 

T\  Stallforth  y  Hermano.  Parral,  Mexico.  Est.  1862.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Stall- 
forth,  Parral." 

Gustavo  Struck  &  Co.,  Successors.    Hamburg,  Mexico  City,  Vera  Cruz. 

NICARAGUA 

Anglo-Central  American  Commercial  Bank,  Ltd,  Est.  1914.  Head  office, 
Pinners  Hall,  Austin  Friars,  London,  E.  C.  Branches:  Paris,  Managua.  Cap- 
ital, subs,  and  paid  up,  $276,500. 

Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America.    Managua. 

Banco  Comercial  de  Nicaragua.    Managua. 

IjOndon  Bank  of  Central  America,  Ltd.  Est.  1888  in  Managua  under  the 
name  of  Banco  de  Nicaragua.    Reg.  in  London,  1893.    Capital,  paid  up,  $137,850. 

National  Bank  of  Nicaragua.    Managua.    Est.  1912.     Capital,  over  $100,000. 

PANAMA 

Bank  of  the  Canal  Zone.    Colon.    State  bank.    Tel.  addr.,  "  Botez." 

"Bank  of  Panama"  of  Ramon  Arias-Feraud.   (Private).     Est.  1875.     Capital, 

$250,000. 
Continental  Banking  &  Tr.  Co.     State  bank.     Capital,  $1,000,000. 
Ehrman  &  Co.    Panama. 
International  Banking  Corporation.     Panama  and  Colon.      (Branch  of  New 

York  City.)     Capital,  $3,250,000. 
Panama  Banking  Co.    Panama  and  Colon.    New  York  office,  17  Battery  Place. 

PARAGUAY 

Banco  de  la  Republica.  Asuncion.  Est.  1908.  Capital,  auth.,  20,000,000  dol- 
lars gold;  issued,  6,000,000  dollars  gold. 

Banco  Mercantil  del  Paraguay.  Head  office,  Asuncion.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Mercan- 
til."  Capital  auth.  and  paid  up,  20,000,000  dollars  paper.  Res.  fund,  17,000,000 
paper.     Branches,  five. 

Banco  Agricola,    Capital,  14,531,238  dollars  paper,     (Capital  increased  in  1915.) 

Banco  de  Credito  Commercial. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  839 

PERU 

Banco  del.  Peru  y  Londres.  Lima.  Est.  1897.  Tel.  addr,,  "  Lao,  Lima."  Cap- 
ital, paid  up,  libras  500,000  ($2,500,000).  Res.  fund,  libras  300,000  ($1,500,- 
€00).  Branches:  Arequipa,  Callao,  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Chielago,  Cuzco,  Chincha 
Alta,  Huancayo,  Huacho,  Huaras,  loa,  Iquitos,  Mollendo,  Pacasmayo,  Piura, 
Trujillo. 

Banco  Internacional  del  Peru.  Lima.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Interbank,  Lima."  Capital, 
$500,000.    Res.  fund,  $125,000. 

Banco  Italiano.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Bitaliano,  Lima."  Capital,  paid  up,  $1,000,000. 
Res.  fund,  $530,675.     Branches:  Arequipa,  Callao,  Chincha  Alta,  Mollendo. 

Banco  Popular  del  Peru.  Lima.  Est.  1899.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Popular,  Lima."  Cap- 
ital, paid  up,  $750,000.    Res.  fund,  $312,000. 

Banco  Aleman  Transatlantic©.    See  Deutsche  Ueberseeische  Bank. 

Caja  de  Depositos  y  Consignaciones. 

Caja  de  Ahorros  de  la  Beneficiencia  de  Lima.  (Savings  bank,  with  over 
$1,000,000  deposits). 

Credit  Foncier  Peruvien.  Paris  and  Lima.  Capital,  auth.,  7,500,000  francs 
($1,500,000);  issued,  5,000,000  francs  ($1,000,000).  Agencies:  Banco  del 
Peru  y  Londres. 

PORTO  RICO 

American    Colonial   Bank   op   Porto    Rico.      Capital    and    surplus,   $915,000. 

Branches:  Arecibo,  Mayaguez,  San  Juan. 
Banco  Commercial,  de  Puerto  Rico.    Est,  1899.    Capital,  $1,000,000. 
Banco  Territorial  y  Agricola  de  Puerto  Rico.     Est.  1894.     Head  office,  San 

Juan.     Tel.  addr.,  "  TeiTagrico,  San  Juan,  P.  R."     Capital,  paid  up,  $580,737. 

Surplus,  $5,000. 
Bank  op  Nova  Scotia.     Head  office,  Halifax.     Capital,  $6,000,000.     Branches  in 

Porto  Rico  and  the  British  West  Indies. 

SALVADOR 

Banco  Agricola  Comercial.  San  Salvador.  Capital,  paid  up,  922,500  silver 
pesos. 

Banco  Michaelense.     San  Miguel. 

Banco  Occidental.  Est.  1890.  Head  office,  San  Salvador.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Occi- 
dental." Capital,  subs,  and  paid  up,  2,000,000  silver  pesos.  Res.  fund,  679,832 
silver  pesos.     Two  branches;  9  agencies. 

Banco  Salvadoreno.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Particular,  Sansalvador."  Capital,  paid  up, 
3,000,000  silver  pesos.  Res.  fund,  331,119  silver  pesos.  Two  branches;  7 
agencies. 

URUGUAY 

Banco  Comercial.  Montevideo.  Est.  1857.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Celtica,  Montevideo." 
Capital,  paid  up,  $2,000,000.     Res.  fund,  $700,000. 

Banco  de  la  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay.  Tel.  addr.,  "  Repbanco,  Monte- 
video." Nominal  capital,  $25,000,000;  paid  up,  $12,749,995.  Branches  in 
Uruguay,  25. 

Banco  de  Seguros  del  Estado.  State  Insurance  Bank.  Capital,  $3,000,000.  Res. 
fund,  $257,632. 


840  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Banco  Hipotecario  del  Uruguay.     Montevideo.     Capital,  paid  up,  $3,549,000. 

Res.  fund,  $138,162. 
Banco  Itamano  del  Uruguay.     Est.   1887.     Tel.  addr.,   "  Veneto,  Montevideo." 

Capital,  paid  up,  $3,000,000.    Res.  fund,  $1,097,500.    Branches  at  Mercedes  and 

Paysandu. 
State  Bank  of  the  Republic.     Capital,  $12,000,000. 
SuPERViEiLiiE  &  CiE.    Bauco  Frances,  Montevideo. 

(See  also  "  Principal  Banks  operating  in  different  States  of  Latin  America" 

for  foreign  banks.) 

VENEZUELA 

Banco  de  Caracas.    Est.  1890.    Tel.  addr.,  "  Bancarae,  Caracas."     Capital,  subs., 

bolivares,  6,000,000;  paid  up,  bolivares,  4,500,000. 
Banco  de  Venezuela.     Caracas.     Tel.   addr.,  "  Bancovenz,   Caracas."     Capital, 

subs.,  bolivares,  12,000,000;   paid  up,  bolivares,   9,000,000;   reserves,  bolivares, 

2,905,217. 
I'ouLTON  &  Co.    Puerto  Cabello  and  Valencia. 
H.  L.  BouLTON  &  Co.    Est.  1827.     Caracas, 
H.  L.  BouLTON  &  Co.     La  Guaira. 
H.  L.  BouLTON,  Jr.  &  Co.     Maracaibo. 

FINANCIAL,  LAND  AND  INVESTMENT  COMPANIES 

Alto  Parana  Development  Co.,  Ltd.  Office,  River  Plate  House,  Finsbury 
Circus,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $3,300,000  (U.  S.).  Owns 
about  678,500  acres  of  cedar,  pine  and  hardwood  forest  in  Parana,  Brazil,  and 
a  sawmill  at  Cbrrientes.     All  work  suspended  except  verba  cultivation. 

Anglo-Colombian  Development  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1911.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$1,250,000  (U.  S.).  Owns  gold,  platinum  and  other  properties  in  the  Choco 
district,  Colombia.     Office,  8  Old  Jewry,  Tendon,  E.  C. 

Anglo-South  American  Real  Property  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910.  Office,  621/2  Old 
Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,250,000  (U.  S.).  Owns 
about  1,770  square  yards  freehold  properties  in  the  Calle  Reconquista,  Buenos 
Aires,  on  which  a  nine-story  building  has  been  erected. 

Argentine  Eastern  Land  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910.  Office,  3  St.  Helen's  Place, 
Bishopsgate,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,000,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $750,- 
000  (U.  S.)  Owns  about  8,670  acres  of  estancja  land  in  Entre  Rios,  Argentina; 
36,439  acres  near  Yuti  station  on  the  Central  Paraguay  Railway;  1,056  acres 
of  farm  land  in  Argentina;  92  acres  farm  land  in  Paraguay,  and  967  acres  of 
township  land. 

Argentine  Estates  of  Bovril,  Ltd.  Reg.  1909.  Office,  160  Old  St.,  London, 
E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $3,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $3,205,070  (U.  S.).  Owns  a 
group  of  freehold  estancias  stocked  with  cattle;  also  meat  preserving  factories 
in  the  provinces  of  Entre  Rios  and  Santa  Fe,  Argentina. 

Argentine  Land  and  Investment  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1888.  Office,  Palmerston 
House,  Old  Broad  Street,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $3,250,000  (U.  S.)  ; 
issued,  $2,701,545  (U.  S.).  Owns  land  in  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Cordoba, 
and  other  parts  of  Argentina. 

AK(iENTiNE  Northern  Land  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1908.  Office,  3  St.  Helen's  Place, 
J-ondon,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.)  ;  issued,  $1,647,435  (U.  S.). 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  841 

Argentine  Southern   Land  Co.,   Ltd.     Keg.   1889.     Office,  River  Plate  House, 

13  South  Place,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,400,000   (U.  S.). 

In  1915  this  company  owned  655,940  acres  of  land  in  the  National  Territory  and 

Chubut,  Argentina;  35,056  head  of  cattle,  105,800  sheep  and  3,885  horses. 
Argentine  Timber  and  Estates  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Office,  Dashwood  House, 

New   Broad    St.,   London,   E.    C.      Capital,    auth.,   $1,350,000    (U.    S.) ;    issued, 

$600,000  (U.  S.). 
Bolivian  Development  and  Colonization  Co.     Reg.  Portland,  Me.,  1912.   Office, 

Portland.     Share  capita!,  $25,000,000  (U.  S.). 
Brazilian,   Canadian   and   General  Trust,  Ltd.     Reg.  1906.     Office,  16  &  17 

Broad    St.   Ave.,   London,   E.    C.      Capital,   auth.,   $1,000,000    (U.    S.) ;    issued, 

$750,000   (U.  S.).     Carries  on  a  general  financial  business. 
Brazilian  Development   Syndicate,   Ltd.     Reg.   1907.     Office,  71   George  St., 

Edinburgh,  Scotland.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $50,000  (U.  S.). 
pRiVziLiAN  Railway  Construction  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1908.     Office,  9  Throgniorton 

Ave.,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $165,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $161,530. 
Brazilian  Trust  and  Loan  Corporation,  Ltd..  Reg.  1912.    Office,  Pinner's  Hall, 

Austin    Friars,    London,    E.    C.      Capital,    auth.,    $1,000,000    (U.    S.) ;    issued, 

$1,250,000  (U.  S.).     Trust,  Loan  and  Agency  business. 
British   and   Mexican    Trust   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.    1907.     Office,   367   Winchester 

House,  Old  Broad  St.,  London,  E.  (\    Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued, 

$1,508,250   (U.  S.).     Assists  in  Mexican  industrial  development. 
I'ritish  Ecuador  Syndicate,  Ltd.    Reg.  1908.    Office,  Finsbury  Pavement  House, 

London,  E.  €.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,000,000   (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $798,750   (U.  S.). 

Holds  government  concessions  for  exploiting  oil  lands. 
Caja  de  Prestamos  para  Obras  de  Irrigacion  y  Fombnto  de  la  Agricultura 

Sociedad   Anonima    (Institution   for  encouragement   of   irrigation   works   and 

development  of  agriculture,  Soc.  Anon.).     Est.  1908.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

10,000,000    pesos    ($5,000,000).      Makes    loans    to    promote    above-mentioned 

objects  in  Mexico. 
California  (Mexico)  Land  Co.,  Ltd.     R^.  1888.     Office,  15  Angel  Court,  Lon- 
don, E.  C.    Capital,  auth.,  $1,250,000  (U.  S.);  issued,  $998,890  (U.  S.).     Owns 

4,550,000   acres   of  land   in   Lower   California   under  title   from   the   Mexican 

government. 
Chiapas  Zone  Exploration   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1889.     Office,   35   Copthall   Ave., 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,250,000   (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,133,165   (U.  S.). 

Acquired  mining  rights  over  100  scjuare  miles  of  land  surrounding  the  Santa 

Fe  Mine,  State  of  Chiapas,  Mexico. 
City  of   Sao  Paulo    Improvements   &   Freehold  Land   Co.,   Ltd.    Reg.   1911. 

Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $10,000,000   (U.  S.).     Owns  about  14,806,597  square 

yards  land  in  the  City  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil. 
Colombian  India-Rubber  Exploration  Co.,  Ltd.     Office,  7  Union  Court,  London, 

E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,298,285.    Developing  500,- 

000  acres  land;  rubber,  banana  and  cacao  plantations. 
Colombia  Smelting  and  Concessions  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1908.    Office,  10-13  Broad 

St.  Avenue,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $750,000   (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $474,590 

(U.    S.).     Holds   government   concessions   to   establish   smelting  and   reduction 

works  at  Tolima.     No  work  in  progress. 
Cordova  Land  Co.,  Ltd.      Reg.  1913.    Office,  River  Plate  House,  13  South  Place, 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $6,000,000   (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $4,392,535   (U.  S.). 


842  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Owns  16  square  leagues  of  land  in  the  Province  of  Cordoba,  Argentina;  sheep 

and  cattle  raising. 
Cuba   Company,   Inc.     New   Jersey   1900.     Office,   52   William    St.,   New   York. 

Capital,    auth.,    $16,000,000;    issued,   $10,500,000.      Owns    $10,000,000    common 

stock  of  the  Cuba  Railroad  Co. ;  300,000  acres  of  land  in  Cuba  and  various  town 

sites,  including  the  terminal  city  of  Antilla;  sugar  mills  and  plantations  in  the 

provinces  of  Camaguey  and  Oriente. 
Development  Company  of  Santa  Fe,  Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Office,  149  Leadenhall 

St.,   London,   E.    C.      Capital,   auth.,   $2,000,000    (U.    S.) ;    issued,    $1,779,600. 

Owns  416,798  acres  of  land  in  the  Province  of  Santa  Fe,  Argentina. 
Domingo  Tomba's  Estates    (Sociedad   Anonima   Bodegas   y   Vixedos   Domingo 

Tomba).    Reg.  in  Argentine  1911.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $3,000,000.    Office, 

Buenos  Aires.    Wine  concern ;  bodegas  and  vineyards. 
Dutch  Guiana  Exploration  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1910.     Office,  6  St.  Helen's  Place, 

London,  E.  C.     Capita!,  auth.  and  issued,  $25,000  (U.  S.). 
Ecuadorian    Corporation,    Ltd.     Reg.    1913.      Office,    18    St.    Swithin's    Lane, 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,537,415  (U.  S.). 

Debentures,    auth.,    $2,500,000    (U.    S.).      Owns    stock    and    holds    interest    in 

Ecuador  Breweries  Co.,  Quito  Tramways  Co.,  Ince  Springs  Co.,  Quito  Electric 

Light   and   Power-  Co.;   shares   in  the   Banco   del   Pinchincha,   Quito,   lands   at 

Quito  and  Duran,  and  water  rights  near  Quito. 
Exploration  Company,  T/ro.    (Mexico).     Reg.  1904.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$3,750,000    (U.    S.).      Office,   24   Lombard    St.,   London,   E.    C.      Owns   shares, 

inter  alia,  in  Exploration  Co.  of  England  and  Mexico;  Buena  Tierra  Mining 

Co.,  etc. 
Foreign  and   Colonial  Lands   Co.,   Ltd.      Reg.   1911.     Office,   3   Lombard   St., 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $500,000   (U.  S.).     Has  option  over 

1,700,000  acres  in  Yucatan,  Mexico,  and  oil,  timber  and  land  interests  of  40,000 

acres  near  Tehuantepee,  besides  railway  timber  contracts. 
Fgrestal  Land,  Timber  and  Railways  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1906.     Office,  149  Lom- 
bard St.,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $16,125,000   (U.  S.) :  issued,  $15,458,- 

495   (U.  S.).     Owns  large  tracts  of  land,  forest,  cattle  camps,  light  railroads 

and  factories  in  Argentina. 
Guatrache  Land  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1912.     Office,  4  Moorgate  St.,  London,  E.   C. 

Capital,  auth.,  $2,750,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $838,560  (U.  S.).     Owns  about  110,- 

000  acres  freehold  land  in  the  Pampa  and  Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina ; 

also  cattle  raising. 
Land  Company  of  Chiapas,  Mexico,  Ltd.    Reg.  1905.     Office,  10  Copthall  Ave., 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,575,000   (U.  S.)  ;  issued,  $1,125,000   (U.  S.). 

Owns  great  tracts  of  land;  rubber,  eocoanut  and  fibre  plantations. 
Leach's  Argentine  Estates,  Ltd.     Reg.  1912.     Office,  8  Crosby  Square,  London. 

Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,262,500    (U.   S.).     Company  owns  about  500,000 

acres;  sugar  planters,  refiners  and  manufacturers. 

IX)ND0N    AND    SoUTH    AMERICAN    INVESTMENT    TrUST,    LtD.       Reg.    1913.       Capital, 

auth.,  $5,000,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.). 
Lower  California  Development  Co.,  Ltd.  (Mexico).  Reg.  1890.  Office,  10  Cop- 
thai!  Avenue,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,750,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,733,- 
3/5  (U.  S.).  Held  849,000  acres  of  land,  harbor  and  town  site  of  San  Quintin, 
and  a  mail  contract  with  the  Mexican  government.  Assets  transferred  (1907) 
to  the  Mexican  Land  and  Colonization  Co.,  Ltd. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  843 

Mexican  Land  and  Colonization  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1889.  Office,  10  Copthall 
Avenue,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $15,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $13,563,- 
700  (U.  S.).  Owns  large  tracts  in  Lower  California  and  holds  railway  and 
irrigation  concessions. 

Mexican  Mining  and  Industrial  Corporation,  Ltd.  Reg.  1907.  Office,  441 
Salisbury  House,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $768,750  (U.  S.) ;  issued, 
$277,470  (U.  S.).  Banking,  finance  and  mercantile  operations.  Not  limited  to 
Mexico. 

MiNAS  Geraes  and  EspiRiTO  Santo  Exploration  Co.,  Ltd.  (Brazil).  Reg.  1912. 
Office,  3  East  India  Ave.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $650,000  (U.  S.) ; 
issued,  $393,030  (U.  S.).    Lumber  and  other  concessions. 

Mortgage  Company  op  Costa  Rica,  Ltd.  Reg.  1911.  Otiice,  34  Great  St. 
Helen's,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $250,000  (U.  S.).  Mortgage 
business. 

Mortgage  Company  of  the  River  Plate,  Ltd.  Reg.  1886.  Office,  52  Moorgate 
St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $7,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued  $6,250,000  (U.  S.). 
Grants  first  mortgages  on  freehold  only.  Managed  by  the  River  Plate  Trust, 
Loan  and  Agency  Co.,  Ltd. 

Nevt  Zealand  and  River  Plate  Land  Mortgage  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1883.  Office, 
618  Salisbury  House,  Finsbury  Circus,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,- 
000  (U.  S.);  issue,  $1,750,000  (U.  S.).  . 

Nicaragua  Development  Syndicate,  Ltd.  Reg.  1900.  Capital,  auth.,  $250,000 
(U.  S.);  issued,  $179,985  (U.  S.).     Mining,  milling,  etc. 

North  op  Brazil  Finance  and  Development  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910.  Office, 
6  Queen  St.  Place,  I^ndon,  E.  C.  Capital,  $157,500  (U.  S.).  Mining 
operations. 

Peru  Mines  and  Estates,  Ltd.  Reg.  1909.  Office,  39  Lombard  St.,  London, 
E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $750,000  (U.  S.).  Gold,  silver,  copper  and 
coal. 

Peruvian  Corporation,  Ltd.  Reg.  1890.  Office,  43-46  Threadneedle  St.,  Lon- 
don, E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $82,500,000  (U.  S.).  Controls  over 
1,000  miles  of  railroads,  the  greater  part  transferred  to  limited  companies. 
Owns  the  steamers  on  Lake  Titicaca  and  held  guano  concession  (up  to  2,000,- 
000  tons),  which  latter  has  recently  been  revoked  by  the  Peruvian  government. 

Port  Argentine  Land  and  Developjient  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1909.  Office,  73  Cop- 
thall Avenue,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,750,000  (U.  S.);  issued, 
$1,401,250   (U.  S.).     Land,  and  construction  of  public  works  in  Argentina. 

Port  Madryn  (Argentina)  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1906.  Office,  River  Plate  House,  13 
South  Place,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $612,500  (U.  S.).  Owns 
land  in  Rio  Negro  and  Chubut,  the  town  sites  of  Port  Madryn  and  Trelew; 
and  shares  in  the  Central  Railway  of  Chubut  Co.,  Ltd. 

Quebrachales  Fusionados  (Sociedad  Anonima).  Inc.  Argentina  1906.  Office, 
Buenos  Aires.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,750,000  (with  power  to  increase 
to  $10,000,000).  Debentures  outstanding,  $534,500  (U.  S.).  Owns  about 
634,370  acres  in  Argentina  and  Pai'aguay. 

Rio  Negro  (Argentina)  Land  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1907.  Office,  River  Plate  House, 
13  South  Place,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,500,000  (U.  S.). 
Owns  about  590,000  acres;  chief  business,  sheejo  raising. 

River  Pirate  and  General  Investment  Trust  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1888.  Capital, 
auth.,  $5,000,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,250,000  (U.  S.). 


844  ENC'YCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERU^A 

KivER  Plate  Land  and  Farming  Co.,  I^td.  Reg.  1863.  Office,  29  Exchange 
Buildings,  Bixteth  St.,  Liverpool.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $200,000   (U.  S.). 

River  Plate  Trust,  Loan,  and  Agency  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1881.  Office,  52  Moor- 
gate  St.,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $12,500,000   (U.  S.). 

South  American  Cattle  Farms,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910  Office,  Thames  House,  Queen 
St.  Place,  London  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.).  Owns 
10  estancias  in  Argentina  and  nine  in  Paraguay  (about  1,100,000  acres) 
leased  to  Liebig's  Extract   of  Meat   Co.,  Ltd. 

South  American  Development  and  Construction  Syndicate,  Ltd.  Capital, 
auth.,  $100,000    (U.  S.) ;   issued,   $2,500. 

Tecka  (Argentine)  Land  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910.  Office,  River  Plate  House, 
13  South  Place,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,000,000  (U.  S.). 
Owns  about  383,000  acres;   sheep   and  cattle  raising  in   Chubut  territory. 

United  States  and  South  American  Investment  Trust  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1886. 
Office,  105  Winchester  House,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000  (U.  S.) ; 
issued,  $2,250,000. 

VenezueijAn  Oil  Concessions,  Ltd.  R6g.  1913.  Office,  20  Copthall  Ave.,  London, 
E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $750,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $650,000  (U.  S.).  Oil 
exploration   concessions   over   3,000   square   miles   of   territory. 


RAILWAY  COMPANIES 
ARGENTINA 

Railways    in    operation,    1915,    22,688    miles;    State-owned,    4,136    miles.   ■ 
Note. —  "  Reg."  indicates  tiiat  tlie  company  was  registered  or  incorporated  in  Great  Britain. 

Argentine     Great     Western     Railroad     Co.,     Ltd,       Reg.     1887.       Capital, 

$26,250,000.     Mileage,   979. 
Argentine   North    Eastern   Railroad    Co.      Reg.    1887.      Capital,    $14,000,000. 

Mileage,  752. 
Argentine  Railway  Co.,  Inc.    (Maine)    1912.     Capital,  $45,000,000. 
Argentine   Transandine  Railway   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1886   as  the  Buenos  Aires 

and  Valparaiso  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  (Name  changed  1904).     Mileage,  111. 
Bahia-Blanca    and    North    Western     Railway    Co.      Reg.    1889.       Capital, 

$33,000,000.     Mileage,  874. 
Buenos  Aires  and  Pacific  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1882.     Capital,  $61,000,000. 

Mileage,  1,430. 
Buenos  Aires  Central  Railway   (Ferro  Carril  Central  de  Buenos  Aires,  Limi- 

tada).     Inc.  1906.     Capital,  $25,000,000.     Mileage   (1914-15),  230. 
Buenos   Aires,   Ensenada  and   South   Coast  Railway   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1888. 

Capital,  $4,000,000.     Mileage,   109. 
Buenos    Aires    Great    Southern    Railway    Co.,    Ltd.      Reg.    1862.      Capital, 

$200,000,000.     Mileage,  3,763. 
Buenos  Aires  Midland  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    (Formerly  B.  A.  Central  Railway 

Co.).    Reg.  1906.     Capital,  $7,500,000.    Mileage,  322. 
Buenos  Aires  Western  Railway,  Ltd.    Reg.  1890.    Auth.  capital,  $130,000,000. 

^Mileage,    1,867. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  845 

Central    Argentine    Railway,    Ltd.      Reg.    1873,    1884,    1908.      Auth,    capital, 

$208,472,340.     Mileage,  3,307. 
Central  Railway  of  Chubut  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1886.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$1,000,000.    Mileage,  63. 

(^OMPAGNIE     FrANQAISE     DE     ChEMINS     DE     FeR     DE     LA     PROVINCE     DE     SaNTA     Fk 

Societe  Anonyme  (French  Railways  of  the  Province  of  Santa  Fe).  Inc.  Paris, 
1888.    Auth.  and  issued  capital,  72,000,000  francs  ($14,400,000).    Mileage,  1,860. 

Cordoba  Central  Railways  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1887.    Mileage,  1,186. 

Entre  Rios  Railways  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1891.  Auth.  capital,  $25,000,000.  Mile- 
age, 730. 

Villa  Maria  and  Rufina  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1888.  Capital,  $1,968,750. 
Mileage,  141. 

Western  Railway  of  Buenos  Aires  ( Ferro-Carril  del  Oeste).  p]st.  1857. 
Five  per  cent  mortgage  sterling  bonds  guaranteed  by  government. 

BOLIVIA 

Railroads  in   operation,   about   1,000   miles. 

Arica   (Chile)— La  Paz  Railway.     Est.   1904.     In  Bolivia,   186  miles;   22  in 

Chile. 
Antopagasta    and    Bolivia    Railway.      Mileage,    719. 

BRAZIL 

Railroads  in  operation,  about  17,000  miles. 

Brazil   Great   Southern   Railway   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1883.     Auth.   and   issued 

capital,    $1,750,000.      Mileage,    186.       (Receiver    and    manager    appointed    by 

British  court  in  1914.) 
Brazil  North  Eastern  Railways,  Ltd.     Reg.  1910.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$1,750,000.     Mileage,  472;  extension  in  progi-ess,  900  miles. 
Brazil  Railway  Co.,  Inc.   (Maine,  U.  S.  A.)   1906.     Auth.  capital,  $60,000,000. 

Mileage,  3,426   (Receiver  appointed  U.  S.  A.  1914;  London,  Eng.  1915). 
Great  Western  of  Brazil  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1872.    Capital,  $12,500,000. 

Mileage,  1,010. 
Lropoldina  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1897.    Auth.  capital,  $49,226,340.    Mileage, 

1,806. 
Leopoldina  Terminal   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1911.      (Ferry  boats,  electric  tramways 

and  warehouses  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.)     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $6,250,000. 
Madeira-Mamore  Railway  Co.,  Inc.  (Maine,  U.  S.  A.).    Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$11,000,000.     Mileage,   227;    in   Bolivia,   62   miles.     The   company   holds   large 

land  concessions. 
MoGYANA  Railways  and  Navigation  Co.,  Inc.    1872.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

milreis  80,000,000    ($43,200,000). 
Paulista  Railway  Co  (Companhia  Paulista  de  Estradas  de  Ferro).     Est.  1869. 

Auth.  and  issued  capital,  milreis  92,000,000   ($49,680,000). 
QuARAHiM    International    Bridge    Co.,    Ltd.      Reg.    1911.      Auth.   and    issued 

capital,  $1,000,000. 
San  Paulo  and  Minas  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1907.    Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$1,000,000.    Mileage,  90. 


846  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

San  Paulo  (Brazilian)  Railway   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1859  and  1902.     Auth.  capital, 

$23,000,000;  issued,  $20,000,000. 
SOROCABANA  RAILWAY    Co.,   Inc.    (Maine,   U.    S.   A.)    1907.     Auth.    and   issued 

capital,  $10,000,000.     Mileage,  911. 
Southern  Sao  Paulo    Railway  Co.,  Ltd..  Reg.  1911.    Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$4,000,000.    Mileage,  101. 
State  of   Bahia   South   Western   Railway   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1908.     Capital, 

$1,500,000.     Concession,   250  miles;   in   operation,  53   miles. 

CHILE 

Railways   in   operation    (1915),   5,015    miles;    State-owned,    3,236   miles. 

Aguas   Blancas    Railroad    (Compania   Ferro-Carril    de    Aguas    Blancas).      Inc. 

1908.     Capital,  $10,000,000. 
Antopagasta    (Chile)    and   Bolivia  Railroad   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1888.     Capital, 

$30,000,000.     Mileage,   1,173. 
Arauco  Company,  Ltd.     Reg.  1888.     Capital,  $2,500,000.     Coalfields  concessions 

and  railroads,  65  miles. 
Arica  and  Tacna  Railway  Co.     Est.  1853.     Capital,  $2,500,000.     Mileage,  40. 
Carrizal  and  Cerro  Blanco  Railway  Co.   (Ferro  Carril  de  Cai-rizal  y  Cerro- 

Blanco).     Inc.  1866  and  1880.     Capital,  $1,500,000.     Mileage,  98. 
Chilian  Eastern  Central  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1910.    Concession,  90  miles. 

Capital,  auth.,  $1,200,000;  issued,  $1,000,035. 
Chilian    Northern    Railway    Co.,   Ltd.      Reg.    1910.      Concession,    450    miles. 

Auth.    and    issued    capital,    $2,500,000. 
Chilian   Transandine  Railway   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1885   and   1905.     Auth.   and 

issued  capital,  $7,500,000.    Mileage,  43. 
Nitrate   Railways   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1882.     Auth.   capital,   $16,560,000;   issued, 

$9,138,200.    Mileage,  392. 
Taltal  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1881.    Capital,  $5,000,000.    Mileage,  184. 

COLOMBIA 

Railroads  in  operation,  840  miles. 

Babbanquilla  Railway  and  Pier  Co.    Reg.  1888.    Capital,  $1,250,000.    Mileage, 
18. 

Bogota-Sabana   Railway.        Five     per     cent     mortgage     bonds;      government 

guaranty, 
Colombia  Railways  and  Navigation   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1906   and  1913.     Auth. 

and  issued  capital,  $3,750,000. 
Colombian    Central    Railway    Co.,    Ltd.      Reg.    1905.      Concession,    66    miles. 

Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $1,500,000. 
Colombian  National  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.      Reg.  1899.     Concession,  86  miles  and 

123,000  acres  of  land.     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $4,500,000. 
Colombian  Northern  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1898.    Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$1,500,000.     Mileage,  30. 
CucuTA   Railway    Co.    (Compania    del    Ferro-Carril    de    Cucuta).      Inc.    1866. 

Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $1,800,000.     Concession,  35  miles  and  247,100  acres 

waste  land. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  847 

Dorado    Extension    Railway,    Ltd.     Reg.    1905.     Autli.    and    issued    capital, 

$1,750,000.     Mileage,  71. 
Great   Northern    Central   Railway   of    Colombia,   Ltd.     Reg.   1907.     Auth. 

capital,  $2,500,000.     Concession,  about  312  miles. 
Pacific  Railway  of  Colombia   (Compaiiia  del  Ferrooarril  del  Pacifico).     Inc. 

1908.     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $1,400,000.     Mileage  under  construction,  362. 
Santa  Marta  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1887.     Auth.  capital,  $3,000,000";  issued, 

$1,745,850.    Mileage,  99. 

COSTA  RICA  h. 

Railroads  in  operation,  nearly  400  miles. 

Costa  Rica  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1886.  Aulh.  and  issued  capital,  $9,000,000. 
Mileage,  221. 

CUBA 

Railroads  in  operation    (1916),  about  1,900  miles. 

Cuba  Railroad  Co.,  Inc.     (New  Jersey)  1912.    Auth.  capital,  $30,000,000;  issued, 

$20,000,000.    Mileage,  690. 
Cuban  Central  Railways,  Ltd.    Reg.  1899.    Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $11,500,000. 

Mileage,  353. 
Havana  Terminal  Railroad  Co.,  Inc.     (Maine)  1900,    Auth.  capital,  $5,000,000. 
Mariano  and  Havana  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1871.    Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$500,000.     Mileage,  19. 
United  Railways  of  the  Havana  and  Regi>a  "Warehouses.    Reg.  1898.    Capital, 

$54,800,000.    Mileage,  681. 
Western  Railway  op  Havana,  Ltd.     Reg.  1892.     Capital,  $6,000,000.     Mileage, 

147.     Controlled  by  the  United  Railways  Co.  above. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

Railroads  in  operation,  147  miles;  of  which  60  miles  is  under  government.  Con- 
struction proposed:  From  Santo  Domingo  City  to  La  Vega,  80  miles.  There 
are  also  private  lines  on  the  large  estates,  about  '250  miles. 

Samana  and  Santiago  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1888.  Auth.  capital,  $3,000,000. 
Mileage,  87. 

ECUADOR 

Railroads  in  operation,  about  400  miles. 

Central   Railway   of   Ecuador,   Ltd.     Reg.    1910.     Auth.   and   issued   capital, 

$500,000.     Mileage,  38. 
Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railway  Co.,  Inc.  (New  Jersey)  1897.    Auth.  and  issued 

capital,  $12,283,000,    Mileage,  290. 

GUATEMALA 

Railroads  in  operation,  over  500  miles. 

International    Railways    of    Central    America,    Inc,     (New    Jersey)    1904, 
Auth,  and  issued  capital,  $40,000,000. 
55 


848  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

MEXICO 

Railroads  in  operation:  approximate  total  mileage,  16,000. 

Interoceanic  Railway  op  Mexico  (Aeapulco  to  Vera  Cruz).     Reg.  1888.     AutJi. 

and  issued  capital,  $20,000,000.     Mileage,  1,047. 
Mexican  Eastern  Railway   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1901.     Leased  to  the  Interoceanic 

(above).     Authorized  and  issued  capital,  $50,000.    Mileage,  79. 
Mexican  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1864  and  1867.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 

$29,103,900.    Mileage,  490. 
]\Iexican    Southern   Railway,   Ltd.     Reg.   1889.     Leased   to   the   Interoceanic. 

Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $5,000,000.     Mileage,  313. 
Mexican  Union  Railway,  Ltd.     Reg.  1910.     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $650,000. 

Mileage,  110. 
Mexico    North    Western    Railway    Co.     (Ferrocarril    Nor-Oeste    de    Mexico). 

Inc.  1909.     Auth.  capital,  $40,000,000;  issued,  $25,000,000.     Mileage,  512. 
MicHOACAN  AND  PACIFIC  RAILWAY  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1890.      (Leased  to  National 

Railways  of  Mexico.)     Auth.  and  issued  capital,  $300,000. 
MiCHOACAN   Railway   and   Mining    Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.    1889.      (Acquired   by   the 

Michoacan  and  Pacific  Railway  Co.). 
Tampico-Panuco  Valley  Railway  Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1913.     Capital,  $1,500,000. 

Concession,  60  miles. 
United   Railroads   of   Yucatan,   Mexico    (Ferro-Carriles   Unidos   de   Yucatan, 

Sociedad     Anonima).     Inc.     1902.     Auth.     and     issued     capital,     $23,000,000. 

Mileage,  531. 
Vera  Cruz    (Mexico)   Railways,  Ltd.     Reg.   1900.     Capital,  $3,750,000.     Rail- 
ways, tramways  and  river  transport. 
Vera  Cruz  Terminal  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1907.     Controlled  by  other  companies. 
Vera  Cruz   to   Isthmus    Railroad,  Inc.     1898  and  1908.     Capital,  $1,000,000. 

Mileage,  293. 

NICARAGUA 

Pacific  Railroad  of  Nicaragua  —  the  only  line  — 180  miles. 

PARAGUAY 

Paraguay  Central  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1889.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 
$1,814,650.    Mileage,  255. 

PERU 

Lima   Railways   Co.,   Ltd.     Reg.   1865.     Auth.   and   issued   capital,   $2,000,000. 
Mileage,  18. 

North  Western  Railway  Co.  of  Peru,  Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Capital,  $3,000,000. 
Mileage,  130. 

SALVADOR 

Railroads  in  operation,  about  280  miles. 

Salvador  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1895  and  1897.     Auth.  and  issued  capital, 
$2,500,000.     Mileage,  100. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  849 

URUGUAY 

Railroads  in  operation,  about  1,800  miles. 

Central  Uruguay  Eastern  Extension  Railway.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1889.  Auth.  cap- 
ital, $9,000,000.     Mileage,  246%. 

Central  Uruguay  Northern  Extension  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1888.  Auth. 
and  issued  capital,  $5,000,000.     Mileage,  185. 

Central  L^ruguay  Railway  Co.  of  Montevideo,  Ltd.  Reg.  1876.  Auth.  cap- 
ital, $22,500,000;  issued,  $14,000,000.     Mileage,  977. 

Central  Uruguay  Western  Extension  Railway,  Ltd.    Reg.  1899.    Auth.  cap- 
ital, $4,312,500;  issued,  $4,249,800.     Mileage  of  concession,  211. 
(The  above  four  lines  are  under  the  same  management.) 

Midland  Uruguay  Extension  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1911.  Auth.  and  issued 
capital,  $500,000.     Mileage,  35^2. 

Midland  Uruguay  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1887.  Auth.  and  issued  capital, 
$3,000,000.     Mileage,  284. 

North  Eastern  of  Uruguay  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1886.  Auth.  and  issued 
capital,  $4,000,000.     Mileage,  76. 

North  Western  op  Uruguay  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1882.  Auth.  capital, 
$7,050,000;  issued,  $4,985,715.     Mileage,  113. 

Uruguay  East  Coast  Railway  Co.    Reg.  1908.    Capital,  $625,000.    Mileage,  71. 

Uruguay  Northern  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1887.     Capital,  $1,750,000. 

VENEZUELA 

Railroads  in  operation,  540  miles. 

Bolivar  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  (Includes  t5ie  South- Western  of  Venezuela.)  Reg. 
1896.     Capital,  $5,000,000.     Total  mileage,  110. 

La  Guaira  and  Caracas  Railway  Co.,  Ltd,  Reg.  1882.  Auth.  and  issued  cap- 
ital, $1,750,000.     Mileage,  23. 

Puerto  Cabeltx)  and  Valencia  Railway  Co.,  Ittd.  Reg.  1885.  Auth.  and 
issued  capital,  $2,300,000.     Mileage,  34. 

Venezuela  Central  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1905.  Auth.  and  issued  capital, 
$1,000,000.    In  operation,  46  miles. 


SHIPPING  COMPANIES 

Owing   to   the   European   war   most   of   the   services   have   been   disorganized   or 

entirely  suspended. 

Amazon  River  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  I/td. 

American  and  River  Plate  Line.     Service  from  New  York  and  New  Orleans  to 

river  Plate  and  Brazilian  ports. 
Argentine  Navigation   Co.    (Nicholas  Mjhanovich)   Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Office, 

8  Crosby  Square,  London,  E.  C,  and  Buenos  Aires.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$10,000,000.      Runs     over     300     steamers    between    Argentina,     Uruguay    and 

Southern  Brazil. 


850  ENC^YCLOPBDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Atlantic,  Gulf  &  West  Indies  Steamship  Lines.  Inc.  Maine  1908.  Controls 
Mallory  Steamship  Co.,  New  York  and  Porto  Rico  Steamship  Co.,  Clyde 
Steamship  Co.,  New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Co.  and  the  Southern 
Steamship   Co. 

Blue  Star  Line.  Carriers  of  frozen  produce  between  South  America  and  Great 
Britain. 

Booth  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd.  Passenger  and  cargo  service  between  United  States, 
Europe  and  South  America. 

British  and  Argentine  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  Ltd.  Passenger  and  cargo 
service  between  Great  Britain,  Antwerp,  Buenos  Aires  and  river  Plate. 

Clyde  Steamship  Co.    New  York  and  Dominican  Republic. 

Companhia  Nacionale  de  Navegaqao  4)E  Rio  pe  Janeiro. 

CoMPANiA  Peruana  de  Vapores  y  Dique  del  Callao. 

Compania  Sud  Americana  de  Vapores  (Chile). 

Companhia  Commbrcio  e  Navegaqao.     Brazilian  coastal  trade. 

Compagnie  de  Navigation  Sud-Atlantique.    Mediterranean  ports  and  Brazil. 

CoMPAGNiE  DES  Chargeurs  Reunis.  Service  between  France,  Spain,  Uruguay 
and  Brazil. 

Compania  Transatlantica  de  Vapores  Correos  Espanoles.  Service  (mail, 
passenger  and  cargo)   between  Spain,  France,  England  and  Brazil. 

Det  Forende  Damkskibs  Selskab.     Denmark  and  river  Plate. 

Domingo-Barthe  and  Co.  Steamship  service  between  Buenos  Aires  and  Para- 
guay. 

East  Asiatic  (Steamship)  Co.,  Ittd.  Service  between  Denmark,  Holland,  Eng- 
land and  the  Guianas. 

Esperanqa  Maritima.     Brazilian  coastal  steamship  trade. 

Empresa  de  Navegaqao.     Coastal  shipping,  Brazil  and  Uruguay. 

Italia  (Societa  di  Navigazione  e  Vapore).  Steamship  service  between  Med- 
iterranean ports  and  South  America. 

Lamport  and  Holt,  Ltd.  Steamship  service  })etween  New  York  and  all  parts  of 
South  America. 

LiGURE  Brazilian  A.     Steamship  service  between  Mediterranean  and  Brazil. 

Lloyd  Braziliero.  Steamship  service  between  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Uruguay. 
Office,  Buenos  Aires. 

Lloyd  del  Pacifico.     Steamship  service  between  Brazilian  and  Italian  ports. 

Lloyd  Italiano.     Steamship  service  between  Brazil  and  Italy. 

Marina  Mercante  Argentina.  Coastal  service  between  Argentina,  Brazil  and 
Uruguay. 

M  UN  SON  Line.    Steamship  service  between  New  York  and  the  river  Plate. 

Nautilius  Steam  Shipping  Co.,  Ltd.  (Gulf  Line).  Cargo  service  between  Great 
Britain,  Chile,  Peru  and  Ecuador. 

Navigazione  Genebale  Italiana.     Mail  service  between  Brazil  and  Italy. 

Nelson  Line.  Steamship  mail  and  passenger  servnce  between  England,  Argen- 
tina and  Uruguay. 

New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Co.     Runs  steamers  to  Cuba,  Mexico  and 

Bahamas. 
New  York  and  Porto  Rico  Steamship  Co. 
New  York  and  Pacific  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd.     Cargo  service  between  New  York 

and  Pacific  Coast  of  South  America. 
New  Zealand  Shipping  Co.,  Ltd.     Service  between  England,  Uruguay  and  Brazil. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  851 

Norton  Line.     Service  between  New  York,  Brazil,  La  Plata  and  Uruguay. 
Prince  Line,  Ltd.     Service  between  England  and  South  American  Atlantic  ports. 
Raporel  Steamship  Line.     E.  M.  Raphael  &  Co.,  17  Battery  Race,  New  York. 

Direct  line  to  West  Indian  jiorts;  Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  Guianas. 
Red  "  D  "  Line.    New  York  and  Venezuela. 
Royal   Mail   Steam   Packet   Co.     Mail,   passenger   and   cargo   service   between 

England,  West  Indies,  New  York,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia, 

Ecuador,  Falkland  Islands,  Panama,  Peru,  Uruguay  and  Venezuela. 
Societe    Generale    de    Transports    Maritimes    a    Vapeur.      Steamship    service 

between  Mediterranean  ports,  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Uruguay. 
United  Fruit  Co.     New  York  and  South  American  ports  steamship  service. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.  TRACTION  AND  POWER 

COMPANIES 

Anglo-Argentine  Tramways  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1887.  Office,  62  Gresham  House, 
Old  Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Auth.  share  capital,  $55,000,000  (U.  S.).  Issued 
share  capital,  $44,750,000  (U.  S.).  Owns  350  miles  street  railroads  in  Buenos 
Aires. 

Anglo-Mexican  Electric  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1906.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$1,500,000  (U.  S.).  Holds  controlling  interest  in  the  Puebla  Tramway,  Light 
and  Power  Co. 

Argentine  Power  and  Railless  Traction  Co.,  Ltd.  Authorized  by  government 
decree,  1913.  Offices,  1470  Sarmiento,  Buenos  Aires;  9  de  Julio,  1134,  Men- 
doza.  Capital,  auth.,  $3,500,000  gold.  Holds  various  concessions  —  some  in 
perpetuity  —  of  riparian  water  power. 

Barbados  Electric  Supply  Corporation,  Ltd.  Reg.  1909.  Office,  Basildon 
House,  Moorgate  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $300,000;  issued,  $275,860. 
Exclusive  right  to  supply  electric  power  for  the  city  of  Bridgetown. 

Brazilian  Traction,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  Canada  1912.  Office, 
9  Toronto  St.,  Toronto.  Capital,  auth.,  $120,000,000;  issued,  $114,177,200. 
Controls  Rio  de  Janeiro  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd.,  Sao  Paulo  Tram- 
way, Light  &  Power  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  the  Sao  Paulo  Electric  Co.,  Ltd. 

Brazilian  Street  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  OlTice,  134  Palmerston  House,  Bishops- 
gate,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $600,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $147,597  (U.  S.), 
Owns  street  railroads  (steam)  in  Pernambueo. 

Buenos  Aires  City  and  Suburban  Tramways,  Ltd.  Office,  4  Moorgate  St.,  Lon- 
don, E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $950,625  (U.  S.). 

Buenos  Aires  Lacroze  Tramways  Co.,  Ltd.  Office,  Buenos  Aires.  Capital,  auth. 
and  issued,  $25,000,000  paper. 

Buenos  Aires  Port  and  City  Tramways,  Ltd.  Reg.  1905.  Office,  4  Moorgate 
St.,  London,  E.  C.    Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued, $1,606,715  (U.  S.). 

Ceara  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd.  Fortaleza,  Brazil.  Reg.  1912. 
Office,  42  New  Broad  St.,  London.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000  (U.  S.)  ;  issued, 
$1,650,000  (U.  S.). 

Central  Mexican  Light  and  Power  Co.  Inc.  Maine  1910.  Reg.  office,  Colorado 
Springs,  Col.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $2,750,000. 

City  of  Santos  Improvements.  Reg.  1880.  Office,  174  Gresham  House,  Old 
Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $4,500,000  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $3,420,755. 
Owns  street  railroads,  gas,  water  and  electric  light  works  in  Santos,  Brazil. 


852  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

CoMPANiE  D'Entreprises  Electriques  de  Para.     Reg.  Antwerp  1899.     Capital, 

auth.  and  issued,  2,500,000  francs  ($500,000). 
COMPANHiA  Braziliera  DE  Eneryia  Electrica.    Reg.  Rio  de  Janerio  1909.    Capital 

auth.  and  issued  niilreis  paper  30,000,000   ($10,000,000). 
Companhia  de  Electricidade  e  ViAgAO  Urbana  de  M  inas  Geraes.    Brazil.    Reg. 

1912.    Power  stations,  electric  street  railroads  and  lighting. 
Compania  Alemana  Transatlantica  de  Electricidad.    Reg.  Buenos  Aires.    Con- 
trols all  the  light  and  power  plants  in  the  city. 
Compania  de  Electricidad  de  laProvincia  de  Buenos  Aires,  Ltd.     Reg.  1911. 

Office,  24  St.  Mary  Ave.,  London,  E.  C.    Auth.  Share  Capital  $4,125,000  (U.  S.). 

Issued,  $3,500,000.     Owns  and  control  numerous  power  stations  in  the  suburbs 

of  Buenos  Aires  and  other  towns. 
Compania  de  Tramways  de  Buenos  Aires  a  Quilmes.    Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1904. 

Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $200,000  gold. 
Compania  General  de  Electricidad  Industrial.     Reg.  Chile.     Office,  Santiago. 

Capital,  1,700,000  pesos   (paper). 
Compania  Hidro-Electrica  de  Tucuman,  Sociedad  Anonima.     Argentina.     Inc. 

Argentina  1910.     Office,  Buenos  Aires.     Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000  gold;  issued, 

$555,000. 
Compania   Industrial   de   Electricidad   del   Rio   de    la   Plata.     Reg.   Buenos 

Aires  1900.     Share  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $600,000  gold. 
Compania  Luz  y  Fuerza  de  Parana.    Reg.  Buenos  Aires.     Capital,  auth.,  $795,- 

000  paper. 
Cordoba  Light,  Power  and  Traction  Co.,  Ltd.    Argentina.    Reg.  1908.    Office,  62 

London    Wall,    London,    E.    C.     Capital,    auth.,    $5,000,000     (U.    S.)  ;    issued, 

$4,500,000. 
Cordoba  Electric  Tramways  Construction  Co.,  Ltd.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$250,000  (U.  S-.). 
Empresa  de  Luz  y  Fuerza  Electrica.    Guayaquil,  Ecuador.     Capital,  auth.  and 

issued,  $750,000   (U.  S.). 
Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.  of  Cochabamba  (Compania  Luz  y  Fuerza  Elec- 
trica Cochabamba).       Bolivia.      Caiiital,    auth.,    5,000,000    bolivianos;    issued, 

1,015,500  bolivianos. 
Febro  Carril  de  Pernambuco.     Brazil.     Reg.  Recife  1870.     Street  railroads. 
FoRCA  E  Luz  de  Cataguazes.     Reg.  Cataguazes,  Brazil,  1905.     Light  and  power 

concessions  in  three  towns. 
Forca  e  Luz  Porto  Alegbense.   Brazil.     Reg.  Porto  Alegre  1905.     Electric  light 

and  street  railroads. 
Guanajuato  Power  and  Electric  Co.      Mexico.      Inc.   Colorado  1902.     Head 

office,  Hagerman  Buildings,  Colorado  Springs,  Col.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$5,000,000. 
International  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd'.     Reg.  Toronto  1913.     Office,  Cana- 
dian Bank  of  Comivierce  Building,  Toronto.     Capital,  auth.,  $10,000,000. 
La  Plata  Electric  Tramways  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Office,  London.     Capital, 

auth.,  $2,250,000   (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $1,756,935. 
Lima  Light,  Power  and  Tramways  Co.  (Empresas  Electricas  Asoeiadas).     Inc. 

Peru  1910.     Capital,  auth.,  $7,500,015  (U.  S.) ;  issued,  $6,350,015   (U.  S.). 
Manaos  Tramways  and  Light  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1909.     Office,  London.     dnnUxh 

auth.  and  issued,  $1,500,000   (U.  S.). 
Mexican  Electric  Light  Co.,  Ltd.     Inc.  Canada  1905.     Capital  stock  auth.  and 

issued,  $6,000,000.     Properties  leased  to  Mexican  Light  &  Power  Co. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  853 

Mexican  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd.     Inc.  Canada  1902.     Capital,  auth.,  $25,- 

000,000;   issued,  $19,585,000.     Owns  large  concessions  of  water  power.     Con- 
trolled by  the  Mexican  Tramways  Co. 
Mexican  Northern  Power  Co.,  Ltd.     Inc.  Canada  1909.     Head  office,  76  Ade- 
laide   St.,    West,    Toronto.     Capital,    auth.,    $15,000,000;    issued,    $12,600,000. 

Formed  to  acquire  all  the  issued  share  capital  of  the  Compania  Agricola  y  de 

Fuerza    Electrica    del    Rio    Conchos    Sociedad    Anonima,    a   Mexican    company 

owning  concessions  of  water  power,  lands  and  railroads. 
Michoacan  Power  Co.     Inc.   Colorado.     Capital,  auth.   and  issued,  $1,000,000. 

Worked  by  the  Guanajuato  Power  &  Electric  Co, 
Minas   Geraes   Light   and   Tramways   Co.    (Companhia   de   Electricidade   e. 

ViAQAO   Urbana  de   Minas   Geraes).     Inc.   Brazil   1912.     Capital,   auth.   and 

issued,  $500,000. 
Monterey  Railway,  Light  and  Power  Co.     Mexico.     Inc.  Canada  1905  as  the 

Monterey  Electric  and  Gas  Co.    Head  office,  Toronto.    Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000 ; 

issued,  $4,600,000,     Street  railroads,  waterworks  and  sewerage  concessions  in 

addition  to  light  and  power  business. 
Pachuca  (Mexico)  Light  and  Power  Co.  (Compania  de  Luz  y  Fuerza  de  Pachuca 

Sociedad  Anonima).     Inc.  Mexico  1910,     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $4,000,000 

(Mexican),   all  held   by  the  Mexican  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Ltd.     The  Pachuca 

Company  was  originally  formed  as  the  Compania  Irrigadora  y  de  Luz  del  Estado 

de  Hidalgo  Sociedad  Anonima. 
(^uiTO    Ei.e(jtric    Light    and    Power    Co,      Ecuador,     Reg,    New    Jersey    1905. 

Capital,  auth,  and  i.ssued,  $450,000, 
(^}uito  Tramway.s  Co.    Reg.  Wilmington,  Del,    Capital,  auth,  and  issued,  $450,000. 
Rio  de  Janeiro  Tramway,   Light  and  Power    Co,,   Ltd.     Reg.   Canada  1904. 

Capital,   auth,  and  issued,   $4,000,0<)0.    Controlled  by  the  Brazilian   Traction, 

Light  and  Power  Co.     Also  holds  gas  and  telephone  concessions. 
River  Plate  Electricity  Co.,  Ltd.    Argentina.    Reg,  1902.    Office,  Capel  House, 

62    New    Broad    St.,    London,    E.    C.      Capital,    auth,,    $1,750,000    (U.    S.); 

issued,  $1,625,000. 
Rosario  Electric  Co.,  Ltd.     Argentina.     Reg.  1902.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,800,000 

(U.  S.);  issued,  $1,400,000. 
Sao  Paulo  Electric  Co.,  Ittd.     Brazil.    Inc.  Canada  1910.    Head  office.  Manning 

Arcade,  Toronto.     Capital,  auth.,  $10,000,000  (U,  S,) ;  issued,  $5,000,000. 
Sao  Paulo  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  Canada  1899.     Share 

capital,    auth,,    $10,000,000,      Controlled    by    the    Brazilian    Traction,    Light    & 

Power  Co, 
South  American  Light  and  Power  Co,,  Ltd,    Reg,  1902,    Head  office,  Dashwood 

House,  New  Broad   St.,  London,   E.   C.     Capital,   auth.,  $1,000,000    (U.    S.) ; 

issued,  $862,000.     Supplies  power  mainly  in  Argentina. 
Southern  Brazil  Electric  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1913.     Office,  188  Dashwood  House, 

New  Broad   St.,  London,   E,   C,     Capital,   auth.,  $3,750,000    (U.   S.);   issued, 

$1,800,000  (U.  S.). 
Tampico  Electric  Light,  Power  &  Traction  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1912.     Office,  47 

Parliament  St.,  London.    Capital,  auth,  and  issued,  $1,250,000  (U.  S.), 
United  Electric  Tramways  of  Caracas,  Ltd.    Venezuela.     Reg.  1906.     Capital, 

auth.,  $1,000,000  (U,  S.) ;  issued,  $850,000. 
United  Electric  Tramways  of  Montevideo,  Ltd.      Reg.  1904.      Capital,  antli. 

and  issued,  $2,500,000   (U.  S.). 


854  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Venezuela  Electric  LiCxHT  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  Canada  1905. 

Vera  Cruz  Electric  Light,  Power  and  Traction  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1906.     Office, 
47  Parliament  St.,  London.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,750,000   (U.  S.). 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  CONCERNS 

American  Metal  Co.,  Ltd.    Inc.  New  York  1887.       Controls   Compania  Minera 

de  Penoles  of  Mapime,  Mexico,  and  Lanyon  Starr  Smelting  Co.  of  Mexico. 
Anglo-Brazilian  Meat  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1912.     Offices,  1-4  Giltspur  St.,  London, 
E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $700,000   (U.  S.)  ;  issued,  .$575,000   (U.  S.).     Beef  cur- 
ing business  at  Bage,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
Anglo-Chilian  Pastoral  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1904.     Office,  31  Budge  Row,  Cannon 
St.,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,   auth.,   $600,000;   issued,  $41,800.     Holds  conces- 
sions of  1,440,000  acres  land;  sheep  and  cattle  raising. 
Argentine  Hardwoods  &  Lands  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1910.     Office,  53  Palmerston 
House,    Old    Broad    St.,    London,    E.    C.      Capital,    auth.,    $1,625,000;    issued, 
$1,144,950.     Lumber  estates,  about  117,357  acres. 
Argentine   Refining   Co.      (Reftneria   Argentina    Sociedad   Anonima).     Formed 
1886.     Office,  Calle  Bartolome  Mitre  531  (altos),  Buenos  Aires.     Capital,  auth., 
$3,000,000;  issued,  $2,000,000.     Sugar  refiners  and  selling  agents  for  Argentine 
sugar  factories. 
Argentine  Stone  and  Brick:  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1909.     Office,  8/9  Broad  St.  Ave., 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $375,000;  issued,  $317,875. 
Argentine  Timber  and   Estates   Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.   1915.     Office,  3   St,  Helen's 
Place,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $215,000 ;  issued,  $189,250.     Owns  about 
193  square  miles  freehold  lumber  lands  at  Santa  Barbara,  North  Argentina. 
Argentine  Tobacco  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1911.    Office,  8  Crosby  Square,  London,  E.  C. 

Capital,  auth.,  $9,816,330;  issued,  $8,821,210. 
Argentine  Warrant  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  Buenos  Aires.    Warehousing  and  forwarding. 
Argentine  Western  Petroleu]m  Syndicate,  Ltd.    Office,  13  South  Place,  London, 

E.  C.     Capita!,  auth.,  $250,000. 
Arizu  Estate  (Sociedad  Anonima  Bodegas  Arizu).     Reg.  1907.     Office,  Mendoza, 
Argentina.     Capital,   auth.,   $10,000,000   paper;    issued,   $6,000,000   paper.     In 
United  States  currency  these  two  amounts  represent  $4,366,810  and  $2,620,085 
respectively).     Wine  growers. 
AviNO  Mines,  Ltd.    (Mexico).     Reg.   1909.     Silver,   lead  and   copper.     Capital, 

auth.,  $250,000;   issued,  $93,750. 
Azucarera  Argentina  Sociedad  Anonima.     Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1882.     Capital, 

auth.  and  issued,  $1,500,000  gold.     Sugar  refiners. 
Azucarera  Concepion   Sociedad  Anonima.     Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1902.     Capital, 

paid  up,  $3,000,000  gold.     Sugar  plantations  and  refineries. 
Bagley  (M'.  S.)  and  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1907.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$1,500,000  gold.     Cracker  manufacturers. 
Bayano    River     (Panama)     Lumber    Co.      Iiic.    Maine    1907.       Capital,    auth., 

$2,000,000 ;  outstanding,  $1,000,000. 
Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation.     Owns  iron-ore  dei)osits  near  Coquimbo,  Chile. 
Braden   Copper  Mines   Co.    (Chile).     Inc.   Delaware  1909.     Capital,  $2,332,030. 
Owns  mines,  plant  and  railroads  in  the  Province  of  O'Higgins,  Chile.     Office, 
120  Broadway,  New  York. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  855 

Brazilian  Extract  of  Meat  and  Hide  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1887.  Office,  3  Great 
Winchester  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $577,820;  issued,  $105,545.  Hide 
and  jerked  beef  factory  at  Paredao,  near  Porto  Alegre,  Brazil. 

Brazilian  Warrant  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1911.  Office,  Brazil  House,  2  Great  St. 
Helen's,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000;  issued,  $4,312,500.  Provides 
financial,  warehousing  and  transport  facilities  to  coffee,  teas,  etc.,  principally 
in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo. 

British  and  Argentine  Meat  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1892  as  James  Nelson  &  Sons, 
Ltd.;  name  changed  in  1914.  Office,  Cecil  House,  Holborn  Viaduct,  London, 
E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $10,000,000;  issued,  $7,263,630. 

Buenos  Aires  Southern  Dock  Co.,  Ltd,  Reg.  1898.  Office,  River  Plate  House, 
Finsbury  Circus,  London,  E.  C.  '  Capital,  auth.,  .$5,000,000 ;  issued,  $3,500,000. 
Perpetual  concession  from  Argentine  government  to  construct,  own  and  woi-k 
docks  at  Buenos  Aires. 

Capillitas  Consolidated  Mines,  Ltd.  Reg.  1909.  Capital,  auth.  $3,000,000; 
issued,  $2,080,520.     Copper  and  timber;  about  125,000  acres  lands. 

Catalinas  Warehouses  and  Mole  Co.,  Ltd.  (Vias  de  Ferrocarril  Catalinas). 
Reg.  1897.  Capital,  auth.,  $7,100,000  (U.  S.).  Owns  dock  warehouses  at 
Buenos  Aires. 

Central  Aguirre  Sugar  Companies.    Plant  at  Jobos,  Porto  Rico. 

Central  Cuba  Sugar  Co.     Inc.  New  York  1911. 

Central  Produce  Market  op  Buenos  Aires  (Sociedad  Anonima  Mercado 
Central  de  Frutos).  Est.  Argentina  1886.  Capital,  auth.,  $3,000,000;  issued, 
$2,734,400.  Central  Market  concession  at  the  terminus  of  the  Western  Railway 
of  Buenos  Aires  on  the  Riachuelo. 

Chilian  Mills  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1900.  Office,  104  King  St.,  Manchester,  Kiig. 
Capital,  auth.,  $750,000;  issued,  $265,075.  Owns  cotton  mills  in  Chile;  closed 
in  1915  owing  to  the  war. 

Chilian  National  Ammunition  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1896.  Office,  5  Cook  St.,  Liver- 
pool.    Capital,  auth.,  $225,000;  issued,  $174,810.     Works,  Valparaiso. 

City  op  Buenos  Aires  Markets  Co.,  Ltd.  (Sociedad  Anonima  Mercado  Ciudad 
de  Buenos  Aires).  Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1899.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$2,000,000  paper.     Poultry,  meat,  fruit  and  vegetable  markets. 

City  op  Santos  (Brazil)  Improvements  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1880.  Office,  174 
Gresham  House,  Old  Broad  St.,  London,  E,  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$5,000,000.     Tramways,  gasworks  and  water  supply  in  Santos,  Sao  Paulo. 

CoMPANiA  de  Real  del  Monte  y  Pachuca.  (Mexico).  Gold  and  silver  mining 
claims  and  agricultural  lands.  Over  30,000  acres.  Controlled  by  the  United 
States  Smelting  Refining  and  Mining  Co.,  120  Broadway,  N.  Y. 

CoMPANiA  General  de  Fosforos.  Reg.  Buenos  Aires.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$5,100,000  paper  ($2,235,000.)     Match  factories  and  paper  mills. 

COMPANIA  Metalurgica  Mexicaxa.  Inc.  New  Jersey  1890.  Capital  stock  auth. 
and  issued,  $4,000,000.  •  Smelting  works  at  San  Luis  Potosi ;  silver  and  lead 
properties  at  Sierra  Mojada,  Coahuila;  controls  Alvarez  Land  and  Timber  Co., 
Mexican  Lead  Co.,  Mexican  Mineral  Railroad  Co.,  Montezuma  Lead  Co.,  Potosi 
and  Rio  Verde  Railway  Co.,  Sombrerete  Mining  Co.,  etc.  Office,  82  Beaver  St., 
New  York. 

Compania  Muelles  y  Depositos  del  Puerto  de  la  Plata.  -  Reg.  in  Buenos  Aires 
and  La  Plata.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $6,400,000  gold.  Pier  and  warehouses 
at  La  Plata. 


856  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

CoMPANiA  Nacional  de  Caseina  (Natioxal  Dairy  Co.).    Capital,  auth.,  $500,000 

paper;  issued,  $479,000  paper. 
CoMPANiA  Nacional.  de  Transpobtes.     (Vilklonga  Express  Co.)     Reg.  Buenos 

Aires  1907.     Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000  paper;  issued,  $2,500,000  paper.     Goods 

and  baggage  transport;  ship,  rail  and  customs  agents. 
Costa  Rica  Markets  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1886.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $300,000. 

Office,  9  New  Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C. 
Cuban-American  Sugar  Co.    Inc.  New  Jersey  1906.    Capital,  auth.,  $20,000,000 ; 

issued,   $15,029,400,     Owns  367,000   acres,  8   factories,   2   refineries,   336   miles 

railroads,  brickyards,  houses,  electric  light  and  water  supply  plants,  etc.     Office, 

129  Front  St.,  New  York. 
('UBAN    AND   Pan-American    Express  Co.     Inc.    New    Jersey    1898.      Office,    42 

Broadway,  New  York. 
Dominica    Forests   and    Sawmills,   Ltd.      Reg.    1911.      Office,    53,    Palmerston 

House,  Old  Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C.    Capital,  auth.,  $400,000 ;  issued,  $296,400. 

Forest  lands,  warehouses,  limes  and  cocoanuts. 
Drogueria  de  la  Estrella,  Ittd.    Capital,  paid  up,  $2,426,100  paper.    Druggists 

and  photographic  dealers. 
Estates  Control,  Ltd.    Reg.  1903  and  1911.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,250,000. 

Cattle,  raw  material,  and  inveslments  in  Bovril  Argentine  Estates  and  Yirol,  Ltd. 
Fajardo  Sugar  Co.    Inc.  New  Jersey  1905.     Porto  Rico. 
Falkland  Islands  Co.,  Ltd.     Inc.  Royal  Charter  1851.     Reg.  1902.     Office,  61 

Gracechurch    St.,   London,    E.    C.      Capital,    auth.,   $800,000;    issued,   $715,000. 

Sheep  farming,  importation  of  goods,  ship  rejiairing. 
FuNDiciON  Y  Talleres  "  La  Union."     Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1903.     Capital,  auth., 

$700,000  pai)er;  issued,  $600,000.    Iron  foundry  and  engineering  works. 
German-American  Coffee  Co.    Inc.  New  Jersey  1903.    Capital,  $1,000,000;  out- 
standing, $585,250.    Owns  about  43,000  acres  in  Chiapas,  Mexico.    Coffee,  choco- 
late, rubber,  lemons,  vanilla,  oranges. 
Germania  Estancia,  Ltd.     Reg.  1899.     Office,  Thames  House,  Queen  St.  Place, 

London,  E.  C.     Cai)ital,  auth.  and  issued,  $750,000.     Owns  the  Estancia  ''  La 

Germania  "  in  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires. 
GiROUX  Consolidated  Mines   Co.     Inc.  Delawai-e  1003.     Owns  copper  mines  in 

the  State  of  Sonora,  Mexico.     Controlk'd  by  the  Consolidated  Coppermines  Co. 
Harrods    (Buenos   Aires)    Limited.     Reg.    Buenos    Aires    1913.     Capital,    auth., 

1,582,000   pounds   sterling    ($7,910,000).     A   branch   or   offshoot   of   the   great 

department  store  of  that  name  in  London. 
Havana  Coal  Co.     Inc.  New  Jersey  1904.     Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000.     Controls 

Campania  Habanera  de  Yapores  y  Lanchas,  Berwindvale  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd., 

Berwindmore  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  Compania  Carbonera  de  Yeracruz. 
Havana  Tobacco  Co. 

Havana  Commercial  Co.     Tobacco  and  cigars. 
Henry  Clay  and  Bock  &  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1888. 

(The  foregoing  companies  are  controlled  by  the  American  Cigar  Co.) 
Introductora  de  Buenos  Aires.    Reg.  1912.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,000,000 

gold.     Importers  and  manufacturers. 
Jamaica  Copra  and  Estates  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1913.     Office,  Winchester  House, 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $250,000;  issued,  $119,110. 
La  Argentina  de  Papel.  Reg.  Buenos  Aires.   Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $7,000,000 

]);iper.     I'aper  factory. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  857 

La    Co-operativa    de    Haciendados    (Live    Stock    Co-operative    Society).      Reg. 

Buenos  Aires  1904.    Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000  paper;  issued,  $1,760,000  paper. 
La  Co-Operativa  Nacional  de   Consumos.     Reg.  Buenos  Aires  1906.     Capital, 

auth.,  $2,000,000  gold,  $4,000,000  paper;  issued,  $427,420  gold,  and  $3,629,120 

paper.     Co-operative  stores  in  the  capital  and  several  branches  in  Argentina. 
La  Guaira  (Venezuela)   Harbor  Corporation,  Ltd.     Reg.  1885.     Office,  6  Broad 

St.  Place,  London,  E.  C.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $2,000,€00.    Concessions  in 

perpetuity  of  harbor  and  quay  at  La  Guaira,  the  port  of  Caracas,  Venezuela. 
La  Martona  Co.  (Sociedad  Anonyma  La  Martona).    Inc.  Argentina  1900.    Office, 

Buenos  Aires.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,350,000.     Owns  freehold  estancia  of 

15,000  acres  30  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  a  dairy  business  in  that  city. 
La  Maya  Valley  Land  and  Improvement  Co.  (Cuba).    Inc.  Maine  1905.    Owns 

about  (50,000  acres  of  timber  and  cane. 
Las  Cabezas  Estancia  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1906.     Office,  Finsbury  Pavement  House, 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $1,000,000;  issued,  $800,250.     Owns  estancias  in 

the  Province  of  Entre  Rios,  Argentina. 
Liebig  Extract  of  Meat  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1865.    Office,  Thames  House,  Queen  St. 

Place,  London,  E.  C.    Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $8,000,000.    Manufacturers  and 

shippers  of  South   American   produce.      Extensive   landholdings   in   Argentina, 

Colombia  and  Uruguay. 
Lighterage  Co.  of  Montevideo,  Ltd.  (Uruguay).    Reg.  1901.    Office,  39  Lombard 

St.,    London,    E.    C.      Capital,    authorized,   $215,000;    issued,   $175,000.      Tug 

owners  and  lightennen. 
Manaos  Harbour,  Ltd.  (Brazil).    Reg.  1902.    Office,  11  Adelphi  Terrace,  Strand, 

London,    W.    C.      Capital,    auth.    and    issued,   $2,500,000.      Harbor   works    and 

bonded  warehouse  concessions. 
Manaos  Improvements,  Ltd.  (Brazil).    Reg.  1906.    Office,  9  New  Broad  St.,  Lon- 
don, E.  C.    Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000 ;  issued,  $1,702,500.    Water  supply  works 

and  sewerage  service. 
Manbre  Saccharine  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1897.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $2,250,000, 

Manufacturers  of  brewing  sugar. 
Mexican-American  Smelting  &  Refining  Co.,  Guaymas,  Sonora.    Capital,  auth. 

and  issued  (fully  paid),  $2,000,000  preferred  and  $6,000,000  common.    General 

office,  42  Broadway,  New  York. 
Mexican  Cotton  Estates  of  Tlahualilo,  Ltd.    Reg.    1903.    Office,  119  Finsbury 

Pavement,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,250,000. 
Mexican  Crude  Rubber  Co.    Inc.  Michigan  1906.    Capita!,  auth.  and  outstanding, 

$1,500,000.     Factories  at   Cedral,  Viesca,   Coahuila,   San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico. 

Also,  3,500  acres  of  rubber  trees  in  the  Federated  Malay  States. 
Mexican   Eagle   Oil  (^o.     Inc.  Mexico   1908.     Capital,  $50,000,000    (Mexican). 

Holds  about  800,000  acres. 
Mexican  Exploration  and  Mining  Co.     Controlled  by  the  Pacific  Smelting  and 

Mining  Co.  (q.v.). 
Mexican  Gold  and  Sllver  Recovery  Co.,  Ltd.     Reg.  1899.     Office,  65  London 

Wall,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $300,000 ;  issued,  $251,305.     Acquiring  and 

developing  mining  properties. 
Mexican  Iron  and  Steel  Co.    Inc.  Arizona  1909.    Office,  Boston,  Mass.     Capital, 

auth.,  $5,000,000 ;  outstanding,  $2,500,000.     Owns  200,000  acres  timber  land  and 

four  iron-ore  deposits.    Closed  down  1912  owing  to  disturbed  internal  conditions. 


858  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

Mexican  Lead  Co.  Inc.  New  Jersey  1899.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $1,250,000. 
Controlled  by  the  Compania  Metalurgica  Mexieana  (q.v.). 

Mexican  Mahogany  and  Rubber  Corporation,  Ltd.  Inc.  Canada  1910.  Office, 
145  St.  James  St.,  Montreal.     Capital,  auth.  and  outstanding,  $1,000,000. 

Mexican  National  Packing  Co.,  Ltd.  Inc.  Maine  1911.  Head  office,  Mexico 
City.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $12,750,000.  Holds  government  concessions  for 
the  development  of  the  live  stock  and  meat  industries. 

Mexican  Petroleum  Co.,  Ltd.  Inc.  Delaware  1907.  Capital  stock,  auth., 
$60,000,000 ;  issued,  $49,689,000.  Owns  or  controls  about  600,000  acres  of  land, 
30  oil-wells,  tanks,  storage,  etc.,  10  miles  railroad,  8,000  head  of  cattle,  1,500 
horses.  This  Company  and  the  Pan-American  Petroleum  and  Transport  Co. 
between  them  own  or  control:  Mexican  Petroleum  Co.  of  California  (Inc.  1910) ; 
Huasteca  Petroleum  Co.  (Inc.  Maine  1907)  ;  Tamiahua  Petroleum  Co.  (Inc.  Maine 
1906) ;  Tuxpam  Petroleum  Co.  (Inc.  Maine  1906) ;  Petroleum  Transport  Co.  (Inc. 
Maine),  capital  stock  auth.  and  outstanding,  $3,000,000,  also  entire  capital 
stock  of  the  Mexican  Marine  Co.  and  Petroleum  Carriers,  I^td. ;  Mexican  Petro- 
leum Corporation  (Inc.  Maine)  ;  capital,  auth.,  .$2,000,000.  Head  office,  1015 
Security  Building,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Montezuma  Lead  Co.  Inc.  New  Jersey  1899.  Capital  stock  auth.,  $500,000  pre- 
ferred and  $2,500,000  common.  Controlled  by  the  Compania  Metalurgica  Mexi- 
eana  (q.v.). 

Municipality  of  Para  Improvements,  Ltd.  Reg.  1907  and  1909.  Office,  65 
Bishopsgate,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000 ;  issued,  $1,833,365.  Con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  drainage  system. 

National  Match  Factory  op  Bolivia,  Ltd.  Reg.  1907.  Office,  65  Bishopsgate, 
London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $400,000.  Exclusive  right  to  make 
and  sell  matches  in  Bolivia  until  1930. 

National  Match  Factory  of  Venezuela,  Ltd.  Reg.  1905,  1909.  Office,  65 
Bishopsgate,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,100,000;  issued,  $1,099,835. 
Exclusive  rights  in  Venezuela  until  1929. 

New  Trinidad  Lake  Asphalt  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1887,  Office,  2  St.  Helen's  Place, 
London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $2,500,000.  Owns  2,600  acres  freehold 
land  and  exclusive  right  to  remove  asphalt  from  a  pitch  lake  until  1930. 

North  Brazilian  Sugar  Factories,  Ltd.  Reg.  1887.  Office,  1  Gresham  Build- 
ings, Basinghall  St.,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $500,770.  Owns 
factory  and  estates  at  Tiuma,  in  Pernambueo. 

Obispo  Rubber  Plantation  Co.,  Tuxtepec,  Oaxaca,  Mexico.  Inc.  New  Jersey  1901. 
Office,  29  Broadway,  New  York.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,500,000;  outstanding, 
$1,096,400. 

Olca  Sulphur  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1910.  Office,  11-12  Finsbury  Square,  London,  E.  C. 
Capital,  auth.,  $1,000,000;  issued,  $464,535.  Owns  about  1,750  acres  of  native 
sulphur  deposits  in  Bolivia.    No  operations  were  in  progress  in  November  1914. 

Pacific  Smelting  and  Mining  Co.  Inc.  Maine  1909,  consolidating  the  Douglas 
Copper  Co.  (1903)  and  the  Mexican  Exploration  and  Mining  Co.  Also  acquired 
(1910)  90  per  cent  of  the  capital  of  the  Mexican-American  Smelting  and  Refin- 
ing Co.   (q.v.). 

S.  Pearson  &  Son,  Ltd.  Contractors.  Reg.  1897.  Office,  47  Parliament  St., 
Westminster,  London.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $7,505,000.  Concessions  in 
Mexico,  railroads  and  harbor  construction  and  management  till  1953. 

I'KRUviAx  Cotton  Manufacturing  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1897.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 
$500,000. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  859 

Pranges  Estancia  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1867.  Office,  29  Exchange  Chambers,  Bixteth 
St.,  Liverpool.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $600,000.  Owns  horse,  sheep  and  cattle 
ranches  (60,000  acres)  at  Nueva  Alemania,  Uruguay. 

Railway  Finance  and  Construction  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1901.  Office,  55  London 
Wall,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $500,000;  issued,  $461,460.  Interested  in 
Venezuela  Central  Railway  Co.,  Ltd.,  Mexican  Union  Railway,  Ltd.,  and  Cen- 
tral Railway  of  Ecuador,  Ltd. 
Rambla  Company  of  Montevideo,  Ltd.  Reg.  1911.  Office,  1  Broad  St.  Place, 
London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $4,250,000;  issued,  $906,325.  Government  con- 
cessions, land  reclamation.  Matter  of  concessions  in  dispute  owing  to  repudia- 
tion by  Uruguayan  government. 

Rio  DE  Janeiro  City  Improvements  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1862.  Office,  228  Dashwood 
House,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $6,250,000;  issued,  $5,963,875.  Public 
works,  drainage,  etc. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  Flour  Mills  and  Granaries,  Ltd.  Reg.  1886.  Office,  48  Moor- 
gate  St.,  London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.,  $4,000,000;  issued,  $3,040,005. 

Rosario  Drainage  Co.,  Ltd.  (Argentina).  Reg.  1897.  Office,  52  Moorgate  St., 
London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,470,000;  issued,  $2,446,000.  Concession  to 
operate  a  drainage  and  sewerage  system  in  the  City  of  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe, 
Argentina. 

Salinas  of  Mexico,  Ltd.  Reg.  1906.  Office,  9  New  Broad  St.,  London,  E.  C. 
Capital,  auth.,  $1,625,000;  issued,  $1,406,285.     Salt  producing  properties. 

San  Antonio  Copper  Co.  Inc.  Arizona  1908.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000.  Work 
suspended  since  1912  owing  to  internal  disturbances. 

San  Quintin  Milling  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1893.  Office,  10  Copthall  Avenue,  London, 
E.  C.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $100,000,  Flour  and  other  mills  at  St.  Quin- 
tin, Lower  California,  Mexico. 

Sansinena  Frozen  Meat  Co.  (La  Compania  de  Carnes  Congeladas).  Inc. 
Argentina  1891.  Office,  132  Calle  San  Martin,  Buenos  Aires.  Capital,  auth., 
$6,500,000  gold;  issued,  $4,500,000  gold.  Extensive  freezing  establishments  in 
Argentina  and  Uruguay. 

Santa  Cecilia  Sugar  Co.  Inc.  Maine  1904.  Guantanamo,  Cuba.  Capital,  auth., 
$2,500,000;  issued,  $1,500,000.     Annual  production,  26,000,000  lbs. 

Santa  Gertrudis  Co.,  Ltd.  Inc.  1909.  Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $7,500,000. 
Owns  600  acres  gold  and  silver  mines  at  Paehuca,  Mexico.  Controlled  by  Camp 
Bird,  Ltd. 

Santa  Gertrudis  Jute  Mill  Co.,  Ltd.  Office,  47  Parliament  St.,  London.  Capital, 
auth.,  $1,000,000;  issued,  $763,700.  Concession  at  Orizaba,  near  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico. 

Santa  Rosa  Milling  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1913.  Office,  7  Gracechurch  St.,  London, 
E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,500,000 ;  issued,  $2,000,000.  Flour  milling  concerns  in 
Callao,  Peru,  and  Concepcion,  Chile. 

San  Toy  Mining  Co.  Inc.  Maine  1901.  Chihuahua,  Mexico.  Capital,  auth., 
$7,000,000.  Silver,  lead  and  iron-ore.  Operations  suspended  since  1915  owing 
to  internal  disturbances. 

South  American  Bank  Note  Co.  (Compania  Sud  Americana  de  Billetes  de 
Banco).  Buenos  Aires.  Capital,  auth.,  $2,000,000  paper;  issued,  $1,388,000 
paper. 

Southern  Patagonia  Sheep  Farming  Co.,  Ltd.  Reg.  1912.  Office,  29  Great  St. 
Helen's,  London,  E.  C.  Capital,  auth.,  $1,250,000;  issued,  $780,015.  Owns 
sheep  farming  properties  in  Argentina  and  Chile. 


860  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

South  Porto  Rico  Sugar  Co.  Inc.  New  Jersey  1900.  Capital,  auth.,  $8,000,000. 
Controls  the  following:  Encenada  Estates  (Inc.)  of  6,000  acres;  Bernal  Estate 
of  10,000  acres;  Guanica  Central  of  14,000  acres ;  Fortuna  Estates  of  6,000 
acres,  all  in  Porto  Rico;  Central  Romana  (Inc.)  of  35,000  acres  in  Dominica. 

Tabasco  Plantation  Co.  (Mexico).  Inc.  Delaware  1901.  Office,  Plymouth  Build- 
ing, Minneapolis,  Minn.  Capital,  auth.,  $5,000,000.  Owns  32,000  acres;  dis- 
tillery; cattle,  rubber,  sugar,  cacao. 

Teziutlan  Copper  Mining  and  Smelting  Co.  States  of  Puebla  and  Oaxaca, 
Mexico,  Office,  82  Beaver  St.,  New  York.  Capital,  $10,000,000.  Ten  miles  of 
railroad  and  17,400  acres  of  land. 

TlERRA    DEL    FUEGO    DEVELOPMENT    CO.     ( SOCIEDAD    EXPLOTADORA    DEL    TiERRA    DEL 

FuEGo).    Inc.  Chile  1892.     Head  office,  Valparaiso.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued, 

$9,000,000.     Pastoral  freehold  lands  in  Chile  and  Argentina,  2,298,196  acres; 

leasehold,  in  Chile,  4,910,000  acres. 
ToLTECA  Portland  Cement  Co.  (La  Tolteca  Compania  de  Cemento  Portland, 

SociEDAD  Anonima).     Inc.  Mexico  1912.     No  further  information. 
I'rinidad  Produce  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1912.    Capital,  auth.,  $250,000 ;  issued,  $200,000. 

Owns  the   Carenage   Estate    (about   650   acres,  freehold)    near  Port  of   Spain, 

Trinidad,  including  mineral  rights. 
Tucuman   Sugar   Co.    (Compania   Azucarera   Tucumana  Sociedad  Anonima). 

Formed   1895.      Head    office,    Buenos   Aires.      Capital,    auth.,   $5,000,000   gold; 

issued,  $4,000,000.     Owns  five  sugar  estates  and  factories    (118,384  acres)    in 

Argentina. 
TuiNucu  Sugar  Co.    Cuba.  Inc.  New  York  1891.    Capital,  auth.,  $500,000.    Owns 

5,500  acres. 
United  Fruit  Co.    Inc.  New  Jersey  1899.    Office,  131  State  St.,  Boston.    Capital, 

auth.,  $75,000,000;  issued,  $36,594,300.     Growers,  exporters  and  distributors  of 

tropical  fruits  and  products;  land  in  Central  America  and  West  Indies;  rail- 
roads, 964  miles;  tramways,  545  miles. 
Valparaiso  (Chile)  Drainage  Co.,  Ltd.    Reg.  1905.    Office,  571/2  Old  Broad  St., 

London,  E.  C.     Capital,  auth.  and  issued,  $800,000.     Exclusive  concessions  for 

laying  sewers  and  drains  in  Valparaiso. 


[  INSURANCE  COMPANIES 

ARGENTINA 

Equitable  Life  of  New  York;  New  York  Life;  Alliance  Assurance  Co.,  Ltd.;  Anglo- 
Argentine;  Atlas  Assurance  Co.,  Ltd.;  Royal  Exchange  Assurance  Co.;  Royal 
Insurance  Co.;  Phoenix  Assurance  Co.,  Ltd.;  North  British  and  Mercantile  Insur- 
ance Co.,  Ltd.;  Norwich  Union  Fire  Insurance  Society;  "Royal  National"; 
Scottish  Union  and  National  Insurance;  Sun  Insurance;  Union  Assurance 
Society,  Ltd.;  Ayuda  Mutua;  Commercio;  Imperial;  Franco- Argentina ;  Immo- 
bilaria;  Prevision  Popular;  Providencia;  La  Protectora  del  Hogar;  La  Pruden- 
cial;  La  Bahia  Blanca;  La  Nacion;  La  Mutua. 

BAHAMAS 

New  York  Life;  Equitable  of  New  York;  North  American  Life;  General  Accident, 
Fire  and  Life;  Imperial  Life  of  Canada;   Sun  Life  of  Canada;   Canada  Life. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  861 

BARBADOS 

Barbados  Mutual  Life  Association;  Standard  Life  Assurance  Co.  of  Scotland; 
The  Gresham;  Royal  of  England;  North  American  Life  of  Canada;  Manufac- 
turers Life  Association;  Palatine  Life  Assurance  Co.;  Sun  Life. 

BERMUDA 

New  York  Life  Insurance  Co.;  Manufacturers  Life  (of  Canada) ;  North  American 
Life  (Toronto) ;  Royal  Fire  and  Life  (Liverpool) ;  Sun  Life  of  Canada;  Federal 
Life  Assurance  of  Hamilton  (Canada);  Liverpool  and  London  and  Globe; 
Canadian  Railway  Accident,  Ottawa;  Standard  Life  of  Edinburgh;  Standard 
Life,  Canada ;  Mutual  Life,  New  York. 

BOLIVIA 

New  York  Life ;  La  Sud  America  of  Brazil ;  La  Previsora  of  Argentina;  La  Urbana 
of  Peru;  Internacional ;  Rimac. 

BRAZIL 

New  York  Life;  Equitable  of  New  York  (financial  agent  only) ;  AUianca  de  Bahia 
(marine  and  fire);  Brazil  Fire  and  Mai'ine  Insurance  Co.;  Compagnie  d'Assur- 
ances  Generales  Contre  I'Incendie;  Kquitativa  dos  Estados  Unidos  do  Brazil; 
Sul  America;  Confianca  Seguros  Maritimos  E  Terrestres;  Iris  (marine  and  fire) ; 
Lloyd  Americano  Fire  and  Marine  Insurance  Co.;  Paulista  de  Seguros;  Phenix 
Pernambucano ;  Seguros  Maritimos  E  Tei-restres  "  Lealdade;  "  Seguros  Maritimos 
E  Terrestres  "  Phenix  de  Porto  Alegre ; "  Providencia  do  Sul ;  Soeiedad  de 
Seguros  Maritimos  E  Terrestres  Porto  Alegrense ;  Seguros  Maranhaense ;  Cruseiro 
do  Sul. 

CANAL  ZONE 

Home  Life  Insurance  Co.;  Pan-American  Life  Insurance  Co.;  Manufacturers  Life 
Insurance  Co. ;  Illinois  Surety  Co. ;  National  Surety  Co. ;  Maryland  Casualty  Co. ; 
American  Surety  Co.;  United  States  Fidelity  and  Guaranty  Co, 

CHILE 

New  York  Life;  Equitable  of  New  York;  Sun  Life  of  Canada;  Sud  America; 
Noi'wich  Union ;  Liverpool  and  London ;  Phoenix  Assurance  Co.,  Ltd. ;  La  Franco- 
Chilena;  North  British  and  Mercantile;  Boka  de  Comercio;  La  AUianza  Chilena; 
La  Espanola;  Americana;  Salvadora;  London  Assurance  Corporation;  Atlas, 
Alliance  and  Guardian  Assurance  Companies. 

COLOMBIA 

Equitable  of  New  York  and  Sun  Life  of  Canada  (agencies) ;  Compana  de  Seguros 
de  Vida;  Compana  General  de  Seguros   (fire,  life  and  transport). 

COSTA  RICA 

Equitable  of  New  York;  New  York  Life;  Guardian  Life;  North  American  Life. 
(These  four  companies  are  represented  by  financial  agents  who  do  not,  however. 


862  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

wi-ite  any  new  business.)  Pan-American  Life  of  New  Orleans.  The  following 
Canadian  companies  operate  in  San  Jose  :  Confederation ;  Imperial  Life ;  Manu- 
facturers; Sun  Life,  Assessment  business  is  carried  on  by  the  Sociedad  Nacional 
de  Seguros  de  Vida  and  the  Sociedad  de  Economias  de  Guadeloupe. 

CUBA 

Equitable  of  New  York;  Mutual  of  New  York;  New  York  Life;  Sun  Life  of 
Montreal;  Standard  Life  Insurance  Co.     All  have  headquarters  in  Havana. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

New  York  Life;  Sun  Life  of  Canada. 

ECUADOR 

Compania  Guayaquil  de  Seguros. 

GUADELOUPE 

Equitable  of  New  York  and  New  York  Life;  London  Assurance  Corporation; 
Standard  Life,  London ;  Mutuelle  de  France  et  Colonies ;  Paris  La  Co-operation ; 
Manufacturers,  Toronto. 

GUATEMALA 

Pan-American  of  New  Orleans;  Sun  Life  of  Canada;  La  Imperial  del  Canada; 
Confederation  of  Canada.  The  Equitable  of  New  York  maintains  a  financial 
agent,  but  writes  no  new  business.  The  New  York  Life  has  an  agency  with  the 
Banco  Americano  de  Gruatemala. 

HAITI 

New  York  Life;  Standard  of  England. 

HONDURAS 

The  only  companies  licensed  to  do  business  in  the  republic  are  the  New  York 
Life  and  the  Imperial  Life  of  Canada. 

HONDURAS,  BRITISH 

Equitable  of  New  York;  New  York  Life:  agencies.  Norwich  Union  of  England; 
Sun  Life  of  Canada ;  Law  Union  and  Crown ;  Manufacturers  of  Canada ;  Pan- 
American  of  New  Orleans;  North  American  of  Toronto;  North  British  and 
]\lorc;)iitilo;  Standnrd  Life  Assurance,  Edinburgh. 

JAMAICA 

Barbados  Mutual;  .Jamaica  Mutual;  Sun  of  Canada;  Confederation  Life;  Canada 
Life;  London  Guarantee  and  Accident  Co.,  Ltd.;  London  Assurance;  Dominion 
of  Canada  Guarantee  and  Accident  Insurance  Co.;  North  American,  Royal; 
Manufacturers. 


COMPANIES  AND  PARTNERSHIPS  863 

MEXICO 

Equitable  of  New  York;  New  York  Life;  Mutual  Life  of  New  York;  Germania 
Life;  Confederation  Life  of  Canada;  Sun  of  Canada.  William  B.  Woodrow 
&  Co.  (health,  accident,  boiler  and  plate  glass  insurance)  ;  also  represent  the 
Maryland  Casualty  Co.  of  Baltimore.  Accident  and  health  insurance  is  also 
written  by  the  North  American  of  Chicago  and  the  London  Guarantee  and  Acci- 
dent Co.  Native  concerns  are  La  Latino-Americana;  Anglo-Mexicana  (1897); 
La  Mexicana  of  Mexico  City  (1888);  La  Nacional  of  Mexico  City  (1901); 
Mntualista;  Mexicana  contra  Riesgos  Y  Accident os. 

NICARAGUA 

K(|uitablo  of  New  York;  Pan-Anieiican  LitV  of  New  Orleans;  New  York  Life; 
Sun  Life  of  Canada;  Manufacturers;  Imperial;  (Jreat  Northern  of  London. 

PANAMA 

Home  Life,  New  York;  Pan-American  of  New  Orleans;  Manufacturers,  Toronto; 
American  Surety,  New  York;  Illinois  Surety,  Chicago;  Maryland  Casualty, 
Baltimore;  United  States  Fidelity  and  Guaranty,  Baltimore. 

PARAGUAY 

La  Paraguaya  Sociedad  de  Seguros  and  La  Nacional  Sociedad  de  Seguros,  both 
native  companies,  transact  life,  accident,  fire  and  marine  business. 

PERU 

La  Previsora  of  Buenos  Aires  has  branches  in  Callao  and  Lima.  La  Sud  America 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  Sun  Life  also  have  branches  in  both  cities.  Rimac 
Ins-urance  Co.  and  the  Italia  Fire  and  Marine  Insurance  Co.  are  both  registered 
at  Lima. 

PORTO  RICO 

New  York  Life;  Union  Central  Life,  (.*incinnati,  O. ;  American  Surety  Co.;  Fidelity 
and  Deposit  Co.;  National  Surety  Co.;  Employers  Liability  Assurance  Corpora- 
tion, Ltd.,  London;  and  the  following  Canadian  companies:  Manufacturers; 
Temperance  and  General;  Sun  Life. 

SALVADOR 

Pan-American  Life  of  New  Orleans;  Confederation  Life  and  Imperial  Life,  both 
of  Canada. 

ST.  THOMAS 

Equitable  of  New  York;  New  York  Life;  General  Life  of  the  Netherlands;  Copen- 
hagen Life;  Standard  Life;  Manufacturers  Lifo  and  Sun  Life  of  Canada. 

URUGUAY 

La  Franco-Argentina;  La  Mutua;  La  Previsora;  Banco  de  Seguro  del  Estado; 
La  Providencia;  La  Uruguaya;  Standard  Life;  Liverpool,  London  and  Globe; 
Guardian;  North  British  and  Mercantile;  British  and  Foreign  Maritime;  Sun 
Fire  Office. 

VENEZUELA 

Only  one  life  insurance  company  operates  in   the   republic,   Compania  Nacional 
Anonima  de  Seguros  "  La  Previsora." 
56 


The  Metric  System 


THE  metric  system  or  standard  is  obligatory  at  present  in 
Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba, 
Guatemala,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Peru,  Salvador, 
and  Uruguay,  and  is  optional  in  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  Vene- 
zuela. Its  employment  is  becoming  more  and  more  general  in  the 
Latin  American  countries.  To  such  an  extent  is  this  true,  that,  as 
Mr.  William  C.  Wells  writes  (in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Pan  American 
Union  for  January  1917),  one  will  indeed  often  hear  "  the  old 
words  ' ' —  'the  old  names  for  weights  and  measures  — ' '  but  almost 
always  with  a  meaning  adapted  to  the  new  scale. ' '  Of  course  this 
does  not  apply  to  the  unprogressive  regions  of  the  interior.  There 
the  old  names  are  retained  with  their  traditional  signification. 
But  wherever  foreign  commerce  gains  ground  the  metric  system 
establishes  itself  firmly. 

Recent  experience  has  shown  that  many  of  the  manufacturers 
can  make  the  change  without  undue  difficulty.  In  using  the  metric 
system  to  promote  export  trade  with  metric  countries,  common 
sense  should  take  the  practical  turn  of  deciding  how  far  its  use  is 
profitable.  For  example,  the  present  modes  of  use  of  the  metric 
system  in  export  trade  may  be  grouped  as  follows :  (a)  Complete 
use  of  the  metric  system  in  designing,  making,  and  selling;  (/;) 
price-listing  in  metric  equivalents  —  to  enable  the  foreign  buyer  to 
understand  quantities  and  prices;  (c)  packing  products  in  units 
of  metric  size;  (d)  labeling  metric  equivalents  on  the  unit  pack- 
ages the  contents  of  which  may  be  put  up  in  customary  units;  (e) 
stenciling  shipping  cases  for  export  with  the  quantities  in  metric 
units  to  meet  the  customs  requirements  in  metric  countries ;  filling 
metric  orders  with  the  regular-sized  packages  or  products,  merely 
billing  in  metric  terms  to  enable  the  buyer  to  check  price."  All  of 
the  above-mentioned  modes  will  be  found  in  use  among  progressive 
exporters. 

The  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States,  sec.  3569,  1866, 
provide  that  it  shall  be  lawful  throughout  the  United  States  of 
America  to  employ  the  weights  and  measures  of  the  metric  sys- 
tem. The  use  of  this  system  in  the  Philippines  was  "  continued  " 
by  tariff  law  of  1909;  it  was  ''  recognized  and  established  "  in 
Porto  Rico  in  1913.  See  following  page  for  Synopsis  of  Metric 
System  and  Equivalents. 

[864] 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM 


865 


Synopsis  of  Metric  System  and  Equivalents 

The  fundamental  unit  of  the  metric  system  is  the  meter,  which  is  the  unit  of  length 
and  equivalent  to  39.37  inches.  The  three  principal  units  are  the  meter,  the  imit  of 
length;  the  liter,  the  unit  of  capacity;  and  the  gram,  the  unit  of  weight.  Multiples  of 
these  are  obtained  by  prefixing  the  Greek  woixls:  deka  (10),  hekto  (100),  and  kilo 
(1,000).  Divisions  are  obtained  by  prefixing  the  Latin  words:  deci  (1-10),  centi 
( 1-100) ,  and  milli  ( 1-1,000) .  Abbreviations  of  the  multiples  begin  with  a  capital  letter, 
and  of  the  divisions  with  a  small  letter,  as  in  the  following  tables: 


MEASURES   OF  LENGTH 


10  millimeters  (mm)  =  1  centimeter  (cm). 
10  centimeters  ==  1  decimeter  (dm). 
10  decimeters  =  1  meter  (m) . 


10  meters  =  1  dekameter  (Dm). 

10  dekameters  =  1  hektometer  (Hm). 

10  hektometers  ^  1  kilometer  (Km). 


MEASURES   OP   SITRFACE    (NOT   LAND) 

100  sq.  millimeters  (nm)=)  =  1  sq.  centimeter  (cm^)        I    100  sq.  decimeters  =  1 
100  sq.  centimeters  =  1  sq.  decimeter  (dm-).  | 


sq.  meter  (m-). 


1,000  cu.  millimeters  (mm')  =  1  cu.  centimeter  (cm') 
1,000  cu.  centimeters  =  1  cu.  decimeter  (dm'). 


MEASURES    OP    VOLUME 

1,000  cu.  decimeters  =  1  cu.  meter  (m'). 


MEASURES   OP   CAPACITY 


10  milliliters  (ml)  =  1  centiliter  (cl). 
10  centiliters  =  1  deciliter  (dl). 
10  deciliters  =  1  liter  (1). 


10  liters  =  1  dekaliter  (Dl). 

10  dekaliters  ~  1  hektoliter  (HI). 

10  hektoliters  =  1  kiloliter  (Kl). 


Note. — The  liter  is  equal  to  the  volume  occupied  by  1  cubic  decimeter. 


MEASURES    OP    WEIGHT 


I    10  dekagrams  =  1  hektogram  (Hg). 
10  hektogranis  =  1  kilogram  (Kg). 
1,000  kilograms  =  1  ton  (T). 


10  milligrams  (mg)  =  1  centigram  (eg). 
10  centigrams  =^  1  decigram  (dg). 
10  decigrams  ==  1  gram  (g). 
10  grams  =  1  dekagram  (Dg). 

Note. — The  gram  is  the  weight  of  1  cubic  centimeter  of  pure  distilled  water  at  a  temperature  of  39.2°  F. 
the  kilogram  is  the  weight  of  1  liter  of  water;  the  ton  is  the  weight  of  1  cubic  meter  of  water. 


Metric  Data  Tables 


MEASURES    OP    LENGTH 


Myriameter  =  10,000  meters  =  6  2137  miles. 
Kilometer     =    1,000  meters  =  0.621.37  m.  or  3,280 

ft.  10  in. 
Hektometer  =       100  meters  =  328  ft.  and  1  inch. 
Dekameter  =         10  meters  =  393.7  inches. 


Meter  =       1  meter         ==  39.37      inches. 

Decimeter   =      .1  of  a  meters    3.937    inches. 
Centimeter  =    .01  of  a  meter  ==:    0.3937  inch. 
Millimeter  =  .001  of  a  meter  =   0.0394  inch. 


MEASURES   OP    SURFACE 


Hectare  =  10,000  sq.  meters  =     2.471  acres. 
Arc         ^       100  sq.  meters^  119.6      sq.  yards. 


Centare  =;  1  square  meter  =  1,550  square  inches. 


MEASURES   OP   CAPACITY 


Name 


No. 
liters 


Cubic  measure 


Kiloliter  = 
Hektoliter  = 

Dekaliter  = 

Liter  = 

Deciliter  = 

Centiliter  = 

Milliliter  = 


1,000  =  cubic  meter 

100  ^  .  1  cu.  meter 

10  =  10  cu.  decim. 

1^1  cu.  decim. 

.1^.1  cu.  decim. 

.01  =  10  cu.  centim.: 

.001  :=    1  cu.  centim 


Wine  measure 
=  1.308  cu.  yds. 
=  2  bu.  3.35  pks. 
=  9.08  quarts. 
=  0.908  quart. 
=  6.1022  cu.  ins. 
=  0.6102  cu.  in. 
=  0.061  cu.  in. 


No. 
Name        liters       Cubic  measure      Wine  measure 
Kiloliter     =  1,000  =    1  cu.  meter  =  264.17  gals. 
Hek^olite^  =     100  =.  1  cu.  meter  =  26.417  gals. 
Dekaliter  =       10  =  10 cu.  decim.  =  2.6417  gals. 
Liter  =         1=    1  cu. decim.  =  1.0567  quarts. 

Deciliter    =        .1  ==  .  1  cu.  decim. =  0.845  gill. 
Centiliter  =      .01  ^  10  cu.  centim.=  0.388  fluid  oz. 
Milliliter    =    .001=    1  cu.  centim .=  0.27  fluid  oz. 


WEIGHTS 


No.  Avoirdupois 

Name                      grams  weight 
Millier  or  tonneau  =  1 ,000,000  =  2,204.6        pounds. 

Quintal                     =     100,000=  220.46      pounds. 

Mvriagram              =       10,000=  22.046  pounds. 

Kilogram  or  kilo    =         1,000=  2.2046  pounds. 

Hectogram             =            100  =  3.5274  ounces. 


Name 
Dekagram 
Gram 
Decigram 
Centigram 
Milligram 


No. 

grams 

10  = 

1  = 

.1  = 

.01  = 

.001  = 


Avoirdupois 
weight 
0.3527  ounce. 
15.432  grains. 
1.5432  grains. 
0.1543  grains. 
0.0154  grain. 


Postal  Rates  and  Regulations  and  Parcel- 
Post  Facilities  Between  the  United 
States  and  the  Countries  of  Latin 
America 

A  summary  of  postal  rogulatious,  including  the  Postal  Union 
rates,  parcel-post  regulations,  and  a  list  of  the  Latin  American 
countries  for  which  international  reply  coupons  are  obtainable,  is 
given  below.  For  each  country  it  is  stated  in  the  appended  table 
w^hether  Postal  Union  rates  or  other  rates  of  postage  are  applica- 
ble, and  whether  there  is  a  parcel  post  with  the  United  States. 

Domestic  postage  rates  apply  to  mail  matter  for  Cuba, 
Mexico,  and  the  Republic  of  Panama  with  the  following  excep- 
tions: (1)  Printed  matter,  samples,  and  commercial  papers  may 
be  sent  to  these  countries  subject  to  the  rates,  weight  limit,  and 
other  conditions  applicable  to  similar  articles  in  Postal  Union 
mails  (see  Postal  Union  rates  below) ;  (2)  articles  other  than 
letters  in  their  usual  and  ordinary  form  are  excluded  from  the 
mails  unless  they  are  so  wrapped  tliat  their  contents  can  be  easily 
examined  by  postmasters  and  customs  officers. 

Postal  Union  Rates 

Articles  for  or  from  foreign  countries  (except  Cuba,  Mexico, 
and  the  Republic  of  Panama)  are  not  designated  as  "  first  class 
matter,"  ''  second-class  matter,"  etc.,  but  are  classified  as  "  let- 
ters," ''  post  cards,"  "  printed  matter,"  "  commercial  papers," 
and  "  samples  of  merchandise."  The  rates  and  conditions  for 
these  several  classes  are  as  follows : 

Letters  and  Sealed  Matter:  Five  cents  for  the  first  ounce  or 
fraction  of  an  ounce,  and  3  cents  for  each  additional  ounce  or 
fraction  thereof. 

Post  Cards:  Single,  2  cents;  double  (return  or  reply),  4  cents. 

Privted  Matter:  One  cent  for  each  2  ounces  or  fraction  of  2 
ounces.  Printed  matter  includes  newspapers  and  periodical  works, 
printed  books  stitched  or  bound,  pamphlets,  sheets  of  music,  visit- 
ing cards,  address  cards,  proofs  of  printing  with  or  without  the 
manuscripts  relating  thereto,  papers  wdth  raised  points  for  the 
use  of  the  blind,  engravings,  photographs,  and  albums  containing 

[SGfil 


POSTAL  RATES,  ETC.  867 

photographs,  pictures,  drawings,  plans,  maps,  catalogues,  pros- 
pectuses, announcements  and  notices  of  various  kinds,  whether 
printed,  engraved,  lithographed,  or  autographed,  and  in  general 
all  impressions  or  reproductions  obtained  upon  paper,  parchment, 
or  cardboard  by  means  of  printing,  engraving,  lithographing,  and 
autographing,  or  any  other  mechanical  process  easy  to  recognize, 
except  the  copying  press  and  the  typewriter.  Printed  matter  must 
be  wrapped  so  that  the  contents  may  be  easily  examined  without 
damaging  the  cover.  The  maximum  weight  of  any  package  is  2 
kilos  (4  pounds  6  ounces),  except  "  second  class  matter  "  and 
single  volumes  of  printed  books  for  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  the  Repub- 
lic of  Panama,  and  single  volumes  of  printed  books  for  Salvador. 
The  maximum  size  is  45  centimeters  (18  inches)  in  any  one  direc- 
tion, except  that  rolls  of  printed  matter  may  be  75  centimeters 
(30  inches)  in  length  if  not  more  than  10  centimeters  (4  inches) 
in  diameter. 

Commercial  Papers:  Five  cents  for  the  first  10  ounces  or  less 
and  1  cent  for  each  additional  2  ounces  or  fraction  of  2  ounces. 
Commercial  papers  include  all  instruments  or  documents  written 
or  drawTi  wholly  or  partly  by  hand,  which  have  not  the  character 
of  an  actual  and  personal  correspondence,  such  as  old  letters  and 
postal  cards  which  have  fulfilled  their  original  object,  papers  of 
legal  procedure,  deeds  of  all  kinds  drawn  up  by  public  function- 
aries, waybills,  or  bills  of  lading,  invoices,  the  various  documents 
of  insurance  companies,  copies  of  or  extracts  from  deeds  under 
private  signature,  written  on  stamped  or  unstamped  paper,  scores 
or  sheets  of  manuscript  music,  manuscript  for  publication,  for- 
warded separately,  original  and  corrected  tasks  of  pupils,  exclud- 
ing all  comment  on  the  work,  etc.  Limit  of  size  and  weight  same 
as  for  printed  matter. 

Samples  of  Merchandise :  Two  cents  for  the  first  4  ounces  or 
less  and  1  cent  for  each  additional  2  ounces  or  fraction  of  2 
ounces.  Samples  must  be  placed  in  bags,  boxes,  or  removable 
envelopes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  easy  inspection.  They 
must  not  have  any  saleable  value  nor  bear  any  manuscript  other 
than  the  name  or  the  social  position  of  the  sender,  the  address  of 
the  addressee,  a  manufacturer's  or  trade  mark,  numbers,  prices, 
and  indications  relating  to  the  weight,  size,  and  quantity  to  be  dis- 
posed of,  and  words  which  are  necessary  to  precisely  indicate  the 
origin  and  nature  of  the  merchandise.  Packages  of  samples  must 
not  exceed  350  grams  (12  ozs.)  in  weight,  or  the  following  dimen- 
sions: 30  centimeters    (12   inches)    in  length,  20  centimeters    (8 


868  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

inches)  in  breadth,  and  10  centimeters  (4  inches)  in  depth;  except 
that  when  in  the  form  of  a  roll,  a  package  may  measure  not  to 
exceed  30  cm.  (12  inches)  in  length,  and  15  cm.  (6  inches)  in 
diameter.  Articles  sent  for  sale,  in  execution  of  an  order,  or  as 
gifts,  however  small  the  quantity  may  be,  are  not  admissible  at  the 
sample  rate  and  conditions. 

Rcf/istration  Fee:   Ten  cents  in  addition  to  regular  postage. 

Parcel  Post 

The  postage  rate  on  packages  sent  by  parcel  post  is  12  cents 
per  pound  or  fraction  thereof.  Every  parcel  must  be  securely  and 
substantially  packed  but  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  opened  with- 
out damaging  its  cover,  in  order  that  its  contents  may  be  easily 
examined  by  postmasters  and  customs  officers.  Except  for  pack- 
ages to  Colombia  and  Mexico  the  greatest  length  permissible  is 
31/^  feet,  and  the  greatest  length  and  girth  combined,  6  feet.  A 
parcel  not  more  than  Sy^  feet  in  length  may  measure  as  much  as 
21/^  feet  in  girth,  or  around  its  thickest  part.  A  shorter  parcel  may 
be  thicker.  Parcels  for  Colombia  and  Mexico  must  not  exceed 
2  feet  in  length,  no  matter  how  small  the  girth  may  be,  and  the 
girth  must  not  exceed  4  feet,  no  matter  how  short  the  parcel  may 
be.  The  maximum  weight  is  11  pounds,  except  to  Mexico  (see 
under  Mexico  in  subjoined  table).  Parcels  can  be  registered.  The 
limit  of  value,  if  any,  is  indicated  in  the  table  below. 

International  Reply  Coupons 

Sending  postage  for  replies  when  starting  correspondence 
with  foreign  firms  is  a  little  courtesy  that  often  has  results  out  of 
proportion  to  its  seeming  importance,  and  is  a  practice  conmionly 
followed  by  manufacturers  and  exporters  of  other  countries. 
L^nited  States  stamps  can  not  he  used  for  this  purpose,  but  there 
are  issued  international  reply  coupons  which  can  be  sent  to  foreign 
correspondents.  These  coupons  are  of  a  denomination  of  6  cents 
each  and  are  exchanged  by  the  foreign  correspondent  for  a  post- 
age stamp  of  his  own  country  equal  in  value  to  a  5-cent  United 
States  postage  stamp.  These  coupons  may  be  obtained  from  post- 
masters in  any  quantity  desired.  The  postmark  of  the  selling  office 
must  be  stamped  on  them,  otherwise  foreign  postal  administra- 
tions will  refuse  to  redeem  them.  The  Latin  American  countries 
m  which  the  reply  coupons  are  valid  are:  Argentina,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Dominican  Republic,  French  Guiana, 
Haiti,  Honduras,  Mexico,  and  Salvador. 


POSTAL  RATES,  ETC. 


869 


TABLE  OF  POSTAL  RATES  OBTAINING  IN  LATIN    AMERICA  AND  COUNTRIES  HAVING  A 
PARCEL  POST  CONVENTION  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Countries 

Postal  rates 

Parcel  post 

Remarks 

Postal  Union  rates .  . 
See    general    article 

No  parcel  post 

Parcel  post 

No  parcel  post 

No  parcel  post. .". . . 
Parcel  post 

u          u 

No  parcel  post 

Chile 

Costa  Rica    

greatest  girth  4  feet. 

Cuba 

Dominican  Republic. . . 

Postal  Union  rates. . 
See    general    article 

samples,  and  commercial  papers.  Other 
articles  are  subject  to  same  postage  rates 
and  conditions  as  applied  to  these 
articles  in  the  United  States. 

Limit  of  value  $50. 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Mexico 

Weight  limit  of  packages,  4  pounds,  6 
ounces,  except  to  offices  specified  in  the 
Postal  Guide,  which  list  includes  the 
principal  Mexican  cities;  maximum 
weight  to  thess  is  11  pounds.  See  re- 
marks under  Cuba.' 

Postal  Union  rates . . 
See    general    article 

Panama 

Parcels  tnay  be  registered.     See  remarks 

Paraguay 

Postal  Union  rates . . 

under  Cuba. 

Peru 

Salvador 

-    '    '  ::'    -  "-  :::::::: 

Parcels  cannot  be  registered. 

■■ 

CABLE  RATES  FROM  NEW  YORK  TO  THE  COUNTRIES 

OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Countries 


Argentina 

Bolivia: 

Riberalta 

All  other  offices 

Brazil: 

Manaos 

Pari 

Pernambuco 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul ... 

Santos 

Acr6  District: 

Via  Belem-Radio. . . , 
Via  Manaos-Radio .  . 

Amazon  Stations: 

First  zone 

Second  zone 

Colombia 

Chile... 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba: 

Havana 

Other  offices • .  . . . 

Dominican  Republic.  .  .  . 
Ecuador 

Via  Azores-Valparaiso . 
Guatemala: 

San  Jos6 

Other  offices 

Haiti: 

Cape  Haitien 

Mole  St.  Nicholas 


Rate  per  word  via 


Western 
Union 


$0  65 

.65 
.65 

1  44 
85 
70 
85 
85 
85 


Commer- 
cial Co. 


$0  65 


1  00 
65 


70 
85 
85 
85 

1  34 
1  73 

1  14 
1  44 


65 


1  30 


Countries 


Haiti  — continued 
Port-au-Prince. 
Other  offices. . . 

Honduras 

Mexico 


Nicaragua: 

San  Juan  del  Sur. 

Other  offices 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru: 

Iquitos 

Itaya 

Masisea 

Orellana • 

Puerto  Bermudez . 

Putumayo 

Requena 

Other  offices 

Salvador: 

La  Libertad 

Other  offices 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Rate  per  word  via 


Western 
Union 


Commer- 
cial Co. 


$0  80 

1  30 

55 

Rates  vary,  accord- 
ing to  locality, 
from  $0.70  to 
$1.75  for  10  words 
or  less  (address  and 
one  signature  free) , 
and  from  5  to  12 
cents  for  each  word 
over  10 


$0  50 
55 
40 
65 

1   15 


1  15 
65 

50 

55 

65 

1  00 


$0  40 
65 

85 
85 
85 
85 
85 
85 
85 
65 


65 


870 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OB^  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Western  Union  Company  operates  supplementary  cable 
services,  known  as  Cable  Letters  and  AVeek-end  Letters,  in  which 
a  very  low^  minimum  charge  is  made  for  a  given  number  of  words, 
and  the  messages  are  accepted  subject  to  deferred  delivery  at 
designated  hours.  The  Cable  Letter  service  is  in  operation  with 
Cuba,  the  tariff  between  New  York  and  Havana  being  45  cents  for 
13  words,  including  the  prefix,  and  5  cents  per  word  in  excess  of  13. 

The  Week-end  Letter  service  is  in  operation  with  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Chile  and  Peru,  the  tariff'  from  New  York  to  those 
countries  being  $4.85  for  25  words,  including  the  prefix,  and  20 
cents  for  each  excess  word.  These  South  American  Week-end 
Letters  are  delivered  on  Tuesday  morning. 

The  Commercial  Cable  Company  accepts  Deferred  Plain 
Language  Cablegrams  at  one-half  the  ordinary  rates  to  Argentina, 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Peru  (except  "  wireless  "  stations),  and 
Uruguay.  Such  cablegrams  are  delayed  only  in  transmission  until 
ranking  cablegrams  have  been  despatched  and  not  more  than  24 
hours.  They  must  be  written  in  French,  or  in  the  languagfi  of  the 
country  of  origin,  or  in  that  of  the  country  of  destination. 

DIFFERENCES  IN  TIME  BETWEEN  NEW  YORK,  THE 
NEW  ENGLAND  STATES,  AND  THE  COUNTRIES  OF 
LATIN  AMERICA 


Country 

Hrs.   Min. 

Country 

Hrs.     Min. 

Argentina 

Add 

Add 

Add 

Add 

Add 

Deduct 

Deduct 

Add 

Deduct 

Deduct 

.  43 
33 

2         7 

17 

3 

.  33 
29 
16 
14 

1       10 

Haiti 

Add 

Deduct 

Deduct 

Deduct 

Deduct 

Add 

Deduct 

Deduct 

Add 

Add 

16 

Bolivia 

1 

Brazil 

1          10 

Chile 

45 

Colombia 

16 

Paraguay 

43 

Cuba 

9 

Dominican  Republic 

56 

Ecuador 

Guatemala 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

1          15 
32 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 

The  leading  newspapers  and  periodicals  of  Latin  America, 
their  place  of  publication,  language,  circulation  and  general 
advertising  rates  are  given  below.  Nearly  all  the  daily  papers 
contain  information  of  a  general  character,  sufficient  space  being 
allotted  to  markets,  commerce,  shipping,  industrial  developments, 
and  municipal  improvements  under  way  or  contemplated,  and 
reach  those  interested  in  commercial,  industrial,  and  agricultural 
development.  Many  also  are  circulated  far  beyond  their  locality. 
The  trade  journals  in  general  are  circulated  throughout  the  entire 
country  in  which  they  are  published  and  often  in  one  or  several 
of  the  neighboring  countries. 

ARGENTINA 

La  Argentina,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  130-140,000,  $3.24  per  incli. 

La  Prensa,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  140,000,  .$3.77  per  inch. 

La  Razon,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  80,000,  $2.16  per  inch. 

La  Nacion,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  70,000,  $3.24  per  inch. 

El  Diario  Espaiiol,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  55-60,000,  $1.73  per  inch. 

La  Patria  Degli  Italiani,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  It.,  30-35,000,  $1.08  per  inch. 

El  Diario,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Sp.,  35-40,000,  Rates  according  to  position. 

Deutsche  La  Plata  Zeitung,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Ger.,  18,000,  76^  per  inch. 

Le  Courrier  de  la  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Fr.,  10-12,000,  $2.70  per  inch. 

The  Standard,  Buenos  Aires,  Weekly,  Eng.,  5,000 ;  Daily,  Eng.,  15,000,  $1.95  per 

inch. - 
Buenos  Aires  Herald,  Buenos  Aires,  Daily,  Eng.,  5,000,  96^'  per  inch. 
La  Cnmpana  Agraria,  Buenos  Aires,  Semi-monthly,  Sp.,  10,000,  $50  per  page  per 

month. 
El  Auto  Argentina,  Buenos  Aires,  Monthly,  Sp.  6,000,  $64  to  $76  per  page. 
Modus  Selectas,  Buenos  Aires,  Monthly,  Sp.,  8,500,  $2.16  per  inch. 
La  Nueva,  Bahia  Blanca,  Daily,  Sp.,  7,000,  $10.80  per  inch  1st  page;  $5.38  per 

inch  5th-16th  pages ;  $2.16  per  inch  for  all  other  pages. 
La  Capital,  Rosario,  Daily,  Sp.,  20,000,  50<f'  to  $1.10  per  inch. 
Los  Principles,  Cordoba,  Daily,  Sp.,  6,000,  32^  per  inch  for  one,  $1.15  per  inch  for 

15  insertions. 

BOLIVIA 

El  Diario,  La  Paz,  Daily  (ex.  Monday),  Sp.  3,500,  about  8^'  per  inch  and  $24  for 

1  year. 
?Jl  Tiempo,  La  Paz,  Daily,  (ex.  Monday),  Sp.,  3,500,  about  $19.50  per  14  col. 
El  Norte,  La  Paz,  Daily,  (ex.  Monday),  Sp.,  3,500,  $200  per  page  per  month,  $52 

per  quarter  page. 

[871] 


872  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

BRAZIL 

Jornal  do  Commercio,  Rio  De  Janeiro,  twice  daily,  Port.,  morning  25,000,  evening 

5,000;  12^  per  line. 
Jornal  do  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Daily,  Port.,  45,000,  114  per  line. 
0  Paiz,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Daily,  Port.,  10,000,  17  to  66^  per  line. 
Correio  da  Manha,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Daily,  Port.,  50,000,  18^  to  $1,65  per  line. 
Diario  Official,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Daily,  Port.,  12,000,  10^^  per  line. 
Revista  Da  Semana,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Weekly,  Port.,  45,000,  $40  per  page. 
Revista  de  Automoveis,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Monthly,  Port.,  5,000,  $50  per  page. 
0  Economista  Brazileiro,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Weekly,  Port.,  5,000,  $20  per  page. 
Illustracdo  Brazileiro,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bi-weekly,  Port.,  20,000,  $98  per  page. 
Commercial  de  Rio,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Weekly,  Port.,  5,000,  $49  per  page. 
A  Engenharia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Weekly,  Port.,  8,000,  $27  per  page. 
Jornal  de  Noticias,  Bahia,  Daily,  Port.,  5-6,000,  $1.13  per  inch  (double  col.).' 
Diario  de  Noticias,  Bahia,  Daily,  Port.,  7-8,000,  $1.13  per  inch  (double  col.). 
Folka  do  Norte,  Para,  Daily,  Port.,  10,000,  14<^  per  inch. 
Jornal  do  Commercio,  Manaos,  Daily,  Port.,  3,000,  no  fixed  rates. 
A  Provincia,  Pernambuco,  Daily,  Port.,  4,500,  about  94  per  line  on  1st  page,  4y2('  on 

2d  page  and  3^  per  line  on  other  pages. 
Estado  de  Sao  Paulo,  Sao  Paulo,  Daily,  Port.,  25,000,  50^'  per  inch. 
Correio  Paidistano,  SFio  Paulo,  Daily,  Port.,  8,000,  25<'  per  inch. 

CHILE 

El  Sur,  Concepcion,  Daily,  Sp.,  13,000,  120  per  inch,  $1  per  inch  tor  best  position. 

El  Tarapaed,  Iquique,  Daily,  Sp.,  8,000,  10^  to  20^  per  inch. 

La  Patria,  Iquicjue,  Daily,  Sp.,  6,000,  3d  page  tor  1  month  $2  per  inch;  1st  and 

4th  pages,  $1.50. 
El  Chile  Austral,  Punta  Arenas,  Daily,  Sp.,    first  page,  single  col.,  per  annum  $65 

per  4  in.,  double  col.,  $73 ;  other  rates  on  inside  pages. 
El  Mercurio,  Valparaiso,  Daily,  Sp.,  21,500,  32(''  per  insertion  without  position  up 

to  $1.25  for  best  position. 
La  Union,  Valparaiso,  Daily,  Sp.,  18,000,  75<^  per  inch. 
La  Union,  Santiago,  Daily,  Sp.,  25,000,  42?*  to  53<i*  per  inch  under  400  inches;  32^ 

to  37^  over  400  inches. 
?jI  Diario  Ilustrado,  Santiago,  Daily,  Sp.,  20,000,  40<;-  per  inch  under  500  inches. 
El  Mercurio,  Santiago,   Daily,  Sp.,  40,000,  88^  per  inch  on  2d,  4th  and  6tli  pages, 

COLOMBIA 

El  Nuevo  Tiempo,  Bogota,  Daily,  Sp.,   4-5,000,  25<^  per  inch. 
La  Gaceta  Republicana,  Bogota,  Daily,  Sp.,  4—5,000,  20^  per  inch. 
El  Liberal,  Bogota,  Daily,  Sp.^  4,000,  25^  per  inch. 
El  Republicana,  Bogota,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,000,  25<^  per  inch. 

^l  Porvenir,  Cartagena,  Daily,  Sp.,  2-3,000,  30^  per  inch  for  first  insertion ;  10^  for 
subsequent  insertions. 

COSTA  RICA 

El  Tiempo,  Port  Linion,  Tri-weekly,  Sp.  and  Eng.,  4,000,  10^  per  inch. 
El  Heraldo,  Port  Limon,  Weekly,  Sp.,  2,000,  84  per  inch. 
L(i  hiformacion,  San  Jose,  Daily,  Sp.,  7,000,  25^  per  inch. 
La  RepubVica,  San  Jose,  Daily,  Sp.,  4,000,  20^  per  inch. 


NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS  873 

CUBA 

El  Comercio,  Cienfuegos,  Daily,  Sp.,  2,500,  less  than  12  insertions  25^  per  inch 

1  to  5  ins. ;  10^  per  inch  6  to  20  ins. 
El  Mundo,  Habana,  Daily,  Sp.,  40^  per  inch. 
La  Prensa,  Habana,  Daily,  Sp.,  30f  per  inch. 
La  Lucha,  Habana,  Daily,  Sp.,  40^  per  inch. 
La  Discusion,  Habana,  Daily,  Sp.,  40^  per  inch. 
El  Commercio,  Habana,  Daily,  Sp.,  25^  per  inch. 
Havana  Post,  Habana,  Daily,  Eng.,  30^  per  inch. 
Havana  Telegraph,  Habana,  Sunday,  Eng.,  30^  per  inch. 
Cuba  News,  Habana,  Weekly,  Eng.,  $1  per  inch. 
Boletin  Oficial  de  la  Camara  de  Comercio,  Habana,  Monthly,  Sp.,  $30  per  page,  and 

pro  rata. 
El  Financiero,  Habana,  Tri-nionthly,  Sp.,  $20  per  page,  and  pro  rata. 
La  Independencia.  Santiago,  Daily,  Sp.,  2,000,  5^  per  inch ;  $1  per  month. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

Listin  Diario,  Santo  Domingo,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,500,  10^  to  20^  per  inch. 

El  Tiempo,  Santo  Domingo,  Daily,  Sp.,  2,000,  1  page  $540  per  year;  V4  page  $145; 

1  page,  3  mos.,  $145;  14  V^^f  I^O. 
El  Porveuir,  Puerto  Plata,  Weekly,  Sp,,  1,300,  20<'  per  inch  and  $2  per  year. 
Eeos  del  Norte,  Puerto  Plata,  Daily,  Sp.,  1,000,  5<^  to  Tc*  per  inch. 

ECUADOR 

El  Grito  del  Pueblo,  Guayaquil,  Sp.,  5,000,  58*'  per  inch. 

El  Telegrafo,  Guayaquil,  Daily,  Sp.,  6,000,  15^^  to  45^  per  inch  for  12  insertions. 

El  Tiempo,  Guayaquil,  Daily,  Sp.,  9,000,  30^  to  64f  per  inch. 

Comercio  Ecuatoriano,  Guayaquil,  Monthly,  Sp.,  1,500,  $22  per  page,  and  pro  rata 

per  insertion. 
El  Comercio,  Quito,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,000,  about  30^'  per  inch  or  $24  per  column. 
La  Prensa,  Quito,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,000,  $19.20  per  column;  $9.60  per  half  column. 

HAITI 
Le  Matin,  Port  au  Prince,  Daily,  Fr.,  2,400,  rates  according  to  number  of  insertions, 

size,  etc. 
Le  Nouvelliste,  Port  au  Prince,  Daily,   Pr.,  3,000,  rates  according  to  number  of 

insertions,  size,  etc. 

HONDURAS 
Pro-Patria,  Ceiba,  Weekly,  Sp.,  1,000,  121/2^  per  inch. 
El  Progreso,  Puerto  Cortes,  Weekly,  Sp.,  2,000,  20<*  per  inch  and  $48  per  col.  of 

15  inches  per  year. 
El  Centra  Americano,  Puerto  Cortes,  Weekly,  Sp.,  2,000,  20^  per  inch  and  $48  per 

col.  of  15  inches  per  year. 
El  Nuevo  Tiempo,  Tegucigalpa,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,000,  8<^  per  inch. 

MEXICO 
Mexican  Herald,  Mexico  City,  Daily,  Eng.,  10,000,  3^  per  agate  line. 
El  Imparcial,  Mexico  City,  Daily,  Sp,,  90,000,  $1.40  per  inch. 
El  Diario,  Mexico  City,  Daily,  Sp.,  48,000,  84<^  per  inch. 
Mexican  Financier,  Mexico  City,  Weekly,  Eng.,  3,000,  $5  per  inch. 
Mexico  Mining  Journal,  Mexico  City,  Monthly,  Eng,  and  Sp.,  5,000,  $2.50  per  inch. 
La  Prensa,  Monterey,  Daily,  Sp.,  6,000,  $2.50  per  inch  per  month,  2d  or  3d  page. 


874  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

La  Revista  Peninsular,  Merida,  Daily,  Sp.,  7,000,  15f  per  inch.  . 
La  BepiMica,  Tampico,  Daily,  Sp.  and  Eng.,  2,000,  rates  furnished  upon  request. 
La  Opinion,  Vera  Cruz,  Daily,  Sp.,  14,000,  13^  per  inch  to  13^  per  line,  according 
to  advertisement. 

NICARAGUA 

The  American,  BLueflelds,  Weekly,  Eng.,  500,  $1  per  inch  per  month. 
El  Comercio,  Managua,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,000,  no  fixed  rates. 
El  Independiente,  Leon,  Daily,  Sp.,  1,000,  no  fixed  rates. 
El  Diario  Nicaraguense,  Granada,  Daily,  Sp.,  10-15,000,  no  fixed  rates. 

PANAMA 

Independent,  Colon,  Tri-weekly,  Eng.,  1,500,  8^  per  inch. 
Colon  Starlet,  Colon,  Tri-weekly,  Eng.,  1,500,  8'?  per  inch. 
Diario  de  Panama,  Panama,  Daily,  Sp.,  7-8,000,  10«^  per  inch. 
Star  and  Herald,  Panama,   Daily,   Eng.   and   8p.,   10,500,   rates   furnished   upon 
application. 

PARAGUAY 
El  Tiempo,  Asuncion,  Daily,  Sp.,  3,500,  $19.50  per  month  for  full  colunni. 
El  Nacional,  Asuncion,  Daily,  Sp.,  4,500,  $1  per  inch  per  month. 
El  Diario,  Asuncion,  Daily,  Sp.,  3-4,000,  $1.22  per  inch  per  month, 

PERU 
El  Comercio,  Lima,  twice  daily,  Sp.,  morning,  20,000;  evening,  15,000,  $2.33  per 

line,  6  lines  to  an  inch. 
La  Prensa,  Lima,  twice  daily,  Sp.,  morning,  25,000 ;  evening,  15,000,  24^^  jjer  inch. 
La  Union,  Lima,  Daily,  Sp.,  15,000,  35^  per  inch. 
West  Coast  Leader,  Lima,  Weekly,  Eng.,  rates  furnished  on  request. 
Peru  To-day,  Lima,  Monthly,  Eng. 

SALVADOR 
Diario  del  Salvador,  San  Salvador,  Daily,  Sp.,  10,000,  $1.50  per  inch  up  to  three 

insertions ;  12^  for  four  or  more ;  double  rate  for  cuts. 
Diario  Latino,  San  Salvador,  Daily,  Sp.,  4,000,  30^  per  inch  2d  to  7th  pages,  40<^ 

for  8th  page. 

URUGUAY 
El  Siglo,  Montevideo,  Daily,  Sp.,  10,000,  53<'  per  inch. 
La  Eazon,  Montevideo,  Daily,  Sp.,  26,000,  92<;  per  inch. 
El  Dia,  Montevideo,  Daily,  Sp.,  30,000,  80^  per  inch. 
La  Tribuna,  Montevideo,  Daily,  Sp.,  25,000,  53<^  per  inch. 
Revista  de  la  Asociacion  Rural  del  Uruguay,  Montevideo,  Monthly,  Sp.,  $5.17  per 

page. 
Revista  de  la  Asociacion  de  Ingenieros  y  Arquitectos  del  Uruguay,  Montevideo, 

Monthly,  Sp.,  $10.35  per  page. 
Almanaque-Guia  de  el  Siglo,  Montevideo,  annually  in  October,  Sp.,  12,000. 
Uruguay  Weekly  News,  Montevideo,  Weekly,  Sp.  and  Eng.,  1,000,  $1.32  per  inch. 
Cruia   Coates,  Montevideo,   Semi-annually,   Sp.,   10,000,  $20.60   per  page   per   six 

months. 

VENEZUELA 
El  Universal,  Caracas,  Daily,  Sp.,  15,000,  20(*  per  inch. 
El  Tiempo,  Caracas,  Daily,  Sp.,  6,000,  15^'  per  inch. 
/■;/  Xtievo  Diario,  Caracas,  Daily,  Sp.,  16-18,000,  50^  per  inch. 
Kl  Gran  Boletin,  Caracas,  Bi-weekly,  Sp.,  60,000,  10<fr  per  inch. 


INDEX 


PAGK 


A.     B.     C.     Mediation     between     United 

States    and    Mexico 

Abolition   of  Slavery 

Acts  of  Commerce 

Advertising    Rates 

Agencies,     Native 

Agency    and    Commission 

Aguas    Calientes 

Aliens,    Registration    of 

Status    of 

Amapala     

Ambato     

Amusements    

Anc6n,   Treaty  of 

Antofagasta     

Arbitration     

Argentina-Chile    Boundary 

Argentina     1H2- 

Agrlcultural   I'rfKlucts    

Agricultural    Resources,    Increase    of 

Agriculture     

Allotment   of   Public   Lands 

Arbitration   Treaty  with   Chile 

Arbitration,    Industrial    

Army     

Average  Wages    

Banking    

Banks    and    Bankers 

Bibliographies    173,   192, 

208, 

Budgets     

Cattle     Raising 

Climate     

Cities     

Commerce     

Commerce  with  the  United  States.. 

Commercial     Schools 

Communications     

Constitution     

Consular    Regulations,    etc 

Cotton     

Crops,    Four   Principal 

Debts,     Public 

Department    of   Ijal)or 

Development    of    Banking 

Kduoation     

Agricultural     

Commercial   Schools    

Normal    

Other   Educational    Interests.  .  . 

Primary    

Secondary    

Technical 

English  Expedition  of  1806 

Fanna    


454 
529 

93 
871 
074. 

99 
519 

07 

6« 
564 
363 
680 
303 
326 

26 
305 
227 
204 
20a 
197 

62 
305 

44 
224 

42 
213 
832 
197 
219 
154 
715  r- 
168 
224 
208 
210 
196 
219 
192 
798 
709 
207 
156 

43 
215 
193 
195 
196 
194 
196 
194 
194 
195 
179 
171 


Argentina  —  Continued  :  page 

Flora 171 

Finance    213,  217 

(Jeology     169 

Government     192 

Hides    and    Leather 73i4 

History ITS 

Hygienic    Dwellings  for   Workers....      4:! 

Immigration     42.   l:{7,   173 

Industrial   Accidents    44 

Insurance    Companies    860 

Live     Stock 716 

Loans   from   foreign   bankers 214 

Manufacturing     Industries 211 

Meat    Exports 718 

Meat    Industry 715 

Meat    Packing    Establishments 718 

Mediation    between    Mexico    and    the 

United     States 191 

Mining     Industries 211 

Money     '. 218 

Navy    224 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 871 

Pastoral    Products    7-18 

I'atagonia     179 

I'hysiography    102 

Political   Divisions    224 

Population    173 

Postal  Service   221 

Prices  of  prime  necessities 43 

Railway    Companies 844 

Railways,  Posts  and  Telegraphs....    221 

Railway    Transportation 113 

Rents  in    43 

Rice     787 

Rural  Code 44 

San    Martfu   Expedition 182 

Shipping    219 

Size  of  Land  Holdings 42 

Strikes     43 

Sugar    765 

Telegraphs    221 

Tobacco    737 

Trading   Licenses    815 

Transportation     219 

War   with    Paraguay 185 

Wool    780 

Arica    326 

Asphalt    605 

Associations  in  Joint  Account 830 

Asuncion     375 

Autos   Sacramentales    467 

Airx   Cayes    665 

Ayacucho 393 

Aztecs,   The    444 

Bahamas,    Insurance   Companies 860 

Bahia     290 

Bahfa    Blanca    226 


[875] 


876 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Balmaceda    304 

Baltimore    Incident,   Tlie 304 

Banana   Imports  to  the  United   States.  .  773 

Banks  and  Bankers 831 

Bani    653 

Barahona    653 

Barbados,   Insurance   Companies 861 

Barranquilla    349 

Belem.      See    Para 290 

Bermuda,  Insurance  Companies 86l 

Bismuth    688 

Blueflelds    579 

Bogota    348 

Bolivar,  Simon    3  82 

Bolivia    228-244 

Agriculture   235 

Allotment   of   Farming   and   Grazing 

Land    63 

Banks  and  Bankers 833 

Banking  238 

Bibliography     242 

Budget     154,  240^ 

Cattle   Hides    719 

Cities    242 

Climate    228 

Commerce    235,  231 

Constitution    232 

Consular  Regulations,  etc SOO 

Cost  of   Living 4") 

Cotton     707 

Debts,  Public 156 

Education    234 

Finance     238 

Government    234 

Hides  and  Leather 735 

History    230 

Immigration     137 

Industries    235 

Insurance  Companies   861 

Land  Tenure    60 

La  Paz    24S 

Mining    236 

Mining  Laws    110 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 871 

Oil 090 

Political  Divisions    242 

Posts 240 

Railway   Companies    845 

Railways     240 

Railway   Transportation    117 

Religion     234 

Rubber    771 

Stock  raising 719 

Telegraphs    240 

Topography    .  ; 228 

Trading  Licenses 817 

War  with  Chile 232,  302 

Wool 784 

Borax,  Production  of 692 

Branch  Houses 675 

Brazil   245-293 

Agriculture 266 

Army 285 

Banking    279 

Banks  and  Bankers 833 

Bibliography     259,  272 

Budget    IS,-,,  281 

Cacao    271 

Cattle  Raising    268,  720 


Brazil  —  Continued  :  page 

Cattle  Hides    719 

Cattle  and   Meat   Industries,    Recent 

advances  in    720 

Cattle  Exposition  of  1917 720 

Cities 288 

Climate   245 

Coffee    2i67,  750 

Commerce 276 

Communications    286 

Constitution    260 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 799 

Cost  of  Living 46 

Cost  of  Prime  Necessities 48 

Cotton    271,  711 

Debts,    I'ublic     156 

Divisions,    Political    288 

Education    39,  264 

Effect  of  the  European  War 282 

Exchange    280 

Exports    279 

Finance 279 

Forest   Products    2^6 

Government    260 

Hides    and    Leather    735 

History    249 

Housing   of   Workers 46 

Immigration 137 

Imports 279 

Independence   Proclaimed    255 

Industries 272 

Inhabitants     45 

Insurance  Companies    861 

Labor 272 

Land  Tenure    59 

Manufacturing  Industries    273 

Mate    269 

Meat   Exports    721 

Meat  Industry   719 

Meat  Packing  Plants 722 

Mineral   Resources    274 

Mining  Laws   100 

Money     280 

Navy    285 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 872 

Patents    108 

Population    287 

Population.    Distribution   of 287 

Railway   Companies    845 

Railway   Transportation    119 

Religion    264 

Republic    Proclaimed    257 

Rice    786 

Rubber    268,  766 

Socledad  Nacional  de  Agricultura .  .  .    720 
Shipping     Facilities     for     the     Meat 

Export    Trade    723 

State  Aid  to  Immigrants  and  Colon- 
ists        61 

Stock   Raising    719 

Sugar    270,  762 

Tobacco 271,  739 

Topography    245 

Trading   Licenses    818 

Transportation    129,  286 

Wool    T83 

Brokers    98 

Buccaneers   526 

Budgets,   Latin   American 153 

Buenos  Aires   /.  .  .    225 


INDEX 


877 


PAGE 

Buenos  Aires   Blockaded 184 

Cable  Rates    869 

Cacao    148 

Caldera   3'26 

Callao    392 

Calvo  Doctrine,  The 68 

Camagiiey    04 1 

Canal  Treaty  of  1884 582 

Cap  Haltien '665 

Carflcas     434 

Cartagena 349 

Cattle   Industry 714 

Cearfi.     See  Fortaleza 203 

Ceiba    564 

Central  America   521 

Abolition    of   Slavery 529 

Banana  Industry,  The 775 

Bibliography 532 

Divisions.    Political    521 

English   Colony,    The 528 

First   SpanLsh   Colonies 524 

Hides  and  Leather 736 

History    524 

Mosquito  Coast 527 

Mountain   System    522 

Population    49 

Railway   Transportation    122 

Recent  Events   531 

Rubber    771 

Sanitation   Methods    777 

Scotch  Colony    527 

Spain  in   Possession 528 

Transportation     131 

Veragua    526 

Volcanoes     522 

Walker's    Campaign    530 

Chagres   River,   The 589 

Charlotte   Anialle    666 

Chihuahua    519 

Chile    294-326 

Agricultural   Industries    308 

Animal  I'roducts   723 

Arbitration   with   Argentina 305 

Argentina-Chile  Boundary    305 

Army    321 

Halmaceda's  Regime    304 

Baltimore  Incident,  The 304 

Banking    317 

Banks  and  Bankers 834 

Bibliography     323 

Borax,    Production    of 692 

Boundaries   294 

Budget   155 

Cattle    723 

Causes  of  Increased  Cost  of  Living.  48 

Child   Labor  Laws 47 

Cities    324 

Climate   294 

Colonization  Law    63 

Commerce    313 

Communications     319 

Constitution    306 

Consulnr    Regulations,    etc SOO 

Cost    of    Living 45,  47 

Cost  of  Prime  Necessities 48 

Cotton    708 

Currency     316 

Debts,  Publi ;   156 

Earthquake  of  1906 306 


Chile  —  Continued  :  page 

Education    322 

Exchange  Rates   317 

Exports    314 

Farm  Lands,  Purchase  of 63 

Renting    of    59 

Finance 317 

Flora  and   Fauna 299 

Geography     294 

Government     306 

Hides  and  Leather 735 

History     300 

Hygienic   Dwellings   for   Workers...     47 
Immigrants,  Government  Subsidy  to.     63 

Immigration    138 

Imports    314 

Insurance  Companies    861 

Labor     310 

Land  Tenure   59 

Laws  Regulating  Child  Labor 47 

Manufactures    313 

Mineral   Resaurces    311 

Mining    311 

Money   153 

Naval   Armaments   Policy 305 

Navy    321 

Neutrality  in  the  Drexden  Affair.  . .   306 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 872 

Nitrate,   Production   of 691 

Pastoral   Industries    308 

Political   Divisions    324 

Population    321 

Railway   Companies 846 

Railway    Trans|K»rtatlon    115 

Renting  of  Farm  I-ands 59 

Rice    791 

Sheep    723 

Tariffs 313 

Territory  Extended 303 

Tobacco    742 

Trading    Licenses    819 

Transportation    319 

Treaty    of    Anc6n 303 

War  with   Bolivia  and    Peru 302 

Wool     780,   784 

CliillAn    326 

Christlansted     667 

Civil  War  Claims 70 

Civilization 18 

Climate    8 

Climate,   etc..  Effect  on  Market  of 678 

Coal        689 

Cochabamba   244 

Cocoa.      See    Cacao 148 

Coffee  Industry,   The 750 

Colombia    327-349 

Agriculture    339 

Arbitration     335 

Army    346 

Banking    343 

Banks  and  Bankers 835 

Blbliograpl'y 347 

Boundaries   327 

Budget 156 

Cattle   Hides    724 

Cattle  Industry    724 

Cattle  Raising 724 

Cities     348 

Climate   329 

Codes     338 


878 


INDEX 


Colombia  —  Contimied  :  page 

Cofifee    752 

Comme'rce    342 

Communications     346 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 801 

Cotton    704 

Debt,   Foreign    345 

Debts,  Public 156 

Education    338 

Finance    343 

Flora  and   Fauna 329 

Forest   Lands,    Grants   of 64 

(Jovernment     ■>36 

History    331 

Immigration     138 

Insurance  Companies   861 

Judiciary 338 

Manufactures    341 

Alineral   Kesources    330 

Mining  Laws    110 

Navy    346 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 872 

Oil    690 

Physical  Features 327 

Political   Divisions    348 

Population    347 

Purchase  of  Public   Lands 64 

Railway   Companies    846 

Railway   Transportation    118 

Recent  Events   335 

Rice    792 

Rubber    770 

Sugar     763 

Tobacco    743 

Trading  Licenses    819 

Transportation     130,  346 

Wool 785 

Colon     000 

Colonia     410 

Colonists,   Governmental   Aid   of 61 

Commerce,  Growth   of 74 

With   the  United   States 76 

Commercial   Customs    681 

Commercial    Regulations    91 

Commission.      See    Agency    and    (  omniis- 

sion no 

Commission    Houses,  .Export 676 

Companies 

Commercial    854 

Financial    840 

Companies,     Financial    and    Commercial. 

List    of    S:?l 

Industrial     854 

Insurance    860 

Investment 840 

I-and    840 

Lighting,  Power  and  Traction 851 

Limited  (.Toint  Stock) 827 

Railway 844 

Shipping     849 

Companies  and   Partnerships 824 

Concepcifm , 326 

Constitutions,    Recent  Changes   in 150 

Consular  Documents    797 

Procedure   797 

Regulations    797 

»'<nitract  Claims    73 

Contracts    100 

Copper    687 

Cftnl.hn    007 


PAGE 

Correspondence  as  a  Trade  Method 671 

Cortes     446 

Costa    Rica    533-543 

Army    542 

Banks  and  Bankers 835 

Banking  540 

Bibliography     543 

Boundaries    533 

Budget     156 

Cattle    and    Meat    Industries 72'5 

Cities    543 

CoflFee   754 

Commerce    538 

Communications    540 

Consular    Regulations    802 

Cotton    700 

Debt,  National 541 

Debts,    Public    156 

pjducation    537 

p]xports 539 

Fruit    773 

Government    537 

Hides 725 

History    535 

Immigration    139 

Imports    539 

Industry    538 

Insurance  Companies    881 

Money    540 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 872 

Political   Divisions    543 

Population 542 

Railway   Companies    847 

Religion    537 

Rice    789 

Sugar    764 

Tobacco    744 

Trading   Licenses 819 

Transportation     540 

Weights  and  Measures 540 

Cotton    Industr.v   in    Latin   America 694 

Cotton  Production  in  Latin  America ....    696 
Cotton  Trade  of  United  States  and  Latin 

America    694,  695 

Cuba    621-644 

Agriculture    636 

American  Occupation    631 

Annexation   Policy    628 

Banking    640 

Banks  and   Bankers 835 

Bibliography     642 

Boundaries,  etc 621 

Budget l-"»6 

Cattle   Exports    726 

Cattle  Industry   725 

Cities    643 

Commerce    639 

Communications     641 

Congress    635 

Constitutional    Convention    632 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 802 

Cotton     701 

Cotton  Imports 702 

Debts,    Public    156 

Destruction  of  the  Maine 630 

Education    636 

Emancipation  and  the  United  States  628 

Finance     640 

Fruit    773 


INDEX 


879 


Cuba  —  Continued  :  page 

Geology    623 

Government    635 

Hides  and   Leather 736 

History     625 

Housing  the  Workers 48 

Immigration    139 

Insurance    Companies 862 

Live   Stock    725 

Minimum  Wage  Law    48 

Mountains    622 

Natural   Resources    624 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 873 

Physical  Features 621 

Piatt  Amendment,   The 632 

Political   Divisions    643 

Population    642 

Railway   Companies    847 

Recent  Events 634 

Reorganization     of     the     Industrial 

System    48 

Revolt  Qf   1917 635 

Revolution    of   1895 628 

Rice    795 

Soils     623 

Sugar    758 

Tobacco    637,  739 

Trading    Licenses    820 

Transportation    641 

War  between  Spain  and  the  United 

States    631 

Weyler's  Policy    629 

Cuenca 363 

Curitibfl 293 

Cuyaba    293 

Cuzco     393 

Danish  West  Indies.     See  Virgin  Islands.  666 

Debts    i 104.   135 

Dessalines    648.  662 

Desterro.      See    Florianopolis 293 

Diaz,   Porflrio    451,  452 

Discoverers  and  Pioneers 20 

Dolphin  Incident,  The 454 

Dominican  Republic    645-653 

Army     652 

Banks  and  Bankers 836 

Banking  650 

Bibliography    652 

Boundaries    645 

Budget     157 

Cities    653 

Climate    647 

Commerce  ' 651 

Communications    652 

Consular  Regulations,  etc 803 

Cotton     703 

Debts,  Public   156 

Education     650 

Exports     651 

Fauna  and  Flora    647 

Finance     ©50 

Forests 647 

General  Description    645 

Geology    646 

Government    650 

•  Harbors     645 

History    647 

Immigration 139 

Imports    651 

Industry    651 

5Y 


Dominican    Republic  — •  Continued  :  page 

Insurance  Companies   862 

Mineral   Reoources    646 

Mountains     645 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 873 

Political   Divisions    653 

Population 652 

Railway   Companies    847 

Religion   650 

Rice 795 

Rivers    645 

Soils     647 

Sugar    760 

Tobacco     744 

Trading  Licenses 823 

Transportation     652 

Drago  Doctrine,   The 69 

Dresden  Affair,  The 306 

Durango    519 

Dutch   in   Brazil,    The 252 

Economic    Scope    of    Constitutional     Re- 
forms        150 

Ecuador 350-363 

Agriculture     359 

Army    361 

Banking    358 

Banks  and  Bankers 836 

Bibliography     362 

Boundaries 350 

Budget    157 

Cacao    148,  357 

Cattle  Industry    726 

Cities    362 

Climate 351 

Cocoa    148.  337 

Coflfee    756 

Commerce,  Foreign   357 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 804 

Cost  of  Living 49 

Cotton    705 

Debts,    Public    156 

Education    356 

Finance     358 

Government    354 

Hides  and  Leather 735 

History 352 

Immigration    139 

Insurance  Companies   862 

Judiciary    356 

Land   Tenure   60 

Literature    357 

Live  Stock  and  Meat  Industries....    726 

Mineral   Resources    352 

Navy    361 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 873 

Physical    Features    350 

Population    362 

Postal  Service,  etc 360 

Provinces 362 

Railway   Companies    847 

Railways     360 

Railway   Transportation    118 

Rice    791 

Telegraphs    360 

Tobacco 745 

Trading  Licenses    820 

Waterways.    Inland    361 

Education    21,  22,  24,  31,  32,  .S4-39 

English   Colony,    The 528     . 

Esmeraldas 363 


880 


INDEX 


Exports  from  Latiu  America 75 

Florianopolis    293 

Foodstuffs,  Production   of 146 

Foreign   Commerce    28 

Foreign  Trade  Bibliographj- 86 

Foreign  Trade  Development 74 

General  Survey  and  Distribution  of.      80 
Valuation  and  Distribution  Table  of 

Exports    82 

Valuation  and  Distribution  Table  of 

Imports     82 

Foreword    ^ 

Fortaleza    293 

Fray  Bentos 410 

Frederiksted     667 

Fruit  Trade,  The,  of  Latin  America 773 

Gold    ■ ^84 

Production    of     685 

Government.      See    Politics    and    Govern- 
ment        679 

Governments    ^^ 

Granada     "'^'^ 

Greytown.     Ssee  San  Juan  del  Norte.  ...    579 

Guadalajara    520 

Guadeloupe,    Insurance   Companies 862 

Guanajuato     520 

Guantanamo    '644 

Guatemala    544-556 

Agriculture    551 

Banks  and  Bankers 836 

Bibliography     555 

Boundaries    etc   544 

Budget     157 

Cattle    Raising    727 

Cities    556 

Climate   545 

Coffee    753 

Commerce    552 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 804 

Cotton    697 

Debts,  Public   156 

Division  of  Piiblic  Lands 63 

Education    550 

Finances     554 

Flora-  and   Fauna    546 

Geology    540 

Government    549 

Government,  Local    549 

History     546 

Hydrography    545 

Immigration     140 

Industry    552 

Insurance  Companies 862 

Judiciary    550 

Manufactures     553 

Mineral  Resources    546 

Money     5oi5 

Navigation    554 

Oil    691 

Packing  Plant   727 

Political   Divisions    556 

Population  ....  ., 555 

Premiums    for    Cultivation    of    Rub- 
ber, Cacao,   Cotton,  etc 63 

Railway   Companies    847 

Railways,    Roads,    etc 554 

Tloligion     550 

liioe     793 

Shipping    554 


Guatemala  —  (.'ontinued  :  page 

Sugar    763 

Tobacco    746 

Trading  Licenses 820 

Weights    and   Measures 555 

Guatemala  City   556 

Guayaquil    363 

Guiana,  Railway.  Transportation 119 

Haiti    660-6«6 

Banks  and  Bankers 836 

Bibliography     665 

Boundaries    * 660 

Budget     158 

Cities     665 

Coffee    757 

Commerce    ©(jS 

Communication    664 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 805 

Cotton    702 

Debts,  Public   156 

Description    660 

Education   663 

Exports    664 

Finance,   etc 665 

Government    663 

History     660 

Imports    664 

Industry     663 

Insurance  Companies   862 

Newspapers   and   Periodicals 87:^ 

Political   Divisions    665 

Population    665 

Religion     663 

Rice     796 

Secession    of    Dominica 662 

Trading   I^icenses    821 

Transportation     664 

Havana  ■ 643 

Hides,  Production  of.  In  Latin  America,    734 
History      and      Development      of      Latin 

AYnerica    161 

Honduras    557-504 

Agriculture     561 

Banking    562 

Banks  and   Bankers 836 

Bibliography     564 

Boundaries   557 

Budget     158 

Cattle    Raising    727 

Cities    564 

Commerce   561 

Communications    56^i 

Concessions  of  National  Lands 64 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 805 

Cotton 698 

Debts,  Public   156 

Description,    General 557 

Education    560 

Finance    562 

Government    559 

Hides 728 

History    558 

Insurance    Companies    862 

Manufactures    561 

Meat  Packing  Plant 72« 

Minerals    562 

Newspapers   and   Periodicals 873 

Political   Divisions    564 

Religion    360 

Rice 793 


INDEX 


881 


Honduras  —  Continued  :  paog 

Tobacco    747 

Trading  Licenses    821 

Transportation    563 

Woods   562 

Honduras,  Brltisli,  Insurance  Companies.  862 

Rubber    771 

House  Construction    679 

Huerta,  Victoriano   453 

Ibarra   363 

Ideals  in  Latin  America 21> 

Immigrants,  (Governmental  Aid  of....t)l,  13T 

Immigration    137 

Independence    23 

Industrial  and  Commercial  Expansion  in  74 

Industries   of  Latin   America,    Principal.  669 

Insurance    Companies    860 

Interest.      See    Loans   and    Interest 103 

International       Claims      Against       Latin 

America    66 

Iquique    325 

Iqultos    393 

Iron    691 

Jamaica    654-659 

Agriculture    655 

Banks  and  Bankers 837 

Bibliography    659 

Commerce    &56 

Dependencies    658 

Description    654 

Education    657 

Fauna   and    Flora 655 

Government    657 

History    658 

Insurance  Companies    862 

Railways    656 

Religion     657 

Roads,  etc 656 

Tenure    58 

Towns   658 

Justice,    Denial    of 67 

Kingston    658 

Labor   Conditions,    Resum6   of 53 

Labor  Problems  and  Their  Solution 40 

La    Guaira     435 

Land  Ownership    55 

Languages     14 

La  Paloma   410 

La  Paz    243 

La  Plata 227 

La  Serena 326 

Latin      America,      General       Descriptive 

Article     7 

Acts  of  Commerce 93 

Agency  arid  Commission 99 

Aliens,  Status  of 66 

Amusements 680 

Arbitration 26 

Asphalt   Production    693 

Awakening  Interest  of  North  Ataeri- 

cans  in    25 

Beginnings  of  Revolution 22 

Bibliography  on  Industrial  and  Com- 
mercial Expansion    86 

Bismuth   688 

Brokers 98 

Budgets    153 

Cacao    US 

Calvo  Doctrine 68 

Cattle  Raising 714 


Latin  America  —  Continued  :  page 

Civilization 18 

Civil  War  Claims 70 

Climate 8,  678 

Climatic  Values  of  -Vltitude 9 

Coal 689 

Cocoa.      See    Cacao 148 

Coffee  Industry,  The 750 

Colonization  Period 21 

Commerce  with  the  United  States.  .  .      76 

Commercal  Customs    681 

Contracts  lOO 

Contract  Claims   73 

Cotton  Industry,  The 694 

Cotton   Production    696 

Copper    687 

Debts,  Public   155 

Denial  of  Justice 67 

Discoverers  and  Pioneers 20 

Disposal  of  Property 57 

Drago  Doctrine    69 

Early    Constitutional    Development.      23 

Early  Education    21 

Economic     Scope    of     Constitutional 

Reforms    l.">0 

Education 31 

Commercial  Education 35 

Higher  and  Professional    36 

Historical  Development    31 

Industrial  Education    38 

Normal    Schools    34 

Organization   of    Universities...      37 

Primary  Instruction   32 

Retarding  Causes    39 

Secondary    Education     35 

Theological  Education    39 

Educational    Standards    24 

Fauna  and  Flora 11 

Finances    153 

First    University    Founded 22 

Foodstuffs,  Producton  of 146 

Foreign   Commerce    28 

Foreign  Trade  Development 74 

Fruit  Trade,   The 773 

General    Commercial    Regulations...      91 

Gold 684 

Gold,  Production  of 685 

Governmental       Encouragement       of 

Immigrants  and  Colonists 01 

Governments   14 

Greatest   Need   of 149 

Greatest    ITndeveloped    Region 143 

Hides  and  Leather,  Production  of.  .    7.'?4 

History    and    Development 161 

House  Construction 679 

Ideals   29 

Immigration    137 

Industrial    and    Commercial    Expan- 
sion          74 

Industries,   Principal    669 

Intellectual   and    Material   Progress.      25 

International    Claims     66 

Introduction  of  the  Printing  Press . .      22 

Iron 691 

Labor  Conditions,  Resume  of 53 

Labor  Problems  and  Their  Solution.      40 

Land  Ownership    55 

Land  Tenure    58 

Languages     14 

Leaders  in  the  Revolution 23 


882 


INDEX 


Latin  America  —  Continued  :  PACfE 

Loans  and   Interest 103 

Machinery,   Use  of 681 

Market,   Characteristics  of 078 

Material  Phases  of  Civilization.  .28,     29 

Meat  Industry 714 

Mercantile   Books    9T 

Merchants    93 

Merchants,  Registration  of 96 

Mineral  Industry 683 

Mining  Laws   109 

Monopolies    56 

National  Evolution 28 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 871 

Official  Liabilities 57 

Ocean   Transportation    123 

Parcel  Post  Facilities 866 

Patents   108 

Petroleum 689 

Platinum 688 

Politics  and  Government 679 

Production 143 

Property  Rights    55 

Railway  Transportation    Ill 

Raw  Materials,  Production  of 148 

Registration  of  Aliens.  ...    67 

Religious  Property    56 

Revolution    23 

Rice  Production 786 

River  Transportation   128 

Rubber  Industry    766 

Silver    686 

Production  of ....    687 

Sugar  Industry    7o8 

Tariffs 87 

Thorium    693 

Tin    688 

Tobacco  Industry    737 

Tortious  Injuries 72 

Trade  Between  the  20  Republics 83 

Trade  Marks 106 

Trade  Methods 670 

Tungsten     692 

Vanadium     692 

Wool    780 

Leather.       See    Hides    and     Leather     in 

Latin  America 734 

Leon    5T9 

Liabilities,   Official    .17 

Lima    392 

LImfin    .543 

Loans  and   Interest 103 

Macelfi 292 

Machinery,  Use  of 681 

Macoris    6.53 

Madero,  Francisco  1 452,  453 

Maldonado    410 

Managua 579 

Manflos     292 

Manganese    693 

Manzanlllo    644 

Maracaibo    435 

Maranhao    292 

Markets,   Characteristics   of 678 

Martinique,   Banks  and  Bankers 837 

Mntanzas    644 

Matnrin     435 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico 450 

Meat  Industry   714 

Medellin    349 


PAGE 

Mejillones     326 

Mendoza    227 

Mercantile  Books   97 

Merchants 93 

Registration   of    96 

Metric   System,   The 864 

Equivalents    865 

Tables    865 

Mexico 436-520 

"A.  B.  C."  Mediation 454 

Agave  or  Maguey 480 

Agriculture 476 

Arbitration    in    Labor   Disputes 464 

Army 514 

H  Art  Collections    474 

Autos  Sacramentales    467 

Aztecs,    The     444 

Banana  Production    480 

Banking  and  Finance 507 

Banks  and  Bankers 837 

Beer,   Wines,  etc 492 

Bibliographies 457,  471 

Birds    443 

Boundaries    436 

Budget    158 

Candles,   etc 493 

Carrizal  Affair,  The 456 

Cattle  Industry   728 

Chemical   Products    493 

Chicle    482 

Child  Labor  Laws 463 

Church  and  State,  Relations  of 462 

Cities    518 

Climate  440 

Coffee 756 

Commerce  483 

Commercial    Code    485 

Communications    503 

Colonial    Period    504 

Republican    Period    505 

Conference  at  New  London 456 

Constitution   457 

Constitutional  Amendments  of  1917.   460 

Consular  Regulations,  etc 806 

Convention   at  Aguascalientes 455 

Corn  Raising  System 51 

Cortes,    Advent    of 446 

Cost  of  Living 50 

Cotton  ....489.  696 

Customs  House  Receipts 484 

Debts,   Public    156,  512 

Diaz   Regime    451 

Difficulty   with   the   United    States..    454 

Dolphin    Incident,    The 454 

Downfall     of    the     Madero     Govern- 
ment       453 

Dynamite  and  Explosives 495 

Education    472 

Educational   Budgets    473 

Embargo  on  Cattle  Exports 728 

Exchange  Rates    507 

Explosives    4&5 

Export   Statistics    486 

Finance 507 

Fishes    443 

Flora  and  Fauna 441 

Flour   Mills    496 

Flowers    •  •  •   442 

Furniture  Trade    485 


INDEX 


883 


Mexico  —  Continued  :  page 

Government    457 

Guayule     4JM 

Henequen    . . ■..-.....•. 479 

History    444 

Pre-Conquest   Period    444 

Spanish  Rule    447 

Independent    State    448 

Huerta  Regime   453 

Immigration 140 

Import    Statistics    486 

Indian  Corn,  Production  of 478 

Instruction,   Primary    475 

Insurance  Companies   863 

Iron    and    Steel    Products 494 

Labor  Conditions 49 

In  Mines 51 

Labor  Contracts    464 

Labor  Laws   463 

I^kes  and  Lagoons 439 

Laws  Relating  to  Women  in   Indus- 
try      463 

Lemons    481 

Libraries 473 

Library,  The  National 474 

Limes    481 

Literary   Progress    in   the   16th   Cen- 
tury     467 

Literary   Progress   in    the   17th   Cen- 
tury       468 

Literary    I'rogress   in   the    18th    Cen- 
tury      469 

Literature   465 

Of  the  Republican  Period 470 

Live   Stock   Exports,   Decreasing.  .  .  .   728 

Maguey.     See  Agave 480 

Mango    482 

Manufactures 487 

Maximilian,  Emperor    450 

Mineral    Production    496 

Colonial  Period   497 

Re%'olutionary  Period   500 

Iturbide  to  Diaz 500 

Diaz  to  Madero 501 

Minerals    490 

Money     507 

Museums 474 

National  Preparatory   School 476 

Native  Manufactures    487 

Navy     514,  517 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 873 

Oil    690 

( )ranges    481 

Orizaba  Conference 450 

Packing  Houses    495 

Paper    495 

Pershing  Expedition,  The 456 

Pineapples 482 

Political  Divisions 518 

Population    517 

Postal  Service 507 

Raids   on   United   States   Border.  .  .  .    455 

Railway   Companies    848 

Development     505 

Transportation    1-1 

Recent     Legislation     in     Regard     to 

Property   56 

Revolution   of   1910 452 

Rice   795 


Mexico  —  Continued  :  page 

Rivers    433 

Rubber   480,  771 

Guayule   479 

Silk    490 

Soap,  etc 493 

Stock  Raising 476,  482 

Sugar    479,  762 

Textiles  and  Fibres    491 

Timber    443 

Tobacco    480,  495,  747 

Topography 437 

Trade  with  the  United  States 486 

Trading   Licenses    821 

Transportation    131,  503 

Valleys    440 

Vera     Cruz     Occupied     by     United 

States  Forces,   1914 454 

Wages  of  Laborers  and  Miners 51 

War   with    the    United    States 449 

Wheat   478 

W  oolen  Goods    490 

Writers  of  the  Diaz  Period 471 

Writers  of  the  Early  Period.  ......   466 

Yucca    482 

Mexico  City    519 

Mineral  Industry  of  Latin  America 683 

Mining  Laws    109 

Mollendo    393 

Moneys 151 

Monopolies    56 

Monterey    520 

Montevideo    410 

Mosquito  Coast    527 

Mountain   Sickness,  or  Soroche 10 

Natal 292 

National  City  Bank  of  New  York... 213,  217 

National  Evolution   28 

Newspapers    and    Periodicals 871 

Nicaragua   565-579 

Army   578 

Banking    577 

Banks  and  Bankers 838 

Bibliography 579 

Boundaries     565 

Budget    158 

Canal  Treaty    571 

Cattle  Industry 729 

Cities 579 

Coffee    755 

Commerce 573 

Consular    Regulations,    etc '.  .  .  .    807 

Cotton   699 

Debts,  Public 156 

Education 573 

Exports 574 

Fauna  and   Flora 567 

Finance   ...    577 

Government    572 

History    568 

Imports ; 674 

Industry    573 

Insurance  Companies    863 

Meat  Industry 729 

Mineral  Resources 567 

Monetary   System    576 

Navy    578 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Physical  Features 565 

Political   Divisions    579 


884 


INDEX 


Nicaragua  —  Continued  :       '  page 

Population    578 

Raiilway   Companies    848 

Railways    575 

Religion     573 

Rice     794 

Shipping 575 

Trading  Licenses, 821 

Weights  and  Measures 576 

Nicaragua  Canal 580-584 

Bibliography    584 

Route   Selected    583 

Treaty   571 

Nictheroy     293 

Nisao     653 

Nitrates    691 

Ocean  Transportation 123 

Oruro     ' 244 

Panama  Canal 601 

Bibliography    606 

Cost  of   606 

Facts  About  the  Canal 605 

Insurance  Companits   861 

Sanitation 602 

Toll  Rates 606 

Panama    Canal    and    International    Com- 
merce    604 

Panama   Canal   Route  Decision 584 

Panama  City   600 

Panama,   Isthmus  of    585 

Panama,  Republic  of   587—600 

Banking    598 

Banks  and  Bankers 838 

Bibliography    600 

Boundaries    587 

Budget 158 

Cattle    Industry    729 

Chagres  River   5S9 

Cities 600 

Climate   588 

Commerce 594 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 808 

Cotton   700 

Education   596 

Finance  . 598 

Fortifications 590 

Government    596 

History    590 

Immigration 140 

Industry    597 

Insurance  Companies   863 

Meat  Industry   729 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Police    ,599 

Political   Divisions    . fiOO 

Population    590 

Posts  and   Telegraphs 599 

Rice   794 

Seismology 589 

Tides 589 

Trading  Licenses 822 

Transportation    599 

Pan  American  Union 27 

Para 290 

Pnraguay    364-375 

Agriculture    370 

Banking    37.3 

Banks  and   Bankers 838 


Paraguay  —  Continued  :  page 

Bibliography     374 

Boundaries     364 

Budget    159 

Cattle  Industry   730 

Climate 366 

Commerce 370 

Consular  Regulations,  et,c 809 

Cotton   710 

Debts,  Public    156 

Education 369 

Exports 372 

Finance 373 

Forest  Industries 370 

Government    368 

Hides  and  Leather 735 

History     366 . 

Hydography 365 

Immigration   141 

Imports 372 

Industry    370 

Insurance  Companies    863 

Meat  Industry  730 

Mineral  Resources    366 

Monetary   System    373 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Physical  Features 364 

Political  Divisions    375 

Post  Offices 374 

Railroads    374 

Railway  Companies 848 

Religion 369 

Rice    790 

Soils     366 

Tannin    371 

Tobacco  Crop    371.  741 

Topography    365 

Trading    Licenses    822 

Waterways    374 

Parahyba         293 

Parcel    Post   Facilities 866 

Partnerships,  Accidental    830 

Between   Capital   and    Industry 830 

Limited 827 

Unlimited    825 

Patagonia   199 

Patents 108 

Paysandii    410 

Periodicals.     See  Newspapers  and  Period- 
icals      871 

Pernambuco    291 

Peru     376-393 

Accident    Compensation    Law 52 

Agriculture    384 

Army 390 

Asiatic    Labor    52 

Banking 387 

Banks  and   Bankers 839 

Bibliography     391 

Boundaries    376 

Budget     159 

Cattle    Industry    731 

Cities 392 

Climate 379 

Colonization   Laws    64 

Commerce   384 

Consular  Regulations,  etc.  . 809 

Cost   of   Living 45 

Cotton     706 


INDEX 


885 


Peru  - —  Continued  :  page 

Debts,    Public    156 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Service.  .  .    383 

Education   383 

Exports 385 

Finance 387 

Flora  and  Fauna 379 

Government .    382 

Hides  and  Leather 736 

History 379 

Hydrography    376 

Immigration   141 

Imports   385 

Industry    384 

Insurance  Companies    863 

Labor  Contract  Conditions 52 

Measures  and  Weights 390 

Meat  Industry 731 

Mineral  Resources 378 

Money     387 

Monetary    System    387 

Navigation    380 

Navy    390 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Oil    690 

Political    Divisions    392 

Population    391 

Postal  System    390 

Railway  Companies 848 

Railwa js 389 

Railway  Transportation 117 

Religion    383 

Rice   789 

Roads.  Construction  of 390 

Rubber    770 

Sugar    761 

Tariff,  The    387 

Telegraphs    390 

Telephone  System   390 

Tobacco 748 

Topography    370 

Trade   with    the   United   States 386 

Trading  Licenses 822 

Treaty   of    Ancon .    303 

Wage  Law    52 

War  with  Chile 302 

Wool 784,  785 

Petroleum     689 

Pinar  del   Rio 644 

Platinum 688 

Politics  and  Government 679 

Port  Antonio    658 

Port-au-l'rince    665 

Porto  Alegre    292 

Porto  Rico,  Banks  and  Banlcing 839 

E.xports   T.  .~. 668a 

Fruit   774 

Insurance  Companies    863 

Statistics  of    6'6Sf/.   6686 

Portoviejo    363 

Port  Royal   658 

Postal  Rates  and  Regulations 866 

Postal  Rates,  Table  of 869 

Postal  Union   Rates 866 

Potosf    244 

Prescription    104 

Producing    Region,     Latin     America    the 

Greatest   Undeveloped    143 

Progress,   Intellectual  and  Material 25 


PAGE 

Property,    Disposal   of 57 

Religious     56 

Rights    55 

Puebla   520 

Puerto  Cabello 435 

Puerto   Cortes 564 

Puerto  Plata    653 

Puerto   Principe.      See   Camagiiey 644 

Puno 393 

Punta  Arenas    326 

Puntarenas     543 

Quezaltenango    556 

Quito    362 

Railway  Transportation  in  Latin  Ataerica  111 

Argentina    113 

-     Bolivia    117 

Brazil 119 

Central  America    122 

Chile   . 115 

Colombia 118 

Ecuador    118 

Guiana     119 

Mexico    121 

Peru     117 

Uruguay    115 

Venezuela    119 

Raw  Materials,  Production  of 148 

Recife.      See   Pernambuco 291 

Reforms,   Constitutional    150 

Reply  Coupons,  International 868 

Rice  Production 786 

Rlobnmba 363 

Rio   de  Janeiro    288 

River  Transportation 128 

Rosarlo    226 

Rubber  Industry,  The 766 

Rubber   of   I'arft 767 

Rubber,  Six  Kinds  of 766 

Saltillo    520 

Salvador   607-614 

Agriculture 611 

Banking     612 

Banks  and   Bankers    839 

Bibliography     614 

Boundaries   .    607 

Budget    159 

Ci.tcle  Industry 732 

Cities    614 

Climate    60S 

Coffee    757 

Commerce 611 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 810 

Cotton 699 

Debts,  Public 156 

Diplomatic  and  Consular   Service.  .  .    610 

Education    611 

Fauna  and  Flora 608 

Finance 612 

Government    610 

History    609 

Immigration   141 

Insurance    Companies    -863 

Method   of  Taking  Title   to   Unculti- 
vated Public  Lands 65 

Mineral  Resources 608 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Political    Divisions     614 

Population    611 

Railway   Companies    848 


886 


INDEX 


Salvador — Continued:  page 

Railways,  etc 613 

Religion     611 

Revenues 613 

Rice   794 

Shipping 613 

Soil    608 

Trading  Licenses 823 

St.  Croix    666,  667 

St.  John   666 

St.  Thomas 666 

Insurance  Companies   863 

Samana 653 

Sanchez 653 

Sancti-Spiritus 644 

San  Domingo 633 

San  Jos6 543 

San  Juan  del  Norte 579 

San  Luis   Potosi 520 

San   Martin    182 

San    Pedro    Sula 564 

San  Salvador 614 

Santa  Anna 448,  449 

Santa  Clara 644 

Santa  Cruz 244 

Santiago  de  Chile 324 

Santiago  de  Cuba 644 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros 653 

Santos 291 

Sao  Luiz.      See  Maranhao    292 

Sao    Paulo    289 

Scotch    Colony   on    the    Isthmus 527 

Silver    686 

Silver,  Production  of 687 

Slavery,   Abolition   of 529 

Soroche    10 

Spanish  Town    658 

Sucre 243 

Sugar  Industry,   The 758 

Sulphur 693 

Talcahuano 326 

Tariffs 87 

Tarija    244 

Taxes    812 

Tegucigalpa    564 

Therezlna    293 

Thorium 693 

Time,  Differences  in 870 

Tin 6S8 

Tobacco   Industry   of  Latin   America ....    737 

Tocopilla    326 

Tortious  Injuries 72 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture    648,  661 

Trade     Between     Latin-American     Coun- 
tries           83 

Trade  Marks    106 

Methods    670 

Trading  Licenses   812.  815 

Transportation  Facilities  Between  United 

States  and   River  Plate  Ports....    125 

On  West  Coast   126 

Transportation  in  Central  America 131 

Inland 133 

In  Mexico 131 

In    South   America .    123 

Ocean  and  River 123 

Travelers,  Commercial   672 

liicenses   for 812 

Trinidad    (Cuba)     644 

Tucuman     227 


PAGE 

Tungsten     692 

Tupiza 244 

Uruguay    394-410 

Army    409 

Banicing    405 

Banks  and  Bankers 839 

Bibliography    409 

Boundaries    394 

Budgets    160,  407 

Cattle  Raising   732  - 

Cities 409 

Climate   395 

Commerce 403 

Cummunications    408 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 810 

Consular  Service 400 

Cost  of  Living 53 

Cotton     711 

Debts,   Public    156,  407 

Diplomatic  Service    400 

Education    400 

Exchange  Rates    406 

Exports    404 

Fauna   and   Flora 395 

Finance    405 

Government    399 

Governmental       Encouragement       to 

Live  Stock  Industry 733 

Hides    and    Leather 736 

History    397 

Immigration 141 

Imports 404 

Industries,   Agricultural    402 

Industries,  Manufacturing 403 

Industrie^!,  Pastoral    402 

Insurance  Companies    863 

Measures    408 

Meat  Industry 732 

Meat  Packing  Plants 733 

Mineral   Resources    396 

Money    152,  405 

Navy    409 

New.spapers    and    Periodicals 874 

Political   Divisions    409 

Population    409 

Railway   Companies    849 

Railway    Transportation    115 

Religion    400 

Rice   792 

Topography    394 

Trading   Licenses    823 

Transportation    408 

Wages    52 

Weights     408 

Wool    783 

Valdivia    326 

Valparaiso 325 

Vanadium   ^92 

Venezuela     411-435 

Agriculture 426 

Army 425 

Asphalt   Production    693 

Banking    428 

Banks  and  Bankers    840 

Bibliography    433 

Boundaries    411 

Boundary  Disputes 421 

Budget   160.  429 

Castro    Regime    422 


INDEX 


887 


Venezuela  —  Continued  :  page 

Cattle  Industry    426,  733 

Cities     434 

Cleveland  Message   421 

Climate    413 

Coffee    755 

Commerce 427 

Communications    431 

Consular    Regulations,    etc 811 

Cost  of  Prime  Necessities 53 

Cotton   705 

Debts,   Public    156,  430 

Education    424 

Exchange  Rates    429 

Exports 428 

Fauna  and  Flora 416 

Finance 428 

Foreign   Coins,    Valuation   of 429 

Geology 415 

Government    422 

Healthfulness     413 

Hides  and  Leather 736 

History    418 

Immigration • 142 

Industries,    Manufacturing    426 

Insurance  Companies   863 

Meat  Industry 733 

Mineral  Resources 415 

Money     428 

Navy    425 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals 874 

Oil   Production    690 

Political   Divisions    434 

Population    433 

Ports   432 


Venezuela  —  Continued  :  page 

Railway   Companies    849 

Railway   Transportation    119 

Religion     424 

Rice 793 

Rubber    771 

Steamer    Service    with    the    United 

States .  .    432 

Sugar    .  . , 764 

Tobacco 749 

Topography     411 

Trading  Licenses 823 

Transportation    127,  431 

Wages   53 

War  of  Independence 419 

Vera  Cruz 520 

American  Occupation  of,  1914 454 

Veragua   526 

Victoria 293 

Virgin  Islands   666-668 

Area     666 

Climate   667 

Cotton 703 

Population 666 

Steamship  Lines    668 

Voyages,    Length    of    Steamship 128 

Walker,   William    530 

War  on  the  Pacific 302 

West    India   Islands 615 

West    Indies,    Bibliography 620 

Climate    618 

History    618 

Trade  Policies 619 

Wool  in  Latin  America 780 

ZanJ6n,  Treaty   of 627 


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